HA@Au-7-73-Oog

g + g]<3,' ""w ~! j. ~! PA, "~w- 4~ PA5

DEVf, GP!Vi,'-.N7 PB~GBA.'>s";INTERNAL THERMAL AND HUMIDITY CONTROL

2G

WAVE PERIOD SEC!

FIAKAII'S FLOATING CI'I'Y DFVEF,OP'AIFN I' PROGBAAI

Technical Report No.

UNI FII-S EA GRANT-CH-74-01

Internal Therntal and Ilumidity Cont n>I

Yoshiltiko Yatnashita

I!epartment of iver. hanica.l F.ngineeringUniversity of Iia~vaii

Novemi>er 197,'3

for

ational Sea Grant Vrog ra mNational Oceanic and Atmospheric administration

L.. S. DcIja rt m en t of Com merce.Rockvi lie, 5iaryland 20852

I'hiS ivOrk iS a reSult of rCSCarch sponSored by NOAA, Office Ot' Sea I i rant,pjepartment of Commerce, under Grant -' 2-35'45. The I'.!. Governttnen~

is authorized to produce and dislrii>uto reprints for governmcnuil purpos»-not~withstanding any copyright nouttion that may appear hereon.

ABSTHACT

This rcport is an investigation of some design aspectsof a large floating platform to support urban activities in theHawaiian islands area. A brief account of weather and sea

conditions in Hawaii is presented, with an analysis of humancomfort requirements. Various types of air conditioningsystems are described and choices are made for specificlocations within the Floating City. Equations are presentedand sample calculations are performed for determiningcooling load, by the response factor method, for a super-structure and a buoyancy tank case. Preliminary air ductdesign is performed for both cases. Absorption-cyclerefrigeration is discussed, and a flow diagram andcalculations are given. A computer program which performsthe response factor calculations is presented. Finally,several conclusions drawn from this work are reported.

AN INTRODUCTORY NOT E

During the time the research documented in this reportwas being conducted, Mr. Yamashita was pursuing hisMaster of Science degree at the University of Hawaii. Histhesis, "A Calculation of Cooling Loads with Response Factors,"developed the technique employed in this work, and thi» isits first professional application. Mr. Yamashita has beenawarded his M. S. degree and is now a, doctoral candidate.I believe the reader will «grec that this is a thoroughlyprofessional. productand will understand the pleasure wetake in Mr. Yamashita's association with the project.

The following Oceanic Foundation personnel contributetlto the study: Mr. Guy N. Rothwell provided thc bulk of thctcchnical guidance for this work; Ms. Bonnie M. Rhodes wasresponsible for editing the manuscript; Ms. Diane J. Hendersonprepared the illustrations and final manuscript; 'Ms. Joyce Millerassisted with thc early writing and iyping.

Joe A. Hanson

I'rog ram Manager

TAI3I.E OF CON I'ENl S

IN'I IeODUC rlON

IL

17

;3 I

Hr.

I V.

V.

VI. 71

71

IN 7

VII. DFSIGN OF DUCT SIZE

A. SuperstructureB. Buovancy Tank

79

9

94

C'LIMATE AND COMFORTA, 4'cather DataB. Human Response to Clima!,ic Conditions . Sea. %Pater Conditions

AIR-CONDITIONING SYSTEM ISPreli mina ry Planning

B. Various Systetns

C. Applications

HF.A r GAINSA. Heat Gain. through 'A'indov ;s of Supers tructurcH. Hea.t Gain. through Kali or Roof of SuperstructureC. Heat Gain from Lights, Fquipment and PeopleD. Heat. Gain from Ventilation and InfiltrationI . Heat Gain through 5'alls of Buoya,ncy Tank

COOLING I.OADS

A. Heat Ga.in

B. Cooling Load EvaluationC. Hesponse Ftctor MethodD. I:,quiva.lent Thickness Approximation

CALCL'L ! .'I'IOVS OF COOLING LOAD FOR SI,'PEHS'I'RDCTUREAND BUOYANC'Y TANK

A. Supe rs tru ctu reH. Buoya.n.cy TankC. Kesuits and Discussion

IIE F KIG E RATION

A. E nergy Cons iderationsB. Supe rs tructu re

C. Buoyancy Tank

''I '3

34

;36

;36

37

39n g

39

39

43

5,'3

;�

VIII. S1I54MARY AKD CONCLI.SIONS

REFERENCES CITED IN TEXT

AIlPIT[QNAL REFERENCES

APPENDIX A. LIST OF SYMBOLS

APPENDIX B, PROGRAM FLOW DIAGRAM

APPENDIX C. PROGRAM I.ISTING AND SAMPLE OUTPUTS

101

103

105

107

ill

115

rNT ftODUC riON

Hawaii's Floating City Project had its formal inception in 1970,with thc award of a grant by the State of Hawaii to the Department ofArchitecture, University of Hawaii, for a project to investigate thepossibilities and opportunitiesthat. might lie in the constructionof an urban center aboard a very

large, deep-sea, floating platform.This work resulted in the conceptualdesign of a ring-shaped float ingcity with inner and outer ringsconsisting of up to thirty independ-ently s table modules, all rigidlyconnected to form thc final city,but separately retnovable forrepa.i r or renovation. The typicalmodule would be supported fromthree or four vertically oriented,fully submerged buoyancy chambers,each topped by a structural columnwhich would pass through theeleva.t.cd main deck structure to formthe core of a moderately high-risesuperstructure building. Typical morlu le

The city was envisaged as housing a broad range of domestic,commercial, recreational, industrial and public activities, aH servedand supported by a cotnpiete suite of on-board public utilitics, andlinked with Honolulu and thc v orld by a variety of transportation andcommunications services. In general, the industrial, utility andcommercial services would utilize available space in the submergedbuoyancy chambers. At the lowest levels would be found fuel andwater storage, as well as sewage treatment facilities and variableballast tanks. Above these would be popover generation, air contlit.ioninand desa.lination plants, as well as other machinery spaces. Alsoincluded would be warehousing and cold storage, maintenance and repairshops, and some commercial spaces, such as stores and olfices. At thetop of thc buoyancy chambers, v,.here windov s on the sea could be provided,would be restaurants, apartments and pla.ces of public assembly.

The main deck s t ru c tur e,

located above the highesi waves,

would contain commercial andrecreational facilities and trans-

portation terminals. The weathersurface of the main deck structure

wou ld be la nds caped as a pa rk.Finally, the superstructure wouldcontain rnainlv living spa.ces,either apa.rtments or hotel rooms.

Principal structural materialwas to be concrete. The city sitewas chosen as five miles south ofHonolulu in the open ocean, wherewater depth is 600 meters.

Superstructure model

ln subsequent years, engineering studies of various aspects of thisooncept have been made, including environmental conditions of the site,hydrostatics and hydrodynamics of the city's form and feasibility of themodular approach. Studies for the current year include an analysis ofconcrete as a. suitable material, a, structural. design investiga.tion, areview of applicable transportation methods, a survey of potentialconstruction sites and methods, and the study contained in this report.

Ob ectives Sco e and I.imits of the Present Stud

The purpose of this study is to exatnine the requirements forinternal environmental control, given the on-site environmental conditionsan<i the configuration and projected occupancies of the city's enclosedspaces, Ftnphasis is placed on weather, air conditioning, duct design,and utilization of waste heat from the city's power plant. The report alsodevelops a mathematical model for determining and optimizing! thevalues of the various sources of heat gain, and suggests a toi.al-energyapproach to the design of the city's power p'lant, air conditioning plant,an<i freshv ater distillation plant.

in view of the highly conceptual and schematic nature of thearchitectural design upon which this report and others in this year's effort!are based, it has not been possible to make a detailed, realistic and<l»ntitative inventory of occupa.ncies, with their associated heat loads.

Neither has it been possible to provide more than a schematic representationof the thermal properties of the exterior covering materials of the maindeck and superstructure. Therefore, reasonable assumptions have beentaken in both categories. Thus, though the results of the computer runsappear reasonable to the extent that certain important conclusions can bedrawn from them, the numerical values obtained are not meant to applyfor any specific floating platform that may in the future be built. Thisreport does, however, claim to present a convenient method by whichsuch values may be calculated when they are required.

Contents of the Be ort

Section I describes the analysis of weather conditions in Hawaiibased on. statistical data. Criteria for human confort are also establishedfor Hawaiian weather conditions.

Section II describes several types of air-conditioning systems andtheir applications, according to the economic and thermal requirementsof various classes of interior space.

Section III is a theoretical investigation of heat gains for the super-structure and buoyancy tanks in the Floating City. Section IV outlines theproposed procedure for calculation of cooling load in relation to Section III.

Section V contains sample calculations of cooling load for a super-structure element and for a buoyancy tank. The major effort has beenput on the computer simulations for the analysis of cooling load in thesuperstructure.

Section VI descIibes the utilization of waste heat from the city' spower plant. An absorption cycle using waste steam is suggestedfor refrigeration.

Section VII contains the design of ducts for the superstructure andbuoyancy tanks, yielding the physical dimensions of ducting in relation toother space requirements.

The summary and conclusions are presented in Section VIII.

I. CLIMATE AND COMFORT

A. Weather Data

There is relatively slight variation in. the length of the daylightperiod in Hawaii in contrast with other areas, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 � Comparative daylight periods �!

North

latitudeShortest Dayhr min

Longest Dayhr minCi ty

Anchorage 3061

Seattle 17 20 30

St. Louis 16 2010

Atlanta 34 15 30 10 50

Honolulu 1421 10 40

An outstanding feature of the climate of Hawaii is the small annualtemperature variation Figure 1!. In downtown Honolulu, the warmest

Hawaii's thermal and climatic conditions are well characterized byits exposure to the prevailing trade winds and its mid-oceanic location.The influence of the surrounding waters upon climate is considerable.In general, the trade winds flow in an east to west direction. Owing to thetrades, showers are very common and cloudless skies are rare. Thetrade winds provide natural ventilation for the Hawaiian islands, bringingin mildly warm air that has moved great distances across subtropical seas.During the winter months, the persistent North Pacific cell of high barometricpressure tends to be displaced and occasionally broken up, allowing frontalstorms to reach the islands. Accompanying these storms are sharp changesin wind direction, increased wind velocity and moderate to heavy precipitation.However, air temperature changes are not drastic, being moderated by thegreat temperature stability of the surrounding ocean surface.

o 0E

65

15

2~10

n Feb Metr Apr

70

a 60

5C.oo g

0

un Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Figure 1 � Monthly average weather data in Honolulu �!.

month is August, with an average daily temperature of 78. 4 F, which isonly 6.5 F higher than that for the coldest month of February.

Comparison of mean temperature ranges a.mong the different citiesin the Hawaiian islands is presented in Table 2. It shows fairly similartemperature variations except for the data taken at Mauna Loa.

Table 2 � Mean temperature ranges in Hawaii �!

Mean temperatures FI

January August

Elevation

ft!Station

7671Hi lo 40

280Olaa 70

70Mountain View I, 530

11, 150Mauna Loa.

Honolulu Airport 73

Table 3 � Wind direction and speed in Honolulu {I, 2,!

Wind Speed FrequencySpeed January August

Wind Direction FrequencyJanus ry Au gus t Di rect i on

0-12 mph 68~- 3R "~50'ig 93%, !VNE to E

13-24 mph 29" 58~

August and September are the warmest months of the year throughoutHawaii. Figure I shows the monthly average teInperaturcs at IIonoluluAirport, which were taken for ien years from 1951 to 1960. In the samefigure, the mean hourly speed of wind is plotted and the average of11.6 mph is sholem. Wind direction frequency is given in Table 3, as wellas wind speed frequency, for the months of January and August.

The average relative humidity in the coastal areas and along themountain ranges is 70 to 80 percent, while that for the leeward areas is60 to 90 percent. Figure 1 shows the fairly constant relative humidityin Honolulu, which is largely due to the influence of the surrounding ocean.

The Hawaiian Sugar Planters Association has measured the totalsolar radiation, which is the sum of direct and diffuse solar radiation.Data from l6 years of measurements are plotted in Figure 2 in conjunctionwith the average temperature of outside air taken at the Honolulu Airport.

700

400 70

300 65J F M A M J J A S 0 N D

~12

500

0

Figure 2 � Monthly averages of daily accumulation ofsolar radiation and outdoor temperature �!.

a

75

P E

B. Ifuman Res onse to Climatic Conditions

The major climatic elements that affect human comfort are airtemperature, radiation, air movement and humidity. Minor elementsare the chemical composition of air, its physical impurities, and itselectrical properties. In general, ordinary temperature readings arenot adequate to describe thermal environment. Air movcrnent, humidityand radiation are all relevant as externaI thermal stimuli of thc humanbody. They all affect the rate of heat loss of the body.

The most commonly used climatic scale is effective temperature E. T. iintroduced by Houghton and Yaglou in 1923 and again by Yaglou and Millerin 1925, Their index covers temperature, hutnidity and air movementwithout radiation. There have been numerous proposals on comfortconditions in many countries which have their own respective climatologicaland racial conditions. For a normally clothed American man at restduring the summer, Yaglou and Drinkers found that the comfort range is66 to 75o F E. T.! with 7I F E. T.! as ihe optimum point.

Figurc 3 shows the comfort zone for inhabiiants in the U.S. tetnperatczone �0 deg N. lat.! and the estimated comfort zone for Hawaiian inhabitantsby Olgray's method �!. He suggested that when the bioclimatic chart isapplied to climatic regions other than 40 deg north latitude, the lowerperimeter of the summer comfort line should be elevated about 3/4 F forevery 5 deg north latitude change toward the lower latitude. Thc upperperimeter mav be raised proportionally, but not above 85 F. In the. samefigurc, temperature and humidity are plotted io indicate monthly variations.

Sugiyama �! proposed the comfort curve that is applicable toHawaii inhabitants Figure 4!. It shows the percentage of subjects whofeel comfortable under the specific warmth index.

C!CV

i~ 1 ~~ m~~ ad U» <~i~q--~a0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 CA 4! W CD m V

afq@zoJtuoo 5us[aag s>aafqns Jo a8zquaDzag

C. !>ea Con fi tions

0

400

20 25

'1 mperatr<re oC!

Fiprrc:> � 'f h<rmocline for Ffoating City site ,">,f!,7!.

Ver ical temperature distribution of seawater has not bcr n measur«farousal the 1'loating City site. Jfowever, nt«asurernont, tal'en f>y Myr ti'i <'.>,t>!,Patzort �!, et al., may f>rovftle thc general characteristir s of v< rtic:r Itemperature rfistrii>otion in llawaiian seawater'. Thr se;rrc !>loth« l inFitmre,>. lt. is sc<.n that the char tctoristics of vertical terrrperattrre fistrfi>ution are fairly similar at tiff«rent, places in the Hawaiian «rea. Thismay f>errnit us to assume that a nlo lified anrl gencralizerf curve for vc rti caltcmi>orator« <list ribution in Hawaiian seawater is !>ossif>le. Thercf'<>r.»,vertical tern!>eraturc rlisf.rihution of soaivater at the 1'loating «ify site isrepresente f 1'>y th« lrrcviously assurnc l curve an l is given in Figura

~urf>cc tcmf>< rature of Ha>vaiian sea<vat<.r vari<s at>1>r<>iima e1y fro»>C Lo '>7 C' Lhrou«hout. the y<ar: "5" C to "Li>o C in <vintcr, " i C' to '7 ' L

in sumnaer. ln 1965, 'A'yrt1<i rcl>ort« 1 Lha! the yea.rly tern !crature variationof Lhc surface <v;>ter is about 1. 5" C,

,">urface salinity of Hawaiian seawater ranges approximateli fr<»n,",4. 5 "/oo Lo 35, 0 /oo Figure G!. Salinity changes very slightly >vith <tcpth;mini>num sa1inth. of 3 . 2 o/oo is obtain«1 at, a depth of «b<>ut 500 to i00 >r>eLers in Ha>vaiian seawater.

22 t601' igu> e > - >>>> face saliniti of Ha <aiian seaKater s<>m>El<'r> �>.

13

According to the data taken by During in l969 8! at a depth of25 meters in Hawaiian seawater, current velocity varies from 5 cm/secto 50 cm/sec Figure 7!, Twenty cm/sec of current velocity is assumedto be an average for most of the time at a depth of 25 meters. However,further measurements relating temperature, depth and current velocityat the Floating City site are needed.

6Sept 28

18'~ 24' 6 oeSe pt 29

60 ~ ]20' ~Sept 27

2Cerised

hI

4a 60CI~ f60

> 2C0

'v 320

CO

30g 20

}0V p

24'e

Figure 7 - Typical current velocity for Hawaiian seawaterat a depth of 25 m �969! 8!.

II. AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

The bioclimatic chart for Hawaii residents shown in the precedingsection Figure 3'i suggests that air conditioning should rarely be neededfor comfort reasons, However, the climatic data in the figure r epresentambient conditions. In so compactly organized a. structure as theFloating City, these ambient conditions could not be maintained throughoutits interior without air conditioning unless the city could be designed so asto allow the passage of outside air through each compartment essentiallyunimpeded and unchanged, which is manifestly impossible. These da.ta,therefore, establish a basis for the amount and kind of air conditioning theinterior spaces will need to maintain them within comfort Iirnits.

The American Society of Hea,ting and Ventilating Engineers in 1929defined comfort air conditioning as "the process of treating air so as tocontrol simulta.neously its temperature, humidity, cleanliness anddistribution". The same definition applies today, with certain refinements.Comfort air conditioning, or climate control, means the maintenance ofthose atmospheric factors affecting human comfort. Specifically, it isthe maintenance of the following variables:

Desired temperatureAcceptable hunudityMinimum number of atmospheric particles, including

pollens and bacteriaUniform air pa.item and proper air motion.

0

A, Prelimina Plannin

in most respects, the air-conditioning requirements for asuperstructure element ou the Floating City will not differ from those of ahigh-rise office building in a similar climate. Therefore the foHowingprocedures used in air-conditioning system design for an office buildingare representative.

15

Preliminary design of an air-conditioning system requires an awarenessof the esthetic, structural, and economic fa.ctors in. thc overall design fromits very early stages. The machine room and air ducts require considerablefloor area and space, which must. be provided for during preliminary design.

]. Selection of the air-conditioning system

~nsiderations of the equipment cost, operation cost, requiredspace or~ce for the air-handling unit, structures, and zones within the buiMingal! contribuie to the determination of a reasonable air-conditioning system.However the final decision may rest with the designer. based on hisexperience and preference.

2. placement of the machine room and air ducts in each

once the air-conditioning system has been selected, a roughestimation of the required supply air is needed to determine the placementof machine rooms and ducts of appropriate sixes.

3. Determination of capacities required for heat source equipment

The capacities of the boiler and refrigerator can be determinedby heat load estimations, so that the physical dimensions of the machineroom may be designed accordingly,

The general procedures above may be further subdivided in order todetermine more detailed procedures:

Detailed heat load estimations for each room in a buiMingfor thc determination of peak load.

2. Selection of boilers and refrigerators.

Selection of air-handling devices such as coolingand heating coils.

< ~ placement of the devices into the rnachine room for thedetermination of suitable machine room dimensions.

"~ ~election of fans in accordance with the pressure drop in the ducts.

~izing of the pipes in conjunction with the capacity and locationof the boiler and refrigerator.

7. Deterermination of the capacity of the cooling means in accordance"'t" th«hermal performance of the boiler and refrigerator.

16

8. Placing of the apparatus, ducts and pipelines on the drawings.

9. Necessary corrections and/or revisions.

Table 4 shows typical characteristics of three types of air-conditioningsystems that are applicable for office buiMings. These are: 1I all-air-ductsystems, 2! air-water systems, and 3! aB-water systems. The first tv:oare central station apparatus systems, while the all-water systems areprimarily individual rOOIn Or zone unit Syaterng. Depending on the thermalrequirements and function of the building, one may select the most efficientand economical system. Energy costs in Table 4 involve the sum ofelectric power and fuel for the refrigerator and boiler. The recommendedfloor area for these systems is 200,000 square feet or more.

Table 4 - Classification of various air conditioning systems

Energy equipmentcoe t vvxr t

power individual Fresh ai r Spacecost control cooling rertuirernetrts

CtaaalflCation

hiedium HiMedium HiMedium hiaxi

LowHighHigh

Single ductAll-Air-Duct Systems Multi-zone unit

High velocitydual duct

HighMediumgled rum

MediumImw

Medium

Single duet reheatFloor unitinduction uni t

>-ptpetInduction unit

�-ptpetI'rl mary a.ir

fan- cot I un i t

HiRi

MedAir-Wa er Systems

High

Low Pose ibis Ho S mal lMaximum

All-W t oy tA -Water oystems Fan-coil unit Low ID'wPard<age Izrw Low

Izrw PosLov; Pos s ib le No Small

17

l. All-Air-Duct S stems

In this type of system, the air treatment and refrigeration plantsare located some di.stance away from the conditioned space. Oaiy the cooledor heated air is brought into the conditioned space through ducts. A centralstation cles.ns, humidifies, dehumidifies, cools and heats the air. Figure 8shows a typical all-aix duct system. The space designated as "room"represents the entire space in a buiIding, and the supply and return ductsrepresent the whole network of ducts.

Figure 8 � Ail-air-duct system.

18

Sin le Duct S stem. This central station system Figure 9! suppliesa single stream of either hot or coM air into the conditioned spaces.Components of this system are mainly the a.ir-handling unt, heat conveyanceapparatus, heat sources and automatic control devices.

min

OA M � dampero per at i ng motor s

Figure 9 - Single duct system.

Merits of this system are as follows:

Operation and maintenance can be done very easily, as theair-handling equipment is placed in a. machine room. Dustcan be eliminated completely from the supply air.

Supply air quantity is large enough to provide sufficientventil.ation in the room.

o Noise and vibration can be controlled easily.

o If the building is divided into a few zones, equipmcnt costbecomes low in comparison with other all-air-duct systems.

Demerits are given as follows,

o Large duct space is required if there are many zones.

o Equipment cost is considerably higher than the all-water system.

Multi-Zone Unit S stern. Heating and cooling coils are placed in anair handling unit so that the hot and cold air are built up separately bythese coils. Mixing dampers are installed in each zone to adjust thequantity of hot and cold air. It operates in response to the thermalrequirements of a room. Figurc 10 illustrates a typical application ofthis system.

Exhaust

AI I

OuidoorAir

Figure 10 - Multi-zone unit system.

Merits of this systexn are given as follows;

It is useful in buildings that are divided into many differentspaces and zones. This system offers excellent control of allspaces in accordance with their thermal requirements.

Space can be utilized for diverse purposes, as both theheating and cooling are available separately.

When the tcrnpcrature difference between. outside air androom air is Large, outdoor air can be used for cooling orheating. This eliminates the operation cost of a boileIor ref ri ge ra to r.

However, the multi-zone unit system requires large duct spaces if thebuilding is divided into many different zones. in addition, boiler andrefrigerator capacity must be large in order. to deal with the mixing heat loss.

Hi b Veloci Dual Duct S stern. This system supplies hot and coldair to each room separately through ducts. Air velocity is approximately3,000 feet per minute or more in the ducts. Hot and cold air' may be mixedin the air blenders which are installed and controlled by tbermostats ineach room Figure 11!. This system has characteristics similar to thoseof the multi-zone unit system, for both the hot and cold air are availableseparately. A srnaH duct size is required for this system in comparisonwith other all-air-duct systems. This feature is a great advantage in tallbuildings as it requires a fairly srnaH space for ducting. Round ducts arecommonly used in this system because of small frictional resistance andeconomy. Besides the excellent characteristics mentioned above, thissystem has other merits as follows:

o Thermal response of the room is very quick as the air is a.heat-transfer medium. Hence, control of room air isfairly easy.

o No appa,ratus is exposed in the room.

o Maintenance of the unit's air filters is unnecessary.

However, the heat loss due i,o mixing of hot and cold air is verylarge, especially in winter.

reljef ~ ~ exhaust air fand

maxAir

min

cold a<r optional !

Figure 11 � Systematic diagram of high velocity dual duct system.

This type of system has primary and secondary afr treatmentThe primary air treatment plant is located some distance away from

the condftfoned space, as in the all-air-duct system. The function of theprfmazy afr treatment plant is identical to that of the all-air-duct system.The secondary air-handHfng unit is located in the room, ceiling, floor orcorrfdor. Water is used to cool the media and to heat the coils in theair-handling unit. Local adjustment of room air is possible by using thesecondary afr-handling unit in accordance wIth the thermal requirementsof the room and the condftion of primary supply air into the room.

Sin 'le Duct Reheat S stem. This system is primarily the same asthe single duct system except that the reheaters are installed in airdiffusers or in branch ducts Figure 12!. Control valves for the steam orhot water are connected to the reheaters, and thermostats installed in theroom regulate the control valves. Besides the merits described forthe single-duct system, this system has another advantage in that itprovides convenient zoning within a building.

However, the operation cost of the refrigerator increases incomparison to that for the single duct system due to the reheat load.

to other zones

fhl hOA

tors

Figure 12 - Single duct reheat system.

22

Floor Unit S stern. Thc air-handling appa.ratus is placed on eachfloor in this system as shown in Figure 13. This system has meritssuch as:

o Air conditioning can be done separately on each floor.

o Horizontal duct size can be reduced.

However, the equipment cost is comparatively high and requireslarge sps.ces for air-handling equipment.

fan

exhaust handting e qui p me n traa m in each f i oar

mainsuppty ductreturn dixt

Figure 13 � Floor unit system.

Induction Unit S stern 2 PI e . The induction unit system is a veryinteresting, cotnpact and efficient, high-velocity air-conditioning method.Instead of carrying all of the air back to a central ai r-handling unit as inthe dual duct system, room air is recirculated through a cabinet below awindow. A small amount of fully conditioned outdoor air may bc broughtin through a single high-velocity duct. It flows through a jet afterattenuation to induce room air circulation so thai, the room air and supplyare mixed properly Figure 14!. Therefore, this system requires noair supply fans and no outdoor ventilation grills for fresh air. Chilledwa.ter and condii,ioned fresh air are supplied to the unit, and a two-wayvalve that is controlled by the room thermostat adjust the flow rate of

23

vtI~ r

0

Figure l4 � 1nduchon uai t system � pipe!.

chilled water. In general, heat. loads from solar heat, people and lightsare removed by chiHed water, and the heat, loads due to conduction,convection and radiation through the walls and roof are removed byconditioned air. As in the previous discussion, a smaller space is requiredin comparison with the dual duct system. However, heating and coolingenergy offset, each other in the same air-handling unit. Hence, operationcost increases. In addition, zoning of chilled water and conditioned freshsupply air is necessary.

Induction Unit S stem 3 Pi e . The 3-pipe induction unit system ismore flexibl.e than the 2-pipe system in that it supplies hot and chilledwater simultaneously, while the 2-pipe system carries only hot or chilledwater into an induction unit,. According to thc heating or cooling needs ofa building, the return pipe is used in common for both hot and coldwater return.

The flow rate of hot and chilled water is controlled by a sequencecontrol valve or three-way valve! operated by a room thermostat. Thissystem has oi.her merits in addition to those of the 2-pipe system: nozoning is required for either supply water or air, and mixing loss can berninirnized when the return water pipes are divided into many zones.Hence, the operation cost can be reduced in comparison. with the 2-pipesystem.

On the other hand, as it requires a more complicated system, theequipment cost increases in comparison to the 2-pipe system.

Prima Air Fan-Coil Unit S stem. This system is similar to theinduction unit system Figure 15!. The main difference is that conditionedair and chilled or hot water a.re supplied to the fan-coil unit instead of theinduction unit. In turn, instead of inducing the room air, the supply airfan mixes the room and conditioned air properly. The most suitableapplications for this system are multi-room buildings such as hotels,offices, hospitals and apartment houses. If we emphasize the importanceof air-conditioning performance, this system may be the most suitable,but the initial cost of a fan-coil system is very high.

The fan-coil unit can be located along the perimeter of a building,and the primary air conditioned air! is supplied to the fan-coil unit directlyor is supplied to the room through ducts in the corridor Figure 15!.Application of this system is popular in Hawa.ii.

outdoor

o I r

Figurc 15 � Primary air fan-coil unit svstent.

Merits of this sysiern are as follov s:

The system is ideally adapted for control of individuaL roomair temperatures, as each fan-coil unit has integral heatingand cooling coils.

Motion and distribution of air in lhc room can be easilycontrolled by this system.

o V herever thc effect of cold radia.i.ion and convection ironiwindows causes discomfort, this system is advanta«cous.Fan-coils along the pc rimeter of the windows supply theupward hot air and remove the effect of cold radiationand convection.

However, this system requires a relatively high equipment cost if thetotal floor area of a building is less than 200,000 squar< feet i. e., a smallor medium size office building!.

3. All-Water S ~stems

The all-water systems are mainly fan-coil and packaged typr sof room terminals to which may be connected one or two water circuits.The cooling medium such as chilled water or brine may bc supplied froma central station and circulated through the coils in the fan-coil or packageunit terminal which is located in the room. Ventilation is obtained throughan opening in the wall or hy infiltration.

a. Fan-Coil I.'nit Svs tern

This system is particularly applicable t.o multi-roombuildings where large-sized duct work is irnpossihlc. It is not x ecommentledfor applications having high latent loads. Hotels, motels, hospitals,apartment houses and office buildings can use the system io advantage.The unit may be located under the v indow, over the closets, or indropped ceilings.

There are two tvpes of fan-coil unit systems: singl.c piping I-' I>il>ei,and multi-piping g pipe, 4 pipe!. In thc former, a single supplx mediumsuch as cold or hot. v.ater is available at each fan-coil unit, and a singlereturn piping system is utilized. !n the latter, hot and cold n>edia «rcavailable at each fan-coil unit, and a single :3 pipe! or double i4 pipeireturn piping system is utilized.

Si le Pi I 2 Pi e 8 stem. This system Figure 16! consists ofcentral heating-cooling equipment and a fan-coil unit. The fan-coil unitsystem is designed to control individual space without connecting to thecentral air-handling station and duct. Either a mixture of fresh and returnair or return air alone is supplied into the conditioned room. Althoughi'resh air f,s generally supplied through a low pressure duct, it may betaken directly from the wall openings. This latter method costs lessinitially and gives greater flexibility in utilizing the system. However,wall openings for outdoor air are not generally recomznended in multi-story buildings. Stack and wind effects may adversely affect theperformance of the units. In some cases, in6ltration air through windowsand doors is sufficient for ventilation. The room air temperature can beadjusted by means of control switches for fan speed and water flow. Meritsof the system are:

o It is suitable for individual control of room air temperature.As it has integral heating-cooling coils, adjustment of roomair is quick and easy.

o Operation and equipment costs are comparativeIy low.

o Minimal duct work is required.

However, the quantity of supply air is not enough to humidify the room.

Multi-Pi 3 Pi e 4 PI e S stem. This system provides hot andcold water through each fan-coil unit in the room Figure 16!. Each unitcan bc used for many different zones and functions by controlling the hotand cold water with control valves. Merits of the multi-piping system inaddition to those for the single piping system are as follows:

Quick thermal response is obtained through hot and coldwater in the unit.

7oned piping and allied controls are eliminated due to theflexibility of using both hot and cold water.

Complaints of occupants during the intermediate seasons areeliminated because of the availability of both heating and cooling.

2S

Figure 16 � Fan-coil unit system.

2 PIPE

4 PIPE

3 PIPE

b, Pack ed Air-Conditioners

Packaged air-conditioners, as in Figure 17, which are alsocalled self-contained equipment, provide a complete heating and coolingsystem in the package unit. This unit is composed of compressor,condenser, fans, evaporator, heater, filter and controller. Commercialself-contained air conditioners are available in sizes up to 66 tons. Unitsof 2 to 7.5 tons are designed for the room usage and the larger units arelocated away from the rooms. Major refinements of this system are itslow cost, compactness and easy operation. The packaged air conditionersare either air or water-cooled systems. The former has evaporativecondensers while the latter has cooling towers. Merits of this systemare as follows;

The initial costs of packaged units are low due to less volume,and they can be installed easily with minimum disturbanceto the occupants.

The units are compact and easy to maintain because oftheir accessibility.

However, room air is not properly distributed and humidity controlis insufficient. Additional expense is requi red to improve the performanceof the system. Also, as maintenance is required fairly frequently,maintenance cost is comparatively high.

c. Room Air Conditioners

Packaged air conditioners with capacities of 0. 5 to 2 tonsare usually defined as room air conditioners. These are mainly air-cooledconditioners, but larger sizes may require water-cooled systems. Air-cooled units may be located on the wall, roof, window or any other placefacing the outside air to reject the heat and to dispose of the condensedwater from the cooling coil.

Typical applications for the various systems described above areshown in Table 5. Detailed explanations are found in the Handbook ofAir Conditioning System Design 9!, which was the source of most of thefigures and tables in this section.

evaporat

CamPre

Figure 17 � Pa.ckaged ai r conditioners.

Table 5 � Systems and applications

Individual Reom or Zone Lfnit System Central Station Apparatus Systems

DX Self-Contained All-AirAll-Water Air-Water

Room Fon-Coil Single Air StreamRoom Zone Prim. Air SystemsAPPLICAT/ONS

ReheatReclr. Vorlable

VolumeVsto2 2 tons

and over Bypass At Zonein Duct

ArrtonsTermina

Pag 9-8! 9-8! 9-8! 9-8! 9-9! 9-9! 9-1 0! 9-1 0! 9-1 0! 9-'! 'i ! 9-8!

Aledium 9-1 3Residentia

Medium 9-1 3Restaurant

Variety B Spctly. Shops 9 � 13Bawling Alleys 9-1 4

Small 9-14

Country Clubs 9-1 4o Fvneral Homes 9-1 4

ChurchesTheaters

9-15 9-15

Factories comfort! 9-15!

Otgce Bvildings 9-1 6!Hotels, Dormitories 9-1 8

Motels 9 � 18Apartment Buildings 9-18

0 Hospitals 9-1 8aa Schools and Colleges 9-19u

Musevms 9 � 20

0 Libraries StandardRare Books 9-20

Department Stores 9-1 9Shopping Centers 9 � '19

SmallLaboratorle L id 9-20!Lge Bldg

Marine 9-21

OTES: 1. Systems checked for a particular application are the systems most commonly used, Economics and design objectives dictate the choirand deviations of systems listed above, other systems as listed in Note 2, and some entirety new systems.

2. There are several systems used on many of these opplications when higher quality air conditioning is desired often at higher expenseIThey are Dvol-Duct 9 � 11!, Dual Canduit 9-9!, 3-pipe Induction and Fan-Coil 9-11!, 4-pipe Induction and Fan-Coil, nnPanel-Air 9-12!.

3. Numbers in parentheses are page numbers of the text describing the particular system or application.

32

0a Radio andaTV Studiosvv

Beauty Salons 9-1 4Barber Shops 9-1 5

a

Auditoriums 9-15Dance ond Roller Skating

Pavilions 9-15

WithOutdo o

Air

Multi-ZoneSingleDuct

Secndry RoomWater Fan-Cori

H-V H-P withInductio O.A.

III, HEAT GAINS

The thermal factors affecting the superstructure and buoyancy tanksof the Floating City are numerous and, as these are intricately inter-related, the evaluation and analysis of these factors should beperformed carefully.

Heat gain is defined as the rate at which heat enters into or isgenerated within a space. It can be influenced by weather., location oi abuilding, time, construction materials, usage of a. building, equipment,lighting and occupancy.

In this section, equations are developed for letermining heat gainsthrough the windows, walls and roof of the superstructure, as «ell asheat gains duc to ventilation and infiltration of outside air. The heatgenerated by people, lights, and equipment within the building is brieflydiscussed. Finally, consideration is given t.o heat. gains through thewalls of the buoyancy tanks.

A.. Heat Gain throu h Windows of Su erstructure

At any instant, thc total instantaneous heat. gain through glass is thesum of solar radiation transmitted through glass and the heat flow due toconvection from the inner glass surface and conduction caused by thetemperature difference between outside and inside air. For glazingmaterials, heat gain qg is expressed in the I972 ASHHAE Handbook �0!as

+ U A � 9,!0 i

= SC! SHGY! ~ U !o � 8.!

S

q � SC! I d 5 Z. coalg n --9 j

5

I d 2 CL .cos f]n . 0 j

Tj +2ltl Zj=0

S

> I< Z Cl . j 2! fh 1 tk : h.l ]! ! j o 0 1

SHGF is the abbreviation for solar heat gain factor, which is therate of heat flow due to transmitted solar radiatfon and convection fromthe inner surface of glass; SC is the shading coefficfent, defined as themtfo of solar heat gain through a fenestration under a specific set ofconditions to the solar gain through a plain double-strength glass underthe same set of conditions, The effect of reflected radiation is neglected inEquation 3-1, which must be modified in the case of high intensity ofreflected radiation. Shading coefficfents applicable to some of thewidely used types of insulating glass and internal shading coefficients forcurtains and venetian blinds are given in air-conditioning handbooks.Calculation of the solar heat gain factor is made following the ASHRA E'srecommended procedures.

B. Heat Gain throu h %'alla or Roof of Su erstructure

Figure 18 illustrates the factors which affect the heat balance atthe outside surface of a wall at time n&. The Xj, Y. and Z are calledresponse factors 8,11!. The heat-balance equation at the ou!side surfaceIs

J J

$7j8I j+ Qsft�� h 8 �-8 !- Z X8s 3=0] i,n-j st,n o s,n on 3=0 �-3!

where Qs is the ahsorptfvfty of the wall surface. The value of J is to beselected arbitrarfly, depending upon the degree of accuracy of calculations.Rearrangement of Equation 3-3 gives

J

8 -. X >h ! Qsft n � Xj -]�-4!

The inside air temperature 8, is usually considered to be constant.By taking appropriate prior values of outside surface temperature 8to start the calculation, the value of 8s n can be determined by theabove equation. By Increasing the nurturer n, accurate values of outsidesurface temperature can be found subsequently. For a constant insideair iemperaturc 8; n j, the effective excitation of outside surfacetemperature is 8 - � 8i j!. Then the heat flux for the wall area A is

Outs id

sur

j s,n-jY" 8

0 e.i,n

Inside ai r temperature~ e

Outside a

j l~ n-j

Figure 18 � Heat balance at outside surface.

J

~w w ~ j snj inj �-5!

Physical interpretations of response factors X., Y- and Z. as depictedj'in Figure 19 are as follows:

X - Heat rate at time t = jest at the surface x = o in Btu/hr-ftwhen the unit temperature excitation is a,pplied to the samesurface.

Heat rate through the wall at time t = j b,t at x = 0 or x = L ingtu/hr-ft - F when the unit temperature excitation is given2 0

to the surface at t.he opposite side of the wall. Y, at x = 0 isthe same as that at x = L because of the reciprocr ty theorem.

Y.:j

Z. r Heat rate at time t = j~ t at the surface x = L inj ptu/hr-ft � F when the unit temperature excitation is given0

to the surface at x = L.

35

Total

solar

radiation

inside unit

su rface conductance,

hi

Y.

Exci tation

9=1deg F

K2~ t~

Excitation

X=L

Figure 19 - Physical representa.tion of response factors.

C. Heat Gain from Li hts F, ui ment and Peo le

Lights, equipment and people are the main heat generating sourceswithin a room. The precise prediction of the number of people and lightsis not possible. In general, the number of people in a rppm and po.erconsumption of lights and equipment are estimated according to thefunctions of the building. The heat generated per average person forvarious types of activities can bc found in handbooks 9, $0!.

D. Heat Gain from Ventilation and Infiltration

Comfort criteria require a certain amount of ouiside airsupplied continuously througha ventilation duct to the cpnditipned spaceThe heat gain in Btu per hour clue to ventilation at G cfm of putsjde air �Q!is given by

36

IV. COOLING LOADS

A. Heat Gain

The heat gains described in the preceding section are considered tobe instantaneous heat gains in the new ASHRAE procedures for cooling loadcalculation. As we have seen, instantaneous heat gains may originate froma number of sources: solar radiation admitted through windows, heattransmitted through walls and roof, infiltration, ventila.tion, lighting,people, and machinery inside the space. The heat gains from differentsources undergo different delays before they become cooling loads.

In the 1972 ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals �0!, the instantaneousheat gain from each source is separated into a convective portion and aradiant portion. The radiant portion is first absorbed by the walls andby the contents in the space, and then transferred to the inside air over anextended period of time through the mechanism of convection. The totalinstantaneous cooling load is the sume of the convective portion and theaverage of the radiant portion over a period of time. The recommendedperiod of time is 2 to 3 hours for lightweight construction. and 6 to 7 hoursfor heavyweight, without a clear definition to differentiate lightweightfrom heavyweight.

B. Cooli Load Evaluation

Exact evaluation of the space cooling load involves the solution ofsimultaneous equations of heat balance for many parts of the building.Stephenson and Nitalas �2! demonstrated the exact method by formulatingeight simultaneous equations for a room of simple configuration. Nitalasand Arsenault �3! later proposed a weighting factor method based on theassumption. that the instantaneous heat gain and the corresponding componentof the cooling load can be expressed in the form of a characteristictransfer function. Their weighting factors are the sets of transfer functionswhich relate thc heat gains to cooling loads, being determined by thez-trans fer method.

C. Res nse Fa,ctor Method

It would be advantageous to express weighting factors in terms ofresponse factors. This idea was first introduced by Kimura andStephenson �4!. For 1 Btu/hr-ft of radiant heat impinging upon a surface

whose absorptivity is Q, the heat flow through the surface is a atu/hr-ft ~2

Assume the Peat transfer coefficient of the convective film Co beh. Btu/hr-ft -oF. If the temperature at the outside surface of the convectivefilm is CL/h degrees higher than the temperature at the wall's surface,r 2as depicted in Figure 21, the heat flow is also CL Btu/hr-ft ~

Surface of

con vecti veface of

n vecti ve film, h.1

gQ/h;!OF

-1 j=p 1

Equivalent exci ta.tionat the surface of

convective film

Figure 21 - Equivalent excitation for wall of equiva.lent thickness.

D. E uivalent Thickness A roxirnation

Hypothetically one may assign an equivalent excitation Q/h degreesr

at the outside surface of the film to evaluate the transient flow of beatthrough the wall due to the unit radiant heat.

if the response factors X, Y- and 2 are evaluated for a solid wall of!' j. jequivalent thickness Leq together with the convective films as shown inFigure 21, the outside surfaces of the composite wall should be the exteriorsurfaces of the rHms. The magnitude of response factor Y- is relatively

3

small in comparison with Xj as shown in F'igures IH and 19, in which onealso finds that X «t j = 0 has a sign opposite to the sign of other X 's and' .!the sign of Yj's o signify that tho heat is first driven into the wallmomentartly by the excitation at j = 0 and then flows out from both sidesof the wall.

Referring to the definitions of X and Y in Section ill, the amount ofheat which remains in the space after 1 Dtu/!Ir-ft-' of radiative heat froman internal source impinges upon the wall, can be evaluated !>y ihefollowing two equations:

W.=- I- Q X, + Y! = 1- Cl X,, atj:-0

t i

�- I!

W.= � G Xj, a.tj ~! lI

�- P!

The W, is known as the weighting factor, which may appear in differentversioLs by different ways of evaluation.

Takeda and Matsuo IS! studied the thet'mal characteristics ofoomposite walLs and found that the transient behavior of multi-layer wallscan be approximated with an equivalent wall having «single layer. 'I'hethickness L of the equivalent wall for a composite wall of M layers isgi ven by

M

/p!m pp!km=-l P -! � 3!

where the subscript k is used to indicate t.he thermal properties of the.equival.ent wall.

M N

Leqf ALs! / Q A!nm=1

�-4!

To simplify the calculation of weighting factors, it is proposed hereto use an equivalent thickness Leq for all the v, alls in a room by extendingTakeda and Matsuo's idea:

where A is the surface area of the wall with the respective thickness of L~,and N is number of walls in a room. The degree of validity of Equatio~ 4-4has yet to be checked by other methods, and some empirical constants mayhave to be added to Improve its applicability.

After the heat gains and weighting factors are found, the cooling loadat time n g t can be calculated by the equation,

J

CL = $ WjHG tHC�j=0

�-5!

The cooling loads for the superstructure and buoyancy tanks werecalculated with the proposed concept of equivalent wall thickness. Theresults, as shown in Section V, appear reasonable in relation to the totalheat gains.

where HG�~ is the sum of radiative heat gains of a room at j D t hours priorto time nest, and HC is the sum of convective heat gains at time n gt. Thenproportioning of radiative heat gains and convective heat gains from variousheat sources has been recommended by ASHRAF. IO!.

V. CALCULATIONS OF COOLING I OAD FORSUPERSTRUCTURE AND BUOYANCY TANK

Sample cooling load calculations have been made for the superstructureand for a buoyancy tank, to illustrate the application of the foregoing heat-Howmodel to the design of an environmental control system for the Floating City.The calculations were performed on an lBM 360/65 computer using a programwritten for this report in FORTRAN IV. Appendix B contains the programflow diagram and a brief description of the subroutines used in thecalculations. The program. listing and sample outputs are presented inAppen.dix C.

The top Hoor of the superstructure in the Floating City is used as thcmodel for sample calcula,tions. Figures 22, 23, and 24 show i,he floor plan,a typical room, and the elevation of the building.

For satisfactory control of indoor conditions in large buildings, zonesof heating and air conditioning are usually established according to thermalrequirements �6!. The building shown in Figure 22 is divided into ninezones, labeled A through I. The cooling load of a typical room in each zonehas been calculated and reported hereupon.

The structure is mainly made of lightweight concrete. Table 6 showsthe composition of walls and roof, and the physical properties of thcpertinent materials; in the same table are ihe equivalent thicknesses Le !,which are determined by Equation 4-4.

The following input data are required for the calculation of coolingload:

o Physical properties of materials from Table 6o Weather data from Table 7o Input data given in Table 8

Table 8 summarizes the indoor design conditions; the assumedtemperature of the outside surface to start the calculations; areas ofoutside walls, windows and roof; absorptivities of outside surfaces;volumes of rooms and orientation of walls.

Also shown in Table 8 are sample input values for the number ofpeople and the power input from lights, both of which are functions oftime of day, and these are further specified in Tables 9 and 10. Therate of heat gain per occupant is an input code selected from Table llaccording to type of building and degree of activity. Ventilationrequirements, based on anticipated smoke levels, are selected fromcoded values in Table 12. infiltration rate depends upon type ofconstruction, and the input codes are selected from Table 13. Finally,the glazing material is selected i'rom Table 14, which lists shadingcoefficients and U values for various types of glass. fn this case, inputcode 3 denotes 1/8-inch double strength glass!.

ZONE-A� ! 5 DUCT SPAC E6 OPEN SPACE

Figure 22 - Top floor plan of superstructure.

Figure 23 � Typical room of supers <rue~re

46

Figure 24 - Elevation of superstructure

4 CIcd

0 ~

cd C

p~ Q.

0

aa.0

dl

II II

+ Rm 0

cI IOI

0cO I I I I

I I I I I

0l/d II

I II I I

0I cAI

0O0 0

0 0 0 00 N 0O

0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0

0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 000 0

0la O 0 0 OIa W ~ J

CQ OXHOQQ

00

0 00 0 0 00 0 0 0 0

0 0 00

Cgc0l0 0

C cAC0

O 0 O X0 0

0 00 0 0 0 0 0 0

CI

ccU

thCI

4 ~ 0cdp m

Oo +

c0

bCa dl

0 0 0 0 dJ cclD.

4a 0 dIICI

I-'4

0

cd

cd R

q'gll<iV, 300/

«d Q

g

adl

3 ag pi

IIi cd

dl

Oa 0 0

bo

0 bcll

a

I47cd

g0'

0

IIg 4

h1

0

0 I

CI ~

cd

II

~ 0cd I

0 0 0 0 9CG

C7

II

60

cc c8cd II

Ql6

dICc 0'0

dl 000

'0Vl

Xg

cp} ICJ II ~ I

0LO I cd~ I

0 0

00 Ol 00 O 0

0 0 00 0 0

00 0 0

00 + O0 ~ 0

XbCI

bd dldIcc

v'0CI a~ M 0I

dI

cd

Table 7 � Average hourly temperature and humidityon September 1 in downtown Honolulu �81

RelativeTf tne Temperature humidity

hr OF ',i !

RelativeTemperature humidity

OFTime

hr

49

0100

0200

0300

0400

0500

0600

G700

0800

0900

1000

1100

12OG

75. 90

76. 10

76. 80

77. 80

79. 10

80. 70

82. 40

84. GO

85. 60

86. 90

87. 90

88. 60

71. 0

70. G

69. 6

69. 0

68. 5

68. 0

67.0

66. 0

64. 2

62. 1

59. 5

55. 1

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

2000

2100

2200

2300

2400

88.80

88. 60

87. 90

86. 90

85. 60

84. 00

82. 40

80.70

79. 10

77. 80

76. 80

76. 10

51. 5

52. 0

54. 0

56. 8

59. 5

61. 5

63.3

65. 0

66. 5

68. 0

69. 0

70. 0

Table 8 � Input for the sample calculation

Cotnpute rprogram

labelDescription Valu e

Design s.ir temperature F! and specifichumidity of the room, Ib/Ib!Time of year, Sept. I!Length of calculation days!Initial surface temperature of wall and roof F!Outside and inside unit thermal conductances, B tu/hr-ft2-o F!Number of differen.t delayed surfs.ces walland roof!Number of spaces in the building Zone A to I!Outside wall and roof surface areas ft !Spaces I of Zone A, D, E, F, G, and HSpace',3 of Zone B ENE, E, ESE, S!Space 3 of Zone C S, WSW, W, WN%$Space 3 of Zone I N, ENE, WNW!Absorptivities of outside wall and roof surfaceSpaces I of Zone A, D, K, F,G, and HSpace I of Zone DSpaces 3 of Zone B, C, IWall orientations as given in the note first8 numbers! and roof last number!

0 = no wall, I � wall, 2 = roofZone AZone BZone CZone DZone EZone FZone GZone HZone I

Absorptivity for the wall of equivalent thicknesZone A,D, E, F,G, HZone B, C, I

Reference number of peopleNumber of people Table 9!Reference power input from lights watt!Power input from lights Table 10!Rate of heat gain per occupant Table 11!Ventilation requirement Table 12!Infiltration rate Table 13!Type of glass Table 14!Dry-bulb temperature of outside airS ecific humidit of outside air

78. 0, 0. 0125TR, WR

IDOYNDAYTDBFO, FI

244280,06.0, 2,0

WW 2. 0

FNSARE

9,0

60 �!445, 295, 295, 445445, 295, 295, 445590> 445, 445

AABVOL 5400 �!

600021672 �!

IREF

000010002000000002000000002100000002010000002000001002000100002000000012000000002

ALFA

0. 5725 �!0. 5458 �!2NOPP

NOP!WAA T WATT!150151I 52I53TTO'TWO

160

Note: Code for orientation of wall

Vt'all orientation N ENE E F.SE S WSW tV WN'6

50

Wall azimuth deg! 180 112. 5 90 67. 5 0 67. 5 90 112, 5

Table 9 � Number of occupants Table 10 - Power input from lights

Table 11 � Rate of heat gain per occupant 9!

Table 12 - Ventilation requirements �0!

Table 13 � Infiltration rate �7!

i'able 14 - SINding coefficient and U-value of various glasses �0!

B.

The floor plan and the elevs.tion of the buoyancy tank are shown inFigures 25 and 26. Zoning is not necessary, for the entire tank has similarheat gain characteristics. The cooling load of a. typical. floor has beencalculated by assuming a weighting factor of 1. Therefore, the heat gainsand cooling load a.re identical in this case.

Eight different types of building materials Table 15! were usedfor calculating the rate of heat flow through the wall in accordance withEquation 3-8. Finally, four different types of wall materials were selectedfor calculating cooling load.

Equations for heat gains due to ventilation and light are identical tothose for the superstructure. Heat gains due to infiltration and total solarradiation transmitted and conducted through the glass are ignored, as thebuoyancy tank is loca.ted in sea water. LE VATOR

EST ROOM OR UTILiTY!

EC HAN I CALSPACE

4 STAIR5 CORRIDOR

f LE VATOR SHA F T SPACE

SECTION 8ee Figi 25

Figure 26 � Elevation of buoyancy tank.

Table 15 � Different types of wali configurations for the buoys.ncy tankand respective rates of heat flow

Description Overall heat transmission coefficientof Wall Btu/hr-ft � F! @ depth

Rate of heat flow

Btu/hr-ft ! Pq depth70 t 105 ft 140 ft 70 ft 105 ft 140 ft

P. 397 0. 310 0. 253

0. 364 0.296 0. 244

0. 396 0.309 P. 253

0. 356 0.284 0. 236

0. 292 0.233 0. 200

0. 259 0. 219 0. 200

1. 973 1. 967 0. 189

0. 675 0. 481 1. 961

Sy tnbols:concrete

gypsum plaster + concrete outside!steel plate + concretesteel plate + concrete i membrane epoxy!gypsum plaster + 4" air space i concretegypsum plaster + 4" air space + concrete i membrane cpo p!�9~ carbon!plaster + 1/2» gypsum board + 4" air space + steel outside!

Note: Thicknesses of steel and concrete of buoyancy tank vary in accordancewith the depth from the design water level.

de th ft 105 14070

concrete thickness ft! 1. 0 1. 77

steel thickness ft! 0. 167 0. 208 P. 25

a = bare

3/4»c � 3/8"d � 3/8"e = 3/4"

3/4»g = steelh � 3/4"

0. 556

0. 510

p. 554

p. 498

0. 409

0. 363

2. 762

P. 945

0. 527 0. 886

0. 503 P. 854

0.525 0.886

0.483 0.826

0.396 0.700

0.372 0.662

3.344 6.864

0.818 1.684

C. Results and Discussion

To facilitate the inspection of the results. the heat gains andcooling loads from the output of the computer program and the calculatedvalues of cooling loads have been p'lotted.

Figure 27 illustrates the rates of heat gain through 1/8-inch doublestrength glass with s. shading coefficient of 0.9 and an overall heattransmission coefficient of 0. 61 Btu/hr-ft - F, plotted in accordance with2 o

orientations of windows. The glass facing east causes a high heat gainbefore noon due to direct solar radiation, and the glass facing westreceives maximum heat flow in the afternoon. The heat gains of glassfacing south and north are always symmetrical about noon tixne regardlessof the time of year, It is surprising to note that the heat gain through asouth glass is much lower than that of an east or west glass because ofthe relationships among solar angles. Selection of the glasses is one ofthe most important factors in the design of an air conditioning system.For example, selection of glass with a shading coefficient of 0. 72 and anoverall heat transmission coefficient of 0. 54 Btu/hr-ft - F Table 14!2

reduces the cooling loads of the superstructure to 60 to 70 percent of thatfor the superstructure with 1/8-inch double strength glass. This indicatesthat the selection of glass affects the cooling loads of a superstructure andthe capacity of air-handling units as well. Hence, the glass with a smallershading coefficient and smaller U-value reduces the operation cost of theair-handling units. On the other hand, it increases the initial cost of thesuperstructure, Therefore, the final decision depends upon the owner'sinterest and the function of the superstructure.

Cooling loads of a superstructure vary as a function of wall azimuthangles wall orientations!. The total radiative heat and solar heat gainfactors at any orientation at any time of year may readily be calculated.Cooling loads for the entire superstructure are easily estimated by specifyingthe proper wall or window orientation. The note in Table 8 indica.tes thesample wall orientations.

Figures 28 to 36 show the heat gains from various sources and thetotal cooling load of typical rooms in the superstructure. The pattern. ofcooling loads in one zone is entirely different from that in another, whichreinforces the concept of dividing the superstructure into several zonesfor the satisfactory control of indoor environment.

56

24.0

22.0

20.0

1 8.0

16,0

14.0

12.0

10.0

e,o

6.0

4,

2.0

-2,0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 2Time of day hrl

Figure 27 � Heat gain through glass.

7. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24Time of day hr!

Figure 28 - Heat gains and cooling load of a typicalroom in superstructure zone A.

58

22.0

20.0

16.0

14

2

12.C>

10.

I8.0

-2.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 lf 1Time of day hr!

Figure 29 � Heat gains and cooling load of a typicalroom in superstructure zone B.

59

24.

22.

20.

16.0

14.0

1 2.0

10.0

80

6.0

4.0

2.0

0

-2.0

10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24T i me of day hr!

Figure 30 � Heat gains and cooling load of a typicalroom in superstructure zone C.

e.o

7.0

4

~ 3,0

-1.0 0 2 4Time of day hr!

Figure 31 � Heat gains and cooling load of a typicalroom in superstructure zone D.

12.

9,0

8.O8

c 7,0

< 60

I 5.04.0

3.0

2,0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 ]8 20 22 24Time of day hri

Figure 32 - Heat gains and cooling load of a typicalroom in superstructure zone E.

62

24.0

22.0

20.0

18.0

~ 160

14.0

12,0

> 100

-2.0 0 2 4 6Time of day hrl

Figure 33 - Heat gains and cooling l.oad of a typicalroom in superstructure zone F.

24,

22,

20.

6.0

4.0

2,0

-2,0 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24Time of day hr!

Figure 34 � Heat gains and cooling load of a typicalroom in superstructure zone G.

64

16.0

14,0

»2.0

= 10.0

8.0

6.0

4.

2,0

-2.0 0 2 4 6 e 10 12 14 16 18 20 2Time of day hrl

Figure 35 - Hea.t gains and cooling load of a Qpicairoom in superstructure xone H.

12.

~ 1QO

. e,o

~ 6.0

4.0

2.0

0

-2.0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24Time of day hr!

Figure 36 � Heat gains and cooling load of a typicalroom in superstructure zone I.

66

Figures 37 to 39 show the cooling load from various sources in atypical room in the buoyancy tank, in conjunction with the depth and thevarious wall materials. No zoning is required for a typical tloor of abuoyancy tank. Heat transfer through buoyancy walls to the sea is notvery significant. In fact,, for steel, insulation is required.

67

13.0

11.0

100

9.0

~ 8,0

g 702 � 6.0- 50

g g 4.0

3, 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24'I imc of dav hr!

F'ii~rc ',37 - C'ooling load of a typical room in buoyancy tank at thedepth of 70 feet from design water line.

G8

1 3.0

11.0

10.0

9.0

8.0

7,0

6,0

5.0

O4,0

C 0 302.0

1.0

-1.0

-20

-3,0 0 2 4 6 8 1 0 12 14Tine of day Ihr>

Figure 38 � Cooling load-of a typical room in buoyancy tank at thodepth of 105 feet front design v ater 1 in».

90

e,o

5,0

2 4.3.0

8

2.

0 01

-3

� 6.0 0 2 g 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 2Time of day hr!

l'igure 8g � Cooling load of a typical room in buoyancy tank at thedepth of 140 feet from design water line.

70

VI. REFRIGERATION

A. Ener Considerations

Full-time air conditioning of a large occupied space often contributesa. significant portion of the overall power cost for the facility. In the caseof the Floating City, the increased size of the electrical power plantrequired to handle air conditioning demand, along with lighting, mechanical,and other uses of electricity, will have direct cost consequences for thehull itself, in increased fuel storage requirements.

It therefore seems especially important to consider the option of atotal energy system. Any system that makes use of waste heat from thepower plant to provide drive for air conditioning and refrigeration and fordesalina.tion of the city's drinking water will effect a gain in fuel economy.In this case, because the designer has complete control of power plantdesign, as well as other machinery, the total energy concept would seemto be conspicuously attractive.

Application of an absorption cycle for refrigeration is one of theconvenient ways to utilize the exhaust heat from the city's power plant.Steam or hot water of approxi.mately 200 F is fed into this cycle, and about40o F chilled water may be obtained.

Calculations for refrigeration by absorption cycle are performed inaccordance with the maximum cooling load of a typical floor, which occursat 4 p. rn. in the superstructure. Values for each zone are shown inTable 16. Water is used for the refrigerant, while lithium bromide servesas the absorbent. All the procedures for calculation of the refrigerationcycle in this section are found in the ASHRAE Handbook �0!

It is seen that the maximum cooling load of 87.43 x 10 Btu/hr should4

be removed by refrigeration. The refrigeration load of a typical flooris determined by

87.43 x 104 = 72. 86 tonsRefrigeration load =

Table 16 - Cooling load of a typical floor in the superstructure at 1600

The cycle for a water-Lithium bromide absorption refrigerationmachine is shown in Figure 40. This cycle includes a liquid heat exchangerfor the absorbent and refrigerant-absorbent streams. The design conditionslisted below are seiected for high performance. Figure 40 is a flowdiagram for t.he cycle.

tons/hr this low temperature isdesirable for achieving gooddehumidification as well as

cooling in air conditioning!

1. Refrigeration load. 72. 862. Evaporator temperature: 40o F

3. Absorbent outlet

temperature: 90 F The absorbent temperatureshould be kept at about 100 For lower to reduce the dangerof crystaLLizatfon!

This temperature is notcritical and may be set higherthan the absorber temperatureto achieve better use of the

cool tng water!

o4. Condenser temperature; 110 F

72

Steam at this temperature may be used for192 F water desalination

t

5 Btu/hr

Hea

391,

lied

ater out

40o V

Heat in

f74, 320 Btu/hr Cooling load of a typical floor

of superstructure!

Heat out

1,057, 110 Btu/hr

Figure 40 - Lithium bromide-water absorption refrigeration cyclefor a typical floor nf superstructure.

192 F This temperature is relatedto the condenser temperaturein such a way that the absorbentwill be in the feasibleconcentra tion range!

Generator temperature:

pressure drops in this system are assumed to be negligible exceptfor expansion devices. Tabi.e 17 is set up and a start is made at filling inthe values. Pressures on the low side and high side are the water vaporpressures for the evaporator and condenser, respectively. Enthalpies forwater and steam are found in steam tables. Concentrations and enthalpiesfor iithium bromide are found in the ASHRAE Handbook �0!

Table 17 � Conditions in lithium bromide cycle

Relative flow rates are determined from material balance as follows:

wa/wd = xb/ x � xh!

where wa = flow rate of absorbent, lb/hrwb = flow rate of refrigerant, ib/hrxa = concentration of LiBr in absorbent, lb/lb solutionxb = concentration of LiBr in refrigerant-absorbent

solution, lb/lb solution

wa/wd = 0. 56 �. 61 - 0. 56! = 11. 2

74

wb/w = w /wd! + 1 = 12, 2

wb � � flow rate of refrigerant-absorbent solution, Lb/hrwhere

The enthalpy of the refrigerant-absorbent solution leaving the l;q�,,iexchanger is calculated from energy balance as follows.

h7 = h4+ [ h1 � hZ! x wa/wb]= -75 + [ -30! � -70! x ll. 2/12,2]

= � 38. 3 Btu/lb

The temperature of 163 F, corresponding to this enthalpy, is founl[0

in the ASHRAK Handbook �0!.

wd � � refrigerant load/ h12 � h1 !

= l. 2 x 10 x 72. 86!/�079 � 78!

= 873.4 lb/hr

The absorbent and refrigerant-absorbent solution rates are nc xicalculated by:

w = 11. 2 wd = 9,782 lb/hr

wb = 12. 2 wd = 10,656 lb/hr

The net heat input to the generator is calculated from an cncrg~'balance as iollows:

q =wd h +w h1-wb h7

= 873.4 �147! + 9,782 -30! - �0,656! -38.3!

= 1,116,455 Btu/hr

75

The refrigerant flow rate is calculated from an energy balance at th<evapora.tor as follows:

n /h = 1, 116,455/1145,?S = 974. 4 lb/hr

and i' or hot water of 200 F,= ' /"H O = 16 4»/1«1 = 6,641.6 ib/hr

H20 g H20ws = flow rate of steam to generator, lb/hrhs = enthalPy of steatn at 200o F, Btn/ibwH -- flo w rate of hot water to generator, ib/hr

H20= enthalpy of hot water at 20 j F, Btu/lbh,O

where

The coefficient of performance on a net basis:

COP! =- refrigeration load/net heat input to generator

= 874,320/1,116,455 = 0.7S3

i eat transfer rates for the otheI components are.

I.iquid heat exchanger

q = w h1 - h ! =- 9, 782 [-30 - -70!] = 391, 280 Btu/hr

Condenser

q d hS h9! 8'73 4 � 147 78! 933 665 Btu/hr

i'absorber

455 + 874 320 � 933, 665 = 1, 057, 1 10 Btu/hr

where q, =- refrigeration load.

i<esults are illustrated in Figure 40-

0Therefore, the flaw rate of steam at 200 F is obtained by

C.

Following the same procedure and design conditions, the refrjgcratjpnprocess for a typical floor in the buoyancy tank has been calculated inaccordance with the different depths and construction materials. Tcmpcratu«sat each process are kept the saxne as those for the superstructure. llcsultagtvalues are presented in Table 18.

4

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VII. DESIGN OF DUCT SIZE

Ducting is one of the most convenient ways to convey the conditionedor ventilation air into a room. Duct size changes in accordance iviih thefunction and cooling load of a building and the selection of the airconditioning system. Maximum cooling load differs from»nc room toanother, due to the different orientation of the walls and windows, andthe time of day. The application of a zoning system appears reasonablefor the design of air ducts, A multi-zone unit system may bc best suitedfor the superstructure, since it can distribute the conditioned air into manydifferent zones in response to the indiiidual thermal requirements of ca< hroom. The size of the duct should be based on the maximum cooling l»adof each zone.

The method used for the calculations of duct size in this section,proposed by the Handbook of Air Conditioning System Design 9!, iscommonly used, Necessary design conditions for the calculations arebased on the values described in Section V. However, the important valuesfor the calculations of duct size are given as follows:

78 F

0 0125 Lb/ibAir temperature of a roomSpecific humidity of a. roomQuantity of ventilation airfor different zones in atypical floor cfm !

o Bypass factor BF! 0. 15 the ratio between the quantity of air which doesn't conta 'tthe surface of cooling or heating coils and total amounsupplied air to these coils!

79

Zone A

B C D E FG H I

420 cfm

300

300

180

600

240

240

600

300

By fol1o!ving the. prone<arcs proposed by tho Ilandbooh of AirConditioning System D<.sign, calr ulations of the requir< d quantity of supplyair have been made. I hesc are based on thc time of dav ivh<.n the maximum

cooling loa,d occurs, which may h«differ»nt for each zone.

For Zone A at '~ I>, m.!;

I.'ffective room sensible heat I;RSKI

Iloom s<msihle heat. RADII! <. HF! x 1.08 v cfm v 8 � �.!oa p i

- '<7'32 �. 1.'!! v 1. Ol3 x 420 x ~H. GO � 8.0!

9,453 I3tu/hr

I" ffcctive room l<tt»nt heat I:IILJJ!

� Boom I<rtont heat IILH! + BF! x 1.0H v cfm a x O' - AK;!

= 12GH �. I, ! x l. OH x 420 x �. 0154 � 0.012 i!

- 1,2GY 13tu/hr

I:ff< »tive sensiL!J«h<xtt ftctor <I:SIIF!

I'I<vill/ I'IINH ' I'JLLJI! - 9,45:I/ 9,4,!,'3 - 1,26<<3! -- 0.88

Air-han<lling units should he kept dt~ mainly tor the prevention ofcv!rrosion. Apparatus <I<.iv-point temperature 8, i indicates the minimutna.dpallowal!J« tc»J!»rater' to pr< vent th» condensation of tnoist air. As thelatent. Joad for Zone A is not larg< in comparison with the sensible loadI'or th» sant<. spa«», aJ>I>lication of a d«humidification and ooling syste!nis a suitable method I IJmre 41!.

Con<ii lions of supJ!ly air change in accordance with the selectipn pf thebyi!ass factor I3F!, cmLsid<-' and inside air conditions, mixtng ratio bet!veenoutsi<'I< an } insid» air, +< lection of cooling coils and cooling load of a room.'! hc mixing ratio, 13 I', nd <'ooIin' <oils may be selected arbitrarily tpsatisfy' th< thermal t exluire»ents of an individual room. Sin«e Zpne A isused I'<!r guest room purposes, a BF of 0. 15 is recommended. Thecondition. of uir at di ff<. rent points in Figure 4I can bc found by t!tefoJJoiiing fornu!las:

return air

supp y alr 't 0the room!

ct rne,

ct rn

damper coolth gcoif

w,e'5 VP SVP

spec d lcnum t di ty

em eo temp,'Fe eadp sup

Figure 41 - Dehumidification art cooling system for the supt rs ru«tu f-c.

RSHF Room sensible heat factor!

cfm 8 � ! - '!RSH - HF 1. !R

RSH ' BF! I. f!R x cfrnoa f } � 6 ! I � 0. ttt x cfm i. K. � '6',,

~H -' 1. !R y. oa eoHSH + I. OS .< cfmoa Ho Hi! ' BLH � 0. C>R .'f cfnt !~ ~!

RSH + OASH!/[ RSH t OASH! + RLH >OALII!]

I'SH/ TSH f TI,Y

I'o facilit;tte the above process, resultant values for Zone .X;» eillustral.ed in Figurc 42.

I-ISH/ RSH + RLH!

GSIIF Grand sensible heat factor!

Ib H Oifb att!

m de hum' d t. edau ant it!

W waterSup

0 013B 1bI1b

0,01 2 5 1b I b

2N 6<.7

Odp 5 vpe7S aa.5 Bane., e e,

Figurc 42 - Condition of air for Zone A.

The required quantity of supply air cfmda! for Zone A is estimatedas follows.

cfmda =- ERSH/[1.08 X � � HF! A. - e d !]I adp

= 9453/[L. 08 x � � 0.15! �8 - 62.0!]

= 686.5 cfrn

In the same manner, the required quantities of supply s.ir for the otherzones ha.ve been caLculated and are shown in Table 19.

To fulfill the function of ducting in a practical manner, the system mustbe designed within acceptable ranges of the following factors: friction,velocity, sound Level, heat and leakage losses. Upon considering theseitems, sound level, heat and leakage losses can be neglected by selectingthe proper duct size and insulation materials. Leakage loss is unpredictable,as it depends on quality of workmanship. Application of low velocity,1200 � 2500 fpm, is suited for commercial comfort air conditioning, suchas in offices, hotels, schools, and apartment houses. High velocity isapplicable for factory use. At a constant low pressure, such as 0.15 inchwater gage at aH terminals, ihe recommended velocity is found in

Oe OI QI5 02 05 o4 G5 06 08 10 I s ZQ 30 4Q Sr I,aI QG Q DQIOQ 000

8000070 000

I'QQQQQGO

6o ooo30 000

40000

,0 QGQOQQQ

QQCQ

30 000 Q COO

20 000Q GOO

13 aQDIS QQQ

10 000I Q DDQ

eoao70 006 000

snnoInns6GD0SQQD

1QGDIOQO

8QQZCD800

700600 5DG300 :QQ

3QQ30

201 0

ls

1QQIQ

70

snn

Dz 03 04 as Q6 08 GI QIs 02 0 Z Q4 05 06 Q8,0 Is 20FA I STION LOss IA wG PER I oo FT QF EQUIYA LE 5!T L EhGTII !

Figure 43 � DeterxninJtion of air velocity in ducts for Zon» A.

40004.

3000z-

> 2000

Isoo

4QQG

3DDDI�

ZGGQCZ

I 3DD

Table 19 - COnditiOns of air an� the quantity Of supply aiIfOr «ach ronc in thc superstruetLIre

1: JL> H/ J'HHH J: !3LJJ!

I;HAJJ <

J'. JJJ.H

Jtequf i ed '1'ime

ai r quantity of daya lpZones J:BS JJ J: JJI,H

<injun tl<>n villi thc qu;lnlily of su!>ply;Lir J'igtre !:3!. JII the prOCess of'<!et < r t ini!if. !hC duet sir,<., we mt<St tin l lhc < fni li . r 'nt tf e, duet areap< rC nt;L!tC,:tn<J Ju .l;1r<"l. '1'h< y:irc Sliniat .<l by the fOJIOWinf, proCc lureS:

.'1 '<1 1! '1 ' >n LLQ~C J>OC<rl Su i >JV <ll I < el< nil ' > 100

lnilial supply air luantity

Jtuet;L>.c;L 1>cl cent'll;L This is foun J in Table 20 in conjunctionw 1 th fm J>c I-c en t: !ac

JX1 .'t ll 1 'a in I ll ll lu 'l ll.l e.,'L I duct. a re'1 pe rC 'nla pe

!Rcl sir.cs;Lr then foun<i in '1'able 21.

'1'h .!- f<>rc, the v .maining important values for Zone A ar .stirntetedJ>i !Oll i Linet th<; !>OVc !arne ><fur<>s, J3y tal<inf intO ConSiderltiOn 1-'igur«43,;ln <rsamf>J«al ul:ltiOn fOr Zo ie:X ot <JireetiOn B - I iS uSCd fOr the<1 t<. un!in:LliOn of duel size. Jn:L l fitiOn, dueling for 7One;Y iS COnSidere<lto lic <>n< of the !»-erich ls from the main <luct., ivhfch tal'es care of

B C 1!l.

1'

!

11

1

9 4z.'3

19 !, 092207, 23;3

li, 'l L

11, l i1

1 i, 911

>1 4>s

1>,s17

12:3, 20 f

1,2GA12, 2 IO

1 '>, 20 !

I,:30:>'>, G22

«,fi' '' '7'r

1, 21>H

1, 2li>372<9

10, 721

202, 2<12

219, 4.'33

7 '>19

I 1, ! f<:3

19, 533

22, 09 i

17, Of�I 2�, !!.'33

0. Ji�

0. 94

0.91

0. v.!

0. 81

0. 137

1!.9J

0. 9:3

0. 90>

02

04

63. 8

02. 5

02. G

G,'3.:3

G:3. H

63. G

03. 8

Ei»7

11,791

15, i92

437

811

1, 253

I,G 14

I, 197

9,451

1400

0><00

1 G>00

1 500

0 '�0

0 <300

1.600

1000

IGOO

1'al!lc 20 � 1'erccnt section area in bran< hes for maintaining c<fuaI fric[fon

0 OCTCF FdCAPACITY

'7,

CF 64CAPACITY

DUCTAREA

OUCTAREA

'C

CF64CF 64CAPACITYC'

04CTCAPACITY I 4 RFAIAREA

33 5�5 I 52355 I 53

590

6' 06206�

2d27Jg29�

3'

6!3: '.44

20! 5SS7090 SS

! 6.557 539 040.04142,043.3

640650655dd 567 5

Sd57595960

IT 511.513014 5Il 5

655ed:e!,97 5655

!I!!�35

6 7 9 P10

61626364dS

de 0690700Tl 071 5

ed97eee993

5'7 59' 59'2 0

17519 9219 520 5215

44 045.0Id 047 0leo

'3d!T!e!940

1112I31415

2302 l.O25.0�027.0

4'I424344

TJ 57! 574 575.5T6 5

9'929394

49050.051.052.05!

6d67696970

ldITtg192!

PE99 '

71727!'7475

4749

49950

54 05 '.0Sl 057059.0

77.076 3TP060 090.5

9697Pe99

100

2902P5�53 1.532 5

2122232l25 I 2

�CI C p t 49�

Zones A, .' and D. Initial supply air quantity is the sunt of these zones,!Jamely 1S9 520 cfm.

Inilial duct vciocit!�� found from Figure kH in conjunctionwith thc friction loss of 0. 15 in. «ster gage

and the initial supply air quantih of 1~, 5'0 cfm

Duct area percentage - 25. 9 found from Table "0 bi interpolal:onoI cfm capacity!

Initial duct. area � 18,520/2, 900 = 7!. 05 ft-

Cfm l!Crr vniagc � 9,500/19, >20! Tc 100 = j R. 9

Duct area � initial duct area x duct area percentage

7677

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5 70 J765 40 !JD

4 ~ I 3567.14 54 2740 35 9

012 !d64.40 !p I0 50 lp.S

1.7 46 I2 I 47.'23 47d

0.90 40 5930 43 20 0 ~ td

0 4lfc34 O'I 6se !0,1

SI 344 Sr50 SJ7

1 50700 3800.10 38 6

101010

900 424ID.D 47 d103 43 I

II1111

S.S 13 3se sf 041 54547 330

cc r.

104 44 I 121212191314 ~ J

l tl'0'-ca clt o'c lacmc c,rar 0 lr lnlcedcn4 = 13.la+ 41 iLc pc clcdc i n mdfr a

44447'774~ 0~ 4~ 00194

10010410 ~I I '2'11412011412 ~13'713414D

Table 21, � Duct dimensions, section area, circuia<equivalent diameter, and duct class

Table 21 � Duct dimensions, section area, circularequivalent diameter, and duct class cont.!

24 2$ 30 32 34 36 3$ 405 IOE Area Diemsq Et in.

Area Diamsq ft iri.

Area Diemsq ft in. Area Diam

sq ft i,i.Diamin.

Areasq ft Diern

in.Area Diamsq ft in.

Areasq ft Area Diam

cq ft in. Area Diemsq ft in,

4.40 23.44.74 29.55.07 30.55.37 31 .4

5.86 32.$d.23 33.8 4.6835.06.60 34.8d.99 35.87.34 36.7

5.69 32.35.94 33,0d.38 34.2

9.43 41.66.71 35 J7.03 35.97.34 36.77.63 37.4T.SS 38.28.25 38.9

8.85 40.39.25 41 .29.61 42.0

$.55 39,6S.SS 40>9.16 41.0

9.9$ 42.810.4 43.610.7 44.3

14.5 51.59.4$ 41.79.75 42.310.3 43.5

13.4 49.611.0 45.011.4 45.812.1 47.2 12.9 48.7 I3.8 50.4

9,9$ 42.8 10.9 44.7 12.8 48.413.5 49.714.1 50.8

10.4 43.8 11.5 4'I 0.$ 44.9 I 2.0 411.5 46.0 12.6 412.0 46.9 13.2 412.5 47.9 'l3.7 50

14.7 52.0'I 5.4 53.2lb.1 54.316,7 55.417.2 56.217.9 57.31$.6 58.519.2 59.419.7 60.1

17.3 56.417.8 57.11$.4 58.1

20.3 61.120.9 62.021.6 63.0

18.8 5B.B19.3 59.519.7 60.2

22.3 64.022.d 64.423.0 65.0

2$.7 72.629.$ 74.030.5 74.5

20.3 61.120.$61.821.4 62.7

20.3 61.020.6 61.5

24.1 66.524.$67.5

'Circular equivalent diameter d,!. Calculateu fram d,. = 1.3 al>! "'-" a + b! '-" l arBe numbers in table are duct class.

87

101214le1$20222426283032343638404244

464$505254SdSB60646872Te$0S4$$929e

10010410$112116120124128132136140144

3.74 26.24.03 27.24.33 28.24.6829,34.94 30.15.24 31.05.58 32.05.86 32.86.15 33.66.45 34.46.75 35.27,03 35,97.30 36.67.58 37.3T.BT 38.0$.16 38.7$.42 39.3S.fi3 39.8$.89 40.49.43 41.6

12.9 48.713.3 49.513,9 50.614.6 51.$14.8 52.115.1 52.715.8 53.916.2 54.6Id.ll 55.217,1 56.017.4 56.517.9 57,31$.5 58.218.8 58.7

14.2 51.1'I 4.8 52,215.0 52.515.8 53.916.2 54.616.8 55.5

5,10 30.65.44 31.65.79 32.66.15 33.66.52 34.66.$7 35.57.22 36.47.58 37.37.91 38.18.25 38.98.59 59.78.90 40,49.25 41.29.61 42.09.94 42.7'I0.3 43.4I O.S 44.011.2 45.4

! 11,8 46.612.4 47.813.1 49.013.7 50.114.2 51.114.$52.215.5 53.4'15.9 54.0I 6.7 55.317.1 56,017.6 56.818.3 58.0

18,9 ~.919.4g .6

22.3 64.022.7 64.5

7.7B. 'I$.5

.6

.6

.5

7.06 36.0 7.54 37.27.46 37.0 7.95 38.27.87 38.0 8.37 39.2$.29 39.0 8.81 40.28.68 39.9 9.21 41.19.07 40.8 9.61 42.09.4S 41.7 10.1 43.09.$9 42.6 10.5 43.910.3 43.5 10.9 44.810.7 44.3 11/4 45.711.0 45.0 11.$46.5' 1.4 45.8 12.2 47,311.8 46.6 12.6 48.112.2 47.3 13,0 48.9

'I3.7 50.2 14.ll 51.814.4 51.5 15. 3.215.1 52.7 16. ~ 4.6IS.S 53.9 '! 7.0 55.4MI.S 55.0 'IT.T 57.017.3 56.3 IS.S 58.218.0 57.4 19.2 59.4IS.d 58.5 19,7 60.219.2 59.4 20.6 61.5I ' ~ .9 60.5 21.4 62 620.5 61.4 22.0 63.521.1 62.3 22.5 64.322,0 63.6 23.5 65.722.7 64.5 24.2 66.723.2 65/4 25.2 68.023.7 66.0 25/di 68.624.S 67.0 26.3 69.525,1 6T.9 26.9 70.325.9 69.0 27.5 71.126.3 69.5 28.2 72.0

S.46 39.4$.$9 40.49.34 41.49.80 42.410.3 43.4I O.T 44.311.1 45.211.6 46.112.1 47.112.6 48.013.0 48.8

138 50414.7 52.015,6 53,516.4 54.917.3 56.318.1 57.61$.9 5$.919.7 60.120.S a1.321.1 62.22 I .d 63.022.7 64,523.5 65.724.5 67.024.$67.526.1 69.226.5 69.$27.3 70.$2$.2 72 02$.T 72.629.4 73.529.9 74.1

9.$9 42.610/4 43.610.$44. 611.3 45.611.8 46.512.2 47.412.7 48.313.2 49.213.7 50.1

14.2 51.0Iq.e 51.815.5 53.416.5 55.017.4 56.518.3 57.919.2 59.320.1 60.720.9 61.021,8 63.222.7 64.523.4 65.524.1 66.524.$ 67.525.7 68.726.2 69.427.2 /0.628.2 71.9

31.5 76.032.0 76.6

10.5 43.8I I.O 44.811.4 45.811.9 46.812.4 47.813.0 4B.B13.5 49.714.0 50.6

15.0 52.415.5 53.316.5 55.0

17.5 56.6I $.3 58.019.3 59.520.3 61.021.2 62.422.1 63./ i23.0 65.024.0 IE6.324.$67.525.6 64 526.5 69 727.1 70.52$.2 71.5'29.0 73.029.8 74.0

30.2 74.532.0 6.632. i 77.3

33.4 TB 3340 790

Duct size = 22 x 16 found from Table 21! which has a greater ductarea than that for the direction 8-l of 2. 08.

ln the same manner, the other necessary values are estimatedd presented in Table 22. Figure 44 shows the supply air distribution

of Zones A, C and D.

ZONE A

Figure 44 � Air supply diagram for Zones A, C and D.

Table 22 � Duct sizes for Zones A, C and D

Operation pressure for all terzninalsInitial duct velocityDuct area �8, 520/2, 300!

0.15 inch water gage2,300 m8. 05 ft

cfm Duct area Duct

percentage percentage area~ft

Duct size

th x heigAir

QuantityZone Direction

B-I

1-2

2 � 3

3-4

4-5

5 � 6

6 � 7

18 x 12

16 x 12

12 x 12

12xS

12 x 6

C-1

I � 2

2 � 3

3 � 4

4 � 5

1. 39

l. 14

G. 91

0. 61

O. 31

2, 000

1,600I, 200

8GO

4GO

17. 3

14. 2

11. 25

7.6

3. 9

10. 8

8.6

6.5

4.3

2. 2

O o O

to AA � I

A � 2

2 � B

B-3

3- C

C � D

D-4

4-5

5-6

5-7

1.8, 520I, 920

16, 60014, 68011, 180

9, 2607, 2605, 7603, 840I, 920I, 920

3, 5003, 000

2, 5002, 000I, 500I, 000

500

IGO

10. 4

89. 6

79. 3

60. 4

5G. 0

39. 2

31. I

20. 7

10. 4

10. 4

1.8. 9

16. 2

13. 5

10. 8

8.1

5.4

2.7

100

16. 9

92. 0

84. 2

67. 7

58. 0

56. 2

39. I

27. 7

16. 9

1.6. 9

25. 9

23. 2

20. 25

17. 3

13. 2

9.6

4.9

8. 05

l. 36

7. 41

6. 78

5. 45

4. 67

4. 52

3. 15

2. 23

l. 36

l. 36

2. 08

1. 87

1. 63

1. 39

1. 06

0. 77

O. 39

60x22

16 x 14

56x22

50x22

40 x 22

34x22

32 x 22

22 x 12

22 x 16

16 x 16

16 x 14

22x 16

18 x 16

IG x 16

18 x 12

14 x 12

12 x 12

12 x 6

In the same manner, other necessary values are estimated forZones 8, E and F along with the necessary air supply diagram Table 23and Figure 45!.

ZONE E

Figure 45 � Air suPPly diagram for Zones p E and F.

90

Table 23 - Duct sizes for Zones B, E anci F

operation pressure for ail terminaisIn~teal duct veioc>tyQuantity of supply airDuct area �7,460/2~ 300!

15 inch water gage2 30@ fPm17 +60 c"7 59ft

Duct a<re

width x hei@i~Ill c tl P 8 1

Air

QuantityDuct

area

ift~!

cfm Duct areapercentage percentage

Zone Direction

8 � I

I � 2

2 � 3

3 � 4

5-6

6-7

7-8

8-9

9 � 10

18. 25

14. 7

ll. 4

R. 2

4. I

l. 12

0. 87

0. 62

0. 31

ll. 5

9.2

6.9

4. 6

2.3

2, GOOI, 6001,200

800

400

C � I.

1-2

2 � 3

3 4

4-5

16x ll

14 x14

14 x 10

10 x 10

10 x 6

0 OU

18. 25

13. 9

I l. 55

5.3

ll. 5

8,6

5.7

2.9

2, 000I, 500I, 000

5pp

l. 39

1- 06O. 88

0, gg

D-1

1-2

2-3

3 � 4

16 x 14

14 x 14

14 x lp

lpx10

91

to A

A-I

A � 2

2-8

B- C

C-3

3 � D

D � 4

4-5

5 � 6

5-7

17,460

1,31016,150

14,8409, 840

7, 8406,5303,9302,6201,3101,310

5, 0004, 5004, 0003, 5003,GOO2,5002,000I 500

I,GPO500

100

7.5

92. 5

85. 0

56. 4

44. 9

37. 4

22. 5

15. 0

7.5

7.5

28. 6

25. 8

22. 9

20. 0

17. 2

14. 3

Il. 5

8.6

5.7

2.9

100

12. 25

94. 25

88. 5

64. 4

53. 0

45. 4

29. 75

21. 5

12. 25

12. 25

30. 4

27. 0

24. 2

20. 8

18. 25

13. 9

I l. 5

5.3

7. 59

0. 93

7. 15

6. 72

4 89

4. 02

3 45

2. 26

1. 63

0. 93

0. BS

75

2. G4

2. 31

2. 05

1. 84

I. 58

I. 06

0. 88

0. 40

56 x 22

12 x 12

a2 x

44x22

36 x 22

30 x 22

26 x 22

22 x 16

16 x 16

1.6 x 10

16xlp

24x18

22x IH

20 x18

18x18

18x 16

16x 16

16 x�

14 x 14

14 x 10

10 x lp

In the same way, necessary values for Zones G, H and I are foundas shown in Table 24 ~ Figure 46 is the air supply diagram-

zONE H

ZONE I

I igure 46 � Ai r supply diagram for Zones G, H and I.

Table 24 - Duct sizes for Zones G, H and i

Operation pressure for all terminalsinitial duct velocityDuct area �2, 890/2, 150!

0. 15 inch

2,150 fpn6. 0 ft2

Air

QuantityZone Direction ~cftn

cfm

percentage

Duct area, Duct

percentage area

~cL ~ft

B � 1

1 � 2

2 � 3

3-4

4- 5

5 � 6

6 � 7

7- 8

8-9

to A

A- I

A 2

2-B

B-3

3- C

C � 4

4 � 5

5- 6

5- 7

12, 890965

11, 92510, 960

6,9605, 995

2, 8951,930

965

965

4, 0003, 6003, 200

2, 8002, 4002,000I, 600I, 200

800

100

7.5

92. 5

85. 0

54. 0

46. 5

22. 5

15. 0

7.5

7 ~ 5

31. 0

27. 9

24. 8

21. 7

18. 6

15. 5

12. 4

9. 3

6.2

l.00

12. 25

94. 25

88. 5

71

54. 5

29. 75

21. 5

12. 25

12. 25

39. 0

35. 5

.'32. 1

28. 8

25. 6

22. 25

18. 9

14. 8

10. 7

6.0

0. 74

5. 66

5 31

4. 26

3. 27

1. 79

1. 29

0. 74

0. 74

2. 34

2. 13

l. 9',3

l. 7:3

l. 54

l. 34

l. 13

0. 89

0. 64

0 34

tlculations for the determination of duct size for i.wo zones in theleoyancy tank are based on the following design conditions:

Air temperature of a room 78o FSpecific humidity of the rooms pr,l 0 0y25 Lbglb<!uantity of ventilation air 360 cfmBypass i'actor HF! 0. 05

i~ppticatlon - residence, factory, whereverthe high latent heat occurs!

i it ni heat gain is fairly large in the buoyancy tank. The mainheat gains depenii on the heat from people and ventilation, both of whichhave high latcitt heat. This situation requires the use of cooling with<Ichumidificaiion, and a reheat cycle to increase the efficiency of the.iir-conditioning sys tern as well as to reduce the size of the air duct.'1'his cycle is illustrated in Figure 47.

r ~ Ivrn air f rom room

~ l'tiFlh ol~

ct fTEo to r aorscf m~

dehunudif i- reheatcation a

tos I m 0sa

Fiimre 47 � pehehurnidification with cooling and rebut.

The required a.ir quantity is determined by the following procedufor bare concrete at 70 ft depth:

OASH =- 1.08 x cfog{to ti! 1 08 x 360{86 9 78! = 3,460 {Bi

OALH 0 68 x cfmoa {Wo Wi!gra'n 0. 68 x 360 {120. 5 � 86!

= 8,446 {Btu/hr!

Assume a bypass factor of 0.05 because of high latent load

RSH + BF OA.SHESHF �.

RSH + {BF! {OASH! + RLH+ {BF! {OALH!

12 176 -. 0. 05 3 460! 12 312,176 '0,05�,460! 412,610 t � 05! 8,146! 12,;�9

0. 487

where OASH =- Sensible heat of outside airOALH = Latent heat. of outside air

cfm, = Ventilation {fresh! air from outside

Therefore, the amount of reheat {Btu/hr! required to produce anESHF of 0. 6 is

0.6 = 12 349 � reheat

12,349 !- 13,032 + reheat

reheat =- 7, 199 Btu/hr

Required air quantity is estimated by

cfmda � � ERSH 12 349 7,1991. 08 x {1 � BF! {t � t ! 1. 08 {1 - 0. 06! {78 � ~3ii adp

-- 10 548 = 762

25. 65

98

When plotted on the psychrometric chart, this FSHF doesn't inte>the saturation curve. Referring to the apparatus dew-point inTable 2553o F is found in conjuucti.on with the ESHF of 0.6,

Temperature of air entering the cooling coil t ! is given by

cfmoax to! cfmx tl !ra

cfmda

360 x 86.9 + 402 x 78762

82.2 F

I.caving condition of air from cooling coil ti!

-BF t - t

= 53+ 0. 05 �8 - 53!

54 25o F

Supply air temperature to the room tsa!

t =- t. HSH 78 - 12 176 = 78 � 14.81. 08 cfmda 1. 08 �62

63. 2 F

Resultant values for this calculation bare concrete at 70 ft depth!ar'e illustrated in Figure 48. In the same manner, the other required airfiuantities are calculated and presented in Table 25.

sa ~ tm 053 as 632 7B 8 X2 7e9

'i~ "c 4" - Dehumidification with cooling, and reheat for buoyancy tankwith bare concrete at depth of 70 fee t.

Ol Qq CO M CO W Ch CD~ ~ I ~ I ~

cD Oc 00 W I M QQ aQ I rvcD CO cO cD co cD cO co cD cO

LIQI

QQ 'CII QOCO QO Obc c e cD

CA C4OIWHO

I 5 ~C ~ CO

QOQO

I

O O O O

CO CD CO CDOO COO

cD co co0 0 0 0

g CO

O O 0 0

a! W CO cD ~ QQ CD 00K Ch CD 0

C>CI QOO0QQOQ

CD CD

QO QO QO QO

CO CD CO CO

00 QO CO QO

CD CO CD CD

QO QO QQ 00

0 Q 0 0CD CO CD CD

CIQ

0 0 0 0CO CO CD CD

CQ

0 O 0 0CO CO CO CO

~ ~

aI

NC.

IO

97

0 OI CD

* ~

0 OCD CO

QO CO00O

CD OCD CO

CDI

0 OcO CO

CDCD

CD

DI CDCD

COCO cD

O OcO CO

CD CODc

0000 Oc

0 0

0 OCD CD

CDCQ O

O

Table 25 shows that the amount of supply air required for a typicalfloor of the buoyancy tank at a depth of 70 ft is fairly similar for differentwall configurations. At a depth of 105 ft, bare steel causes a lot of condensationon thc inner surface of the wall. To maintain comfort conditions in a room,it may be necessary to install huge refrigeration machines and boilers.i ence Lhc usc of a bare steel wall for the buoyancy tank at this depth soundsimpractical. However, the addition of insulation such as air space, gypsumboard and/or plaster finish reduces this problem. The required quantity ofsupply air for a room with bare conctete walls is similar to that for steelwith insulation. This means the applicability of steel with insulation isequivalent to that of bare concrete. Therefore the problem of condensationis no longer a disa.dvantage with a stee'l wall.

At a depth of 140 fi, the use of steel with insulation materials seemsmore economicaL than bare concrete in terms of the operation cost of theair-handling unit. Reheat load and required air quantity are the leastamong the four different configurations, because this configuration has thestnallcst total heat gain.

Following the same procedures described previously, design ofduct sire for a typical floor in the buoyancy tank is estimated for a depthof 105 ft. I%~re concrete ie selected as the sample material for the outsidewall, and the necessary design conditions for the ducting are shown infable 26. The supply air diagram is shown in Figure 49.

Table 26 � Duct sizes for buoyancy tank

Operation pressure for all terminalsinitial duct velocityRequired air quantity to be

supplied to buoyancy tankDuct area �, 800/I, 300!

0.15 inch v.atf

1, 300 fpm

1, SGG cfm1.38 ft2

Duct Duct,

area width v

~ft ~inc

Air

QuantityJcfml

cfm

percentage

Duct area

perceatageDirection

g9

to AA � I

1 � 2

2 � 3

3-4

4-5

5-6

A � 7

7- 8

8 � 9

9- 10

10 � Il

11 - 12

I, 800900

750

600

450

300

150

900

750

600

450

300

150

100

50. 0

41. 7

33,3

25. 0

16. 7

8.3

50. 0

41. 7

33. 3

25. 0

16. 7

8.3

100

58. 0

49. 7

41. 3

32. 5

23,7

13. 2

58. 0

49. 7

41. 3

32. 5

23. 7

13. 2

l. 38

0. 80

0. 58

0. 46

0. 35

0. 23

0. 11

0. 80

0. 58

0. 46

0. 35

0. 23

0. 11

2 P

14 x

10 x

10 v

10 x

10 x

10 v

14 x

10 x

10 v

10 v

10 x

10 v

Figure 49 - Supply air diagram for buoyancy tank.

VIII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

1. The climatic data show in Section i would indicate that refrigerationrequirements for the superstructure would be relatively small because ofthe low internal heat gains and the relatively open structural plan. Thiswas not found to be the case. Total heat gain is rather large and is dominatedby sun loads on walls and glass, as shown in the curves in Section V. C.Proper attention to shading, reflective exterior finishes, ctc., wouldsignificantly reduce total l<eds, perhaps leading to a. condition where pari-time air conditioning would suffice for the superstructure. The methodused for investigating heat loads Lends iiself readily to an optimization ofthe thermal design by tracing the effect of each material or configurai.ionchange through the heat flow simulation. Thus, useful comparison. can bcmade between refrigeration and ventilating costs on the one hand andstructural and finish costs, or even esthetic merit., on the other.

2. Analysis of heat. flow in the exterior walls of the buoyancychambers Section V. C! shows that even though the area in contact with ihesea is very large, its contribution to the heat budget of the city's underbodyis not important. In fact, when uninsulated steel buoyancy chambers wercexamined, an increase in refrigeration load was required, accompanied byreheating, to limit condensation on the inside suri'ace Section VII, p. 9H!.It seems clear that, at least for Hawaii's climate, ihe fact of the city' simmersion in thc sea has no value thermally. Removal of the city' srejected heat will have to be obtained conventionally, i. e., bp pumpedcooling w'ater.

For urban applications of very !argo floating platforms, comfort.air conditioning wfll demand large amounts of cncrgy. The use of a stcamabsorption cycle for refrigeration, followed by distillation desalination,appears to be an efficient way to minimize the city's total fuel bill. It isrendered feasible by the fact that ihe entire mechanica.l plant ior ihe citycan be designed a.t one time, in contrast to the usual urban case.

101

REFERENCES CITED IN TEXT

l. U.S. Dept of Commerce. National Bureau of Standards Reports. 1969

2. U. S. Dept of Commerce. Climate of the States. Hawaii. Clitnatographyof the United States, No. 60-50, Environmental Data Service, U.S, Deptof Coinmerce, Washington, D. C 1967.

3. Sugiyama, T. A Study of Cooling Load Calculation. Related to Buildingin Hawaii. M.F.A. Thesis, Dept of Architecture, U. of Hawaii, p. 6,60.1972.

4. Olgray, V. Design with Climate, bioclimatic approach to architecturalregionalism Princeton Univers ity Press, N. J. 1969.

5. Wyrtki, K., J. B. Burke, R. C. Latham, and W. C. Patzert.Oceanographic Observations during 1965 - 1967 in the Hawaiia.nArchipelago, Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, U. of Hawaii, 1967.

6. Wyrtki, K. The annual and semiannual variation of sea surfacetemperature in the North Pacific Ocean. Hawaii Institute of Geophysics,U. of Hawaii. 1965.

7. Patzert, W. C. Eddies in Hawaiian Waters. Hawaii Institute of Geophysics,U. of Hawaii. 1969.

8, During, W. Recording Internal Waves with a Pycnocline Follower.Hawaii Institute of Geophysics, U. of Hawaii. pp. 36. 1969.

9. Carrier Air-Conditioning Company. Handbook of Air Conditioning SystemDesign. McG raw-Hill Book Co. 1965.

10. ASHRAE. Handbook of Fundamentals. New York: American Society ofHeating, Refrigerating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Engineers ASH RA E!, 1972.

11. Yamashita, Y. A Calculation of Cooling Load with Response Factors.M.S. Thesis, Dept of Mechanical Engineering, U. of Hawaii, 1973.

12. Stephenson, D. G. and G. P. Mitalas. Cooling Load Calculations byThermal Response Factor Method. ASHRAF. Transaction., Vol. 73 �967l,Part I, p. II!. 1. 1.

103

13. Mitalas, G. P. and J.G. Arsenault. Fortran IV Program to CalculateCoefficients at Boom Transfer Functions Computer Program!. Canada:National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research. 1970.

14. Kimura, K, and D. G Stephenson. Theoretical Study of Cooling LoadCaused by Lights. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 74 �968!, Part II, p. 189.

15, Matsuo, H. and H Takcda. Calculation of Heat Gains with ResponseFactors, Japan: Journal of Society of Heating, Air-Conditioning andSanitary Engineers of Japan, Vol. 44 �9'70!, No. 7., p, I;3. In. Japanese!.

16. ASHItAE. Guide and Data Book-Systems. New York: American Societyof Heating, Refrigerating, Ventilating, and Air Conditiong Engineers ASHRAE!, 1970, p. 122, 376,

17, lnoue, U. Air-Conditioning Handbook. Japan: Maruzen Inc. 1967. p. 60 In Japanese!,

IH. U,S. Post Office Department. Computer Program for Analysis of EnergyUtilization in Postal Facilities. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Post Office Dept,1970, Vol. 1, pp. 13-70; Vol. 2, pp. 1-50.

104

ADDITIONAL REFERENCES

ASHRAE. Guide and Data Book-Systems. New York: American Societyof Heating, Refrigerating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Engineers ASHRAE!, 1970, p. 122, 376,

Briskin, W R and S.G. Reque. Heat Load Calculations by Therma,lResponse. ASHRAE Transactions, 1956, p. 391.

Churchill, R. V. Operational Mathematics. McG raw-Hill Book Co.,1958, p. 36, 58.

Kimura, K. Fundamental Theories of Building Services. Japan:Gakken-Sha, 1970, pp. 260-390.

Kondo, J. Operational Calculations. Japan. Baifu-Kan, inc. 1971.p. 40, 42. In Japanese!.

Mitalas, G. P. and J.G, Arsenauli.. Fortran IV Program to CalculateHeat Flux Response Factors for Multi-Layer Slab Computer Program!.C canada; National Research Council of Canada, Division ef BuildingResearch, 1967.

Nautical Almanac Office, United States Naval Observatory. TheAmerican Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac for the Year 1972.U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 1970.

Pipes, L.A. Matrix Analysis of Heat Transfer Problems.Franklin Institute Journal, Vol. 263 �957!, No. 3, p. 195.

Sun, Y.Y. Shadow Area Equation for Window Overhangs and Side Fins,and Their Application in Computer Calculation. ASHRAE Transactions,Vol. 74 l968!, No. 2059, p. I. I. I.

Tustin, A. Method of Analyzing the Behavior of Liner Systems inTime Series. Institute of Electrical Fngineers Journal, Vol, 9l �9471,Part II-A, No. 1, p. 130.

105

APPENDIX A

LIST OF SYMBOLS

All the special uses of symbols are described wherever they occur.

Surface area, ft2

Surface area of floor, ft

Surfs.ce area of wall or roof, ft

Thermal diffusivity, ft /hr

Cooling load, Btu/hr

Specific heat, Btu/lb- F

Temperature excitation, F

Total convective heat gain, Btu/br

Total radiant heat gain, Btu/hr

Inside unit surface conductance,Btu/hr-ft--" F

Outside unit surface conductance, Rtu/hr-ft -oV

Diffuse solar radiation, Btu/hr-fi

Direct solar radiation, Rtu/hr-ft 2

Transmitted solar radia.tion, Rtu/hr-ft

Thermal conduct.ivity, Btu/hr-ft- F

Length of v a.ll, ft.

Afl

Aw

CL

IIC

HG

h

Id

nd

Thickness of wall or roof, ft

107

L

L

Qi q

Radius, ft

Resistance, hr-ft - F/Btu

r, rl

Shading coefficient

SHGF Solar heat gain factor, Biu/hr-ft.

Time, hr

Overall heat transmission coefficient,Btu/hr-ft -oF

Volume of room air, ft'.'1

Specific humidity of room air, lb/lb

weighting factors

Specif'ic humidity of outside air, lb/lb

Di stance, f t

Response factors, Btu/hr-ft -"F

Response factors, Btu/hr-ft - F

Respons e factors, B tu/h r-f t � Y0

Absorpti vlty

Absorptances of double-strength glass

Time interval, hr

wi

W0

Incident angle, deg

108

Equivalent thickn.ess, ft

Thickness of equivalent single-layer wall, ft

Rate of heat transfer, Btu/hr or Btu/hr-ft 2

Temperature, F

Surface temperature of floor, F

Temperature of room air, F0

Temperature of outside air, F

Surface temperature of wall or roof, F

Density, lb/ft

Transmittances of double-strength glass

109

APPENDIX B

PROGRAM FLOW DIAGRAM

The program flow diagram is presented in the following pages. Theentire program was written in FORTRAN IV and the calculations v ereperformed on the IBM 360/65 computer. The subroutines are describedbriefly below.

Subroutine SUN determines the intensities of direct, diffuse and tota.lsola.r radiation. The heat gains through sunlit double-strength sheetglass can be calculated for different orientations at any time of the year.

Subroutine RESFAC, in conjunction with subroutines SLOPE, FAI RE,MATRIX, DER and ZERO, is for the calculation of response factors.Table 6 contains all the necessary input data for subroutine RESFAC.Subroutines for the calculation of response factors are taken from thecomputer program for analysIs of energy utilization in postal facilitics �8!.

Subroutine AIR calculates the total heat, gain due to ventilation inaccordance with Equation 3-8 and data from T'ables 7, 9 and 12.

Subroutine INFILT calculates the heat gain due to infiltration ofoutside air through cracks in the windows and doors. Calculations arebased on Fquation 3-9, with the proper code numbers selected fromTables 7 and 13.

Subroutine GLASS calculates the heat gain through glass by usingEquation. 3-2 and Table 14. Subroutine QWR calculates the hea.t gainthrough the wall or roof by the response factor method. Calculations areba.sed on Fquation 3-5 with data. from Tables 6 and 7.

Weighting factors, from Equations 4-1 and 4-2, and heat gain dueto lights are programmed in the xnain program.

111

STA RT

SU B ROUTINE

DER

SUB ROU TINE

FA LSE

Calculations of weighting

W =1 � + Xo hi 0

SUBROUTINE

HES FAC SUB ROUT I N E

MATRIX

gr Q g j'p]h; j SUBROUTINE

SLOPE

Calculation,s of response factors

Xj, Yj, Zj SU B ROU'I'[NE

ZEROINPUT DATA; Code numbers k.outside air conditions

SU B ROUT IN F.

SIJNCalculations of total solar radia-

tion and solar heat ain factors

A

C3, 9

NNOP = 5 NOPP2,:3,9

9 JJ 17 JJ 21> JJ>24NOP -= . 5 * NNOI' NOP = 1. 5 ~ NNOP

18$JJ<20 1>~JJ>8

NOP =- NNOP

SUB ROU TLVKI

PEOPLECalculations of heat gain due to people, total,radi ati ve an d con ve cti ve gains

SUB ROUTINF.

AI RCalculations of heat gain due to ventilationconvectivc i

112

INPUT DATA: Design room air, day of year,length of calculation, initial temperature ofwall surface, unit surface conductances, no.of delayed surfaces, no. of spaces, areas,volumes, wall orientations, absorptivi ties.

11

II

C0

a.

x 4

11:3

D

114

API'ENDIX C

I'j<ObIblh'I LISTING AND SA>IPLF. 092 TPU'I'g

115

YAHASHI 1 4 ~ 7 I ME = 1 ~ P*tiFS= 100 e L I NZ 5=000 . > F X IOO!. R T > 1 oz! e'FI IOJ!, R lOCi

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AR. �0e9! ep4WE lue>! ~ 4iB�0 ~ 9l eV rl. Ptr 4 I F 4 5 ! r te 1 I J r 2 0 ! r tJ' 0 v 0 tJ e! ! e 0 TC 1 ICIR QPR �: !,".PC �<!,QL'�4!,ULC �4!Qh QTUT" 4te! rQTJTC�B l rQC'!NV�B! ere CR�

5 JQB

B! e W C" �8!

T=BPEFATUttE D=.G ~ F! AND SPEC I FIC SU!el QITV LB/LR!E RC Q!rt5, 500! TR, b R

hEADOF THREAP

R EAUP f 4 T

R EADREAD

l3

THE QAY GF Y-AR5, 501! IPOY

Te E LENGTH QF CALCULATI QN DAYS!5r 502! NDA Y

R E40 Tt E INI TJAL SURF AC E TEHF ERA TUBE OF WAL L AhP R.CF OE G. F !R EAD�r 504! TDB

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KEAt! TaE Grt!TS Ii E 5'rp IrrS iDE UNIT 'JRFA E '.. ePUC h !CES BT J/ I.R-F 1+F 1 /F !REaD� ~ 500! FOr FI16

READ THE NUleIBER QF DIFF EREreT DELAYe.p SURF ACt5 WALL Ate� RCQF !R EAP 5» 5Lr4! W!elhlGwe: WW+0 1Zr!

C

21C

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REAP THE NUBBER i3F SPACES IN TH= BUILDI ND�3etE 4 TQ I !READ 5r 504! FN5

NS=FNSep 1

READ THE SURFACE ARE' CF THE OI.T51 D- wALL Ahp RQCF T'FT!,5L!!. FACE AP EA Ui- JUTS I OE I.LA 55 F THEFT I e AND TH- ABSC< RT IV I TVJF QUTSICE WALI ArtC SGCF SURFbcEREAD�,531! AR:- I',J!,L Av I,J! rAAB I,J!,J=1 "!,I=l

Utrt E '3 F 4 t! l3O I VQL I ! rl =1r NS!

P E 40 THF VGLR EAP 5, 5 ;4!

R BAD THC hALF EAP 5e 530!

READ THE Al'S BTLI/ HR-F T FhE hD br 5L'0!

L RI F . 'TAT ION AS IV ' I »,' TWE r'L TE It! TA:LE I I I Ih== Ie J! r J=lr91 ~ I =leiNS i25

DRPTIVITY FOR THF WALL PF ECvIVAL NT THI <','ESS1! r EQ5 ~ « � L i e �-2! A .F4 J!e J=3 e4!

QF TH= RL Gvt WF IGH TING -. AC TDR5

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IF IF rF IlSH r =5 Hir F {TTK=TI IIC 8r "4 ' XKD Re. 4= 44 E IGA" i»=OAFIF IR'P 8IRK= i' F . rl = C C. 2 I I FIR= Il F TPOX l L!=X . !LiXZ l I !=X =!4v1 LL! =vOYZ ILL! =v

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IF GAK' {KKrLLl ~ EC 0OG J Jr L L 1 =CGLA5

0 G l J J r L ! = IJ Lr L A S '+ C» P

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OGL >QUL+QG J JiLL!IF it.. 0-9! GQ JJ!*QG<.IF f»KF KKit. .J.EQNQ! GO TO 21CiU 1 22 1 = 1 ~ I R4 R» X» Ra I RE i I 1RFK < 1!i RR RXPRI V»>Y IREi I!RFY 1 !»RFRYTTT =TL< Ll i I!TS< I I = TTC ON E I NUFGO IU 117QG J J iiI ! =UiQO < J Ji Ll l =0 ~OO» < J JilL! *0TTb< J JiLL! =OiODS «.L!»0 ~GO TO 121

i<OC I 5 THE CONVEC T I VI PART OF HEAT Gl IN THROUGHWALL LK FOOFe QR I 5 T!ib RAOI 47 VE PART OF HEAT GAIN THROUGHt<4L L CR ROOF

J J i<.L! =TS< 1!12 1= li IRLil J=TS I !INUE

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DO 32 L*1 i 20!F 1 KK.-. O.2.0 '. KK 6 0,3.OR. KK EQ. 9 J GO TO 31w L !»»T� ~ LIGO T3 32» L!»~T C,L!C JNTI Ni!EDO <Jv NN=25 ~ 48OQL = i3 ~NNN=NN~1

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SUBRUUTINE RESFAC xi, RF x, RFv!DDUBLE PREC I s I !N P lo!r 6 = T 4�01 i ROTT 100 ! »KK hoor'! »Dri

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D INEN5!ON F X 100!, RFY�00! i RFZ�00 ITHIS SUBROUTINE CALCULATES RESPONSE FACTORSFDRPAT�FID 5!FORHAT�010 51KARD= 5OT«Ir0+ «+r ««+ fr +r+ a 1+++» «r r +F r + +++I + + «F +++«++ «+++» «++ rt +F+r. +i +i 6 r 6

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R "aDING Da TAxL I 5 THI 'cKNESS 0F EACH LAYERxK IS THEN'L C »NDUcr vi TY OF EACH LAYER0 I 5 0 I'IS I TY OF EACH LA YEASH S sPI c!F Ic HE!T EF EACH I.av ERRES IS RES STENCE OF EACH LAYERKEAO KARL ill !xL I ! ~ xa I I ~ 0 I ! ~ 5 t I! tRES + +++++«++ +++ t r ++++r. ++++ r «««r+ r r ++ 4 r +r +4. + r r+++++ r+ r+ «+ tr'+++++IF XL I ! ! 13»3» 120»130

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CALLING A SUB SUBROUTINECALL ZEROIFrBETArRESrHrKO ~ KlrPlrN4!*tr tat»at tta ~ trra»ttgtsrrrtxrttr»atttrrl 30.0/OTM 2*LOG» O/D 7NN» 8tatttrttatrttatttrat»t»tttatrtartatta

CALL IhlG 4 SUB 5UBROUTINPCALL FALSE{ R,r3ET/,RFS,HI,rr2rv3rBlr 82

tr t c r ~ tr tat»a at ~ » t at tt ~ t ar s'ta s»t as r»I ROl3T»lLASr»1J»ZJ*J-1ROOT I Jl»83KKIJr2la1 0/BP3/83/I%3KKI J, 1l KK1 J 2 lac IKK J ~ 3l»KK JrZlrBZI F LAST-I! 2ZO r22O ~ Z30rr 1» U ~ CJOI /07GO TO ZrrO8 I =ROOT ILAST-1lrr2» ROOT L A 5 I INZ» l2-0 ~ VOUO1/DTa I - a 1+ v. OO 001/0 T~ tat+I't trr>ra aaaa '» 4 ~ t »tat tt ~ arrtat at

CALL IhG A SUB SLIBRCUTINECALL SLOPE<Rr BETA rkES rrIrs2r MrICONTrLaatttatxr taattaataattatr atslatt tat»atGO TO 25O 3 LOl r I CONThlN»Orata» ~ »art ~ t»tat r»t tat»t »t atrrtttat»tt

CALLING 4 SUB SUBROUTINECALL FALSE IRr B=TA ~ RES ~ <I ~ rrZrrr3r81 ~ 82 ~tat ~ »r»tata trat t»rata t»t rtt tart atra atDO 270 I*lr I ROOTI F 1rl3-I'OC'T ll l I 260r 260r27OJ»lr.1Gu TO ZBOC ONT I NUEI RU 3 T»I ROOT+1LAST »LAST+1J J» I R COT+ II F I I RC!T-Nl 29O r ZPU 3ZODO 3UO I»Jr I ROOTJJ»J J-1R OQT { J J I » ROOT l J J-1 lKKI J J r I 1=KK I JJ 1r 1lKK J Jr2l»KK/ JJ-lrZJKKl J J JI*KK< JJ-1r3l

st ~ tat stats rt taat tta

t+ t»start tat ttttttaat

8 P 3 ~ l' r Nhl lt t 't » tt t t t t tt t t t a t t t tt

l22

CONTI NUEGd TO 200IFI L45T! 320 ~ 320 ~ 2108 ET Ax =K 1+ s44KOF ET 42 =K 1+ H I+KODO 450 I ~ 1 r 100A=0 ~ 08>di0C~Oi0DO 3'0 J ~ 1, I ROUTI F R'.IO I J !+ I ~DT � 30. Ol 330' 330' 350NET4 Y =0 EXP� -ROOT j! 41~DT lA *thK J~1!+BETAYE=biKK J ~ 2!+I!F. TAYC =C+KK J f 3!*BELAY0 DNTI KUE4 = 1 4+ K I + R4>K 0 I +DT4 I ~ KU! /OTe = Bt KU ~L T~ I+K I l /DT

*IC+ K 1+Kl+KOI »DT41~KD! /DTI f �-2! 360 ~ 3701 380AA=AisB=BCC=CGU TD 39044=4 � 2 0'+X8 8= 3- 2 ~ 0< YCC=C-2. 0 2GU TO 390AA= A-Z ~ Ov XtFA8 8=B-Zi 0~ Y+F8C C*C-2 ~ Q~ 2+FC

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THI 5 SUBPDL'T .'l LcUL4TES THE 5!GR c'F THF 0=R I v471 vfDF THE FVKICT IOB G IV EI~ 8 Y 0/0 5+8 SN!I C=O326

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THIS SURf ITUT IHE CALCUL/ I ES ROOT Sr SHr 6 VEH HC EQUAT!UH �-28l

FUF rl4T�7H HO ROOT IH F ALSF IKAI I 7 abIF IHJ 100 ~ 100rll0

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C CALL IHG 4 SUB 5UBRCUTI HEC AL I. V4 TP I 4 > r 8 E T 4 ~ < r 5 ~ Ir I ~ V ~ F I~ aaa ~ ~ tea aaaaa»aaa ~ ar ta teaaeaataetett ta eatteaeteet

t etta et tf

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CALL Ir.G A SUB SUBROUTIHF

JalOEL TA a fIZ-H J /ZO. 0«3» WL r J»L'ELT 4

C ~ ta a ~ ae ta »a a a a»»a»a aa a» e tet»at»etta at ta et at at»tat at ea a» te aC CHILL I~IG 4 Sue SUBRQUTIHE

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C cALLIHG 4 SUB SveRCUT HE100 CALI. OF R RrB.TA rRr5 ~ Sir FrrF,FFI

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RE 5 9 KO, Kl, M 1, !<a If<F ra < �!, a, B, C, 0, Aa, BB,CC,QO,e hES < lo! i F! iF2i F3ES THE V LUES CIF GER Var VE IN5! ar POLE 5=0

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