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242 NOTES AND QUERIES July, 1968Memorabilia

Tt/fR. F. G. EMMISON, the archivist of th e*** county of Essex, has written a pamphletfor the Historical Association, How to ReadLocal Archives 1500-1700 [1967; 20 pp .; 3s. 6d.(post free) to non-members, 2s. 3d. (post free)to members, obtainable from the Hon.Secretary of the Historical Association, 59A,Ken nington Park Ro ad, London , S.E.I 1.].He provides useful photographs of documentsan d transliterations illustrating a wide range ofdocuments of the period.r> ATHER less than two-thirds ofG. Wilsonx v Knight's Poets of A ction (Methuen, 1967;pp. xviii, 302; 50s.) is reprinted from TheBurning Oracle (1939), the Shakespeare andPope essays in that volume being availableelsewhere, and the brief Conclusion beingreplaced by a Prefatory Note . The remainingfour essays, on Spenser, Milton, Swift andByron, are supplemented by a shortenedversion of Chariot of Wrath (1942), and theByron Foundation Lecture for 1953 (1954).Some minor corrections have been made,and a few additions, themost substantial areprint of a 1954 review of Middleton Murry'sJonathan Sw ift.'T'HE August issue will be principally con-* cerned with the twentieth century.

NotesSTRUCTURE AND THEME IN" THE BATTLE OF MALDON ""DECENT discussions of The Battle of** Maldon have given an undue amount ofattention toEarl Byrhtnoth's behaviour andattitudes, particularly his ofermod; lines 89 f.have become the key to the whole poem.1 Not

1 J. R. R. Tolkien, " The Hom ecoming of Beorht-noth Beorhthelm's Son ", Essays and Studies, N.S. VI(1953), 13-18; G. C . Britton, T.L.S.,21 February 1953,p. 137; Frederick Whitehead, "Ofermod etdes-mesure ", Cahiers de Civilisation Midiivale, iii ( 1 9 6 0 ) ,115-17; F. J. Battaglia, "Notes on ' M a l d o n ' :Towards a Definitive Ofermod", E.L.N., ii (1965),247-9; J. E. Cross, "Oswald and Byrhtnoth: AChristian Saint and a Hero who is a Christian ",English Studies, xlvi (1965), 93-109.

a few commentators speak with the scepticalvoice of Unferthemphasizing pride or in-competence in the hero, criticism or irony inthe poet. A reconsideration of the structure ofthe poem, however, may identify some of itsdistinctive features and give us a new per-spective on its intentions. Assuming that thetext we possess is reasonably complete, we seethat there is a major division at line 184, thedeath of Byrhtnoth. Edward B. Irving, Jr., hasindicated a corresponding difference betweenthe plain, realistic style of the first part and theelevated, epic style of the second.2 In anearlier discussion, Kemp Malone suggestedanother division at line 96, Byrhtnoth'sdecision to allow the Vikings to cross thePant.3 The structure of the poem thereforereflects the course of the action: the Englishhave the upper hand, the battle is in doubt, theEnglish are defeated.But as many critics, including Malone, haveseen, the purpose of the poem is not simply torecord a minor skirmish, but to praise thefallen and to extol the traditional heroic spiritwhich united Byrhtnoth and his men. Withthis purpose in mind, we can see anotherthree-part structure, one which emphasizes themental attitudes of the English fyrd: anextended affirmation of the Germanic moralorder (lines 1-184), a serious challenge to thisorder (lines 185-259), and a concludingreaffirmation of the heroic code (lines 260-324).This pattern is re-enforced by the references tocowardice, either in Godric's flight or as partof the unusual litotes of defining courage as" not fleeing ".*The first half of the poem is a consistentdemonstration of thefightingspirit of the Earland histroops: " hicgan to handum and tohige godum " (line 4; cf. lines 44ft".,66 f., 76,79-83, 123-7, 132, 147, 153, 169).' Thenarrator repeatedly describes the god gePancof both warriors and their exhortations to oneanother. Byrhtnoth's speech to the Vikingmessenger further reveals his desire for com bat,for grim gudplega (line 61). There are a fewunderstated references to courage; jElfereand Maccus " noldan aet pam forda fleam

" The H eroic Style in The Battle of Maldon ", S.P.,lvii (1961), 458. *' The Old English Period ", in A Literary Historyof England, ed. Albert C. Baugh (New York, 1948),p. 58 .' Frederick Bracher no tes that there is a highfrequency of litotes in Maldon ["Understatement inOld English Poetry," P.M.L.A., Hi (1937), 920].' The Anglo-Saxon M inor Poems, ed. Elliott Van K.Dobbie (New York, 1942).

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July, 1968 NOTES AND QUERIES 243gewyrcan" (line 81; cf. lines 6, 9 f.).Byrhtnoth's ofermod must be considered partof the heroic, militaristic spirit demonstratedextensively at the beginning of the poem.The flight of Godric and the rest seriouslychallenges the heroic code; the cowards bothreject their own obligations and disturbinglyaffect the thoughts of those who remain. Inthis second part appear most of the referencesto fleeing or not fleeing. Most conspicuousis the narrator's presentation of the minds ofthe cowards (lines 185-201). Those who wouldnot be there departed; Godwine and Godwiggupe ne gymdon (line 192). Their terro r causesthem toabandon their responsibility to theirgenerous, now fallen, lord; their ingratitudedenies the whole system. Both the narratorand the faithful warriors react to this cowar-dice. The narrato r uses both positive (line 209)and negative (line 206) statement to counterit. The speeches of /Elfwine, Leofsunu, andDunnere use litotes to affirm their owncourage at lines 220-2 (and cf. 245-53, 257-9).Their references to Godric and the others areobvious enough. Offa specifically denouncesGodric's betrayal of the fyrd. The point is thatin this middle section of the poem cowardiceand ingratitude both exemplify an inversionof the traditionalfightingcode and disturb theminds of the loyal men, forcing them intostatements affirming their own courage.In the third and last section the remainingwarriors, having put aside a challenge to theirvalues, return to the fray: " J>a hi fordeodon . . . / Ongunnon pa hiredmen heardlicefeohtan " (lines 260 f.). The nar rato r nowmakes positive statements about the courageof the m en (lines 265, 273 f., 281-283, 289-293,320 f.), though there are a few brief uses of the" notfleeing" litotes (lines 260, 268, 275, 308).The speech of Byrthwold (lines 312-19) con-tains the most effective and concise statementof the traditional attitudes and a litotes, arejection of flight.The use of negative examples is hardlyunique with the Maldon poet; in the Beowulfwe have a number of instances in which thebravery of the hero is set off by fear orcowardice, most notably the failure of all butWiglaf to help old Beowulf against the dragon.In all three of his fights, Beowulf has adramatic audience whose state of mind servesto contrast his accomplishments.6 In Maldon,however, there seems tobe a greater concern

1 R. M. Lumiansky, " The Dramatic Audience inBeowulf", J.E.G.P., li (1952), 545-50.

for the attitudes, the psychology of the lessercharacters. The dramatic audience of Beowulfhas become an active participant. The poetuses the thoughts and words of the fightingmen to direct our attention to the poem's realconflict, which has little to do with the Earl'sofermod. Establishing a heroic spirit, over-coming a serious threat to it, and puttingintention into actionthis progress definesthe structure and theme of The Battle ofMaldon. D A V I D G. HALE.State University of New Yo rk,Brockport, N.Y.M E. " POINT " (" TROILUS ANDCRISEYDE " m. 695)

VT^RITING onword-play in Chaucer, and particularly on the use of double-entendre, Professor Baum1 and, m ore recently,Mr. Sanders* have shown that the noun pointhad in M iddle English awide range of senses,and that an awareness of these can bring anelement of uncertainty or of fruitful ambiguityto the word in several contexts. They do n otmention, however, that point is one of manycommon Middle English words with quitespecial musical senses which have often beenoverlooked in non-musical texts of this period.(Other words of this kind are the adjectiveplain and the nouns note, mene and accord.)If the musical senses of point current inChaucer's day are taken into account, therange of m eanings open to him is significantlyincreased, and with it, the scope for interplaybetween them.The semantic history of the musical sensesof point cannot be examined here, for itinvolves that of Latin punctum and of OFr.point.* For the present purpose, it is sufficientthat O.E.D. seems justified in distinguishingthree such senses. First, a basically non-musical one, " a dot or other small mark usedin writing or printing " (O.E.D., sb.,1 3.) couldbe used in a specifically musical context, butas such would probably be indistinguishable

1 Paull F. B a u m , " C h a u c e r ' s P u n s " , P.M.L.A.,lxxi (1956), 241 f.' Barry Sanders, " Point: Canon's Yeoman's Tale92 7 ", N. &Q., ccxii (1967), 325. See Du C ange, punctum, sense 2; Lath am , RevisedMedieval Latin Word-List, punctum, -us; Godefroy,pointeer, vb., VI, 254b, 1-9; Tobler-Lommatzsch,point, s.m., VII, col. 2105, 29-41. Cf. also the use ofthe word by medieval musical theorists, e.g. " Punc tasupradicta dicuntur apud quosdam note , quare unuspunctus vocatur nota ", E. de Coussemaker, Scrip-torum de musica medii avi, Milan 1931, I, 339.

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