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H-Environment Roundtable Reviews, Vol. 9, No. 10 (2019)

H-Environment Roundtable Reviews Volume9,No.10(2019)https://networks.h-net.org/h-environment

Publicationdate:December12,2019RoundtableReviewEditor:KeithMakotoWoodhouse

ConnieY.Chiang,NatureBehindBarbedWire:AnEnvironmentalHistoryoftheJapaneseAmericanIncarceration(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2018)ISBN:9780190842062ContentsIntroductionbyKeithMakotoWoodhouse,NorthwesternUniversity 2CommentsbyMeganAsaka,UniversityofCalifornia-Riverside 4CommentsbyDuncanRyūkenWilliams,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia 9CommentsbyBrianMcCammack,LakeForestCollege 12ResponsebyConnieChiang,BowdoinCollege 19AbouttheContributors 25 Copyright © 2019 H-Net: Humanities and Social Sciences Online H-Net permits the redistribution and reprinting of this work for nonprofit, educational purposes, with full and accurate attribution to the author, web location, date of publication, H-Environment, and H-Net: Humanities & Social Sciences Online.

H-Environment Roundtable Reviews, Vol. 9, No. 10 (2019) 2

Introduction by Keith Makoto Woodhouse, Northwestern University

tisrarethatahistorianfindsasubjectfewothershavewrittenabout,andrarerstillthatahistoriantakesonwhatispracticallyanewsubfield.ButthatiswhatConnieY.ChianghasmanagedtodoinNatureBehindBarbedWire:An

EnvironmentalHistoryoftheJapaneseAmericanIncarceration,oneofaveryfewworksofscholarshipthatcanbecalledAsianAmericanEnvironmentalHistory.AlthoughfewifanystudentstodayhavetheopportunitytotakeacourseinAsianAmericanEnvironmentalHistory,thosethatdointhefuturewillnodoubtencounterChiang’sbookascanonical. TherelativescarcityofscholarlyworkontherelationshipbetweenAsianAmericansandthenonhumanworldhasallowedChiangtoexploretheenvironmentalhistoryofoneofthemostinfamouschaptersinAsianAmericanhistory:theincarcerationofJapaneseAmericansduringWorldWarII.InChiang’streatment,wartimeincarcerationwasnotonlyaracistpolicy,aviolationofcivilliberties,andasystematicpersecutionoftensofthousandsofAmericans;itwasalsoanactofdisplacementinthemostprofoundsenseofthatword.Asdetaineesenduredayearslongdeprivationoftheirrightstheyalsoexperiencedanongoingencounterwithunfamiliarplaces—fencedcompoundsandjerry-builtbarracksinUtah’sSevierDesert,Idaho’sSnakeRiverPlain,andCalifornia’sdustyOwensValley.Intheseplaces,Chiangmakesclear,JapaneseAmericanscontendedwithnewbuiltandnaturalenvironmentsthatcouldbeatonceforbiddingandinspiring,brutalandfruitful,sitesofrestrictivelaborandofsubversiverecreation.Detaineesexperiencedthecampsthroughforcedimprisonmentandalsothroughtheirdailyimpressionsofaruggedenvironment.DetaineesfromCaliforniawhoweredepositedattheTopazincarcerationcampinwesternUtahlaterremembereddiscoveringa“flat,drab,dry,andcolorless”landscape,“awasteland.”(60)InsouthernIdaho,detaineesfromWashingtonfoundsimilarconditions,butlookingbackrecalledhow“Webegantoseethebeautyofthedesert;itwasnotsodesolateafterall.”(149)Thedistancebetweenthosememoriesspansacomplextopographyofhardshipandresilience.Inmappingthattopography,ChiangshowsushowJapaneseAmericansmadeanunintendedplaceandlifetheirown. ThisroundtablebeginswithMeganAsaka,whohighlightsthenewavenuesofinquirythatChianghasopenedup,amongthemquestionsabouthowJapaneseAmericanincarcerationintersectedwithindigenousdispossessionandinfrastructuraldevelopment;howworkshapednotjustthedailyexperiencesbutalsotheidentitiesofdetainees;andhowthelinebetweencompliersandresisterswasfarfromtheonlyoreventhemostimportantonestructuringcamppopulations.Asakanotes,however,thatChiang’sdiscussionoftherelationshipbetweenraceandtheenvironmentismoreimplicitthanexplicit,andwonderswhetherideologyandsocialengineeringcouldhaveenjoyedgreatertheorization.

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LikeAsaka,DuncanRyūkenWilliamsappreciatestheattentionthatChiangpaystohowsiteselectionanddetaineeworkhelpedlegitimizeJapaneseAmericanincarcerationtovariousnearbycommunitiesaswellastothebroaderU.S.public,andhowdetainees’socialidentitiesamountedtofarmorethantheirresponsestothe“loyaltyquestionnaire”of1943.WilliamsalsopraiseshowChiangfollowsthestoryfarpastincarceration,toresettlementandremembrance.LargelyleftoutofChiang’stelling,however,aretherelocationcenterswhereJapaneseAmericanslivedbeforebeingshippedtocampsintheU.S.interior.Thesecenters,Williamspointsout,tendedtobefacilitiesthatpreviouslyhousedanimals,andinmanywaystheymayhavebeenevenmorejarringfornewarrivals.AlsoabsentarethetwoincarcerationcampsinArkansas.Includingthosecamps,Williamssuggests,wouldhaveprovidedanopportunitytodiscussverydifferentenvironmentalconditionsandalsothejuxtapositionofJapaneseAmericanincarcerationinthemiddleofthesegregatedJimCrowSouth. Finally,BrianMcCammackalsocelebratesthemanyachievementsofChiang’sbook,andthenewperspectivesitoffersontheinstitutionalandquotidianexperiencesofdetainees.McCammackwonderswhetherotherdimensionsofdetaineelifemightstillrequireillumination,includingthediversityofagriculturalandrecreationalexperienceamongJapaneseAmericansbeforeincarcerationandhowthatmighthaveshapeddetaineecommunities,possiblyalongarural-urbandivide.LikeWilliams,McCammackaskswhatinsightsmighthavebeengainedfromconsideringtheArkansasincarcerationcampsintheJimCrowSouth,includingthechancetoexaminedifferentstructuresofracialhierarchyalongsideeachother.Evenmorespecifically,McCammackpondersthewaysthatbothsouthernsegregationandJapaneseAmericanincarcerationdefinedtherelationshipsofAfricanAmericansandJapaneseAmericanstoinstitutionsoftenassociatedwiththeconservationmovement,includingtheBoyScoutsofAmericaandtheCivilianConservationCorps.AndMcCammackposesamethodologicalquestion,askingabouttherelativebenefitsanddrawbacksofusingfederaldocuments. InherresponseChiangaddressesallofthesequestionsandmore,offeringusfurtherinsightintotheJapaneseAmericanexperienceduringWorldWarIIandintotheactoftellingafamiliarstoryfromanentirelynewperspective.Thankstoalloftheparticipantsfortakingpartinthisroundtable.H-EnvironmentRoundtablesisanopen-accessforumavailabletoscholarsandnon-scholarsalike,aroundtheworld,freeofcharge.Pleasecirculate.


Comments by Megan Asaka, University of California-Riverside

n2008,IsatdownwithTedNagata,asecond-generationJapaneseAmerican(Nisei)bornandraisedinBerkeley,CaliforniaandincarceratedinUtahduringWorldWarII.IaskedhimtodescribethejourneyfromSanMateo,whereheand

hisfamilyhadbeentemporarilydetained,totheTopazincarcerationcampinnorthwesternUtah,andhisimpressionsofthesitewhentheyfirstarrived.“Itwasjustflatandtherewassagebrushandtherewashighwindsandtherewasdustallover,”Nagatarecalled.“Thetemperaturewasveryhot,nearonehundreddegrees.Andweactuallydidn’tseeTopazbecausethedustwassothick.Allwecouldseeouttherewasjustacloudofdust.”1MemorieslikethisarequitecommonamongJapaneseAmericansurvivorsoftheWorldWarIIincarceration.NearlyalloftheJapaneseAmericansIinterviewedduringmyfiveyearsasanoralhistorianwiththeDenshoprojectrecalledthelandscapeandnaturalenvironmentofcampinvividdetail.Iheardstoriesoftheswelteringheat,thebone-chillingcold,thedustandmud,insectsandreptiles.Survivorsspokeofhowtheunfamiliarterraincompoundedtheirfeelingsofdespairandalienationaswellasthecomforttheytookinthestarkbeautyofthemountainsanddesertlandscapes.Inherbook,NatureBehindBarbedWire:AnEnvironmentalHistoryoftheJapaneseAmericanIncarceration,ConnieChiangisthefirsthistoriantotakeseriouslywhatJapaneseAmericansurvivorshavelongexpressedinoralhistory,memoir,andart:thattheenvironmentplayedacriticalroleinshapingtheexperiencesoftheWorldWarIIincarceration. Byapplyinganenvironmentallensandtreatingthelandscapeasmorethananeutralbackdropofhumaninteraction,ChiangaddsconsiderablytoourunderstandingoftheJapaneseAmericanincarceration.Asshenotes,thoughtheincarcerationremainsoneofthemoststudiedandanalyzedtopicsinAsianAmericanhistory,muchoftheliteraturefocusesnarrowlyonlegalandpoliticalquestions.Scholarshaveexaminedthedecisionsmadebygovernmentofficialstoauthorizeandjustifytheincarceration;legalchallengestoincarcerationbothduringandafterthewar;thegovernanceofthecampsandpoliticsoftheWarRelocationAuthorityadministrators;andresponsesbytheimprisonedpopulationstocontroversialprograms,suchasthemilitarydraftandtheso-calledloyaltyquestionnaire.2Someofthishastodowiththeissueofsources.Manyofthese

1TedNagata,interviewbyMeganAsaka,Densho,June3,2008,video,http://ddr.densho.org/interviews/ddr-densho-1013-3-1/.2Keyworksinclude:GregRobinson,ByOrderofthePresident:FDRandtheInternmentofJapaneseAmericans(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2001);PeterIrons,JusticeatWar:TheStoryoftheJapaneseAmericanInternmentCases(Berkeley:UCPress,1993);EricMuller,FreetoDiefortheirCountry:TheStoryoftheJapaneseAmericanDraftResistersinWorldWarII(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2001);BrianMasaruHayashi,DemocratizingtheEnemy:TheJapaneseAmericanInternment(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2004);RichardDrinnon,KeeperoftheConcentrationCamps:DillonS.MyerandAmericanRacism(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,

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studiesrelyongovernmentrecords,includingthoseoftheWarRelocationAuthority,whicharereadilyaccessibleandofferawealthofinformationaboutthelegalandpoliticalarchitectureoftheincarceration.3TheresultisafieldthathasproducedsometrulyimportanthistoricalworkschallengingthenotionoftheU.S.asabastionofdemocracyandalsocomplicatingthenarrativeofthewartimeperiodasoneinwhichthegovernmentmadestridestowardscivilrights.Andyet,thelegalandpoliticalfocusthathasdominatedthefieldsincethe1970shasleftlittleroomforotherscholarlyapproaches.Untilrecently,muchoftheinnovativeworkontheJapaneseAmericanincarcerationoccurredoutsideoftraditionalacademicscholarship.4 WhatChiangoffersisnotnecessarilymethodologicalinnovation.Shereliesonafamiliarsetofsources,includingWarRelocationAuthorityandothergovernmentrecordsamplifiedbysurvivortestimonies.Rather,whatshebringsisadifferentsetofquestionsaboutlandscapeandtherelationshipbetweenthehumanandnaturalworldsthatyieldnewinsightsandfreshinterpretations.Take,forexample,Chiang’sdiscussionofcampselectioninChapterTwo.Historiansandotherscholarshavepaidlittleattentiontohowthegovernmentselectedandacquiredtheselands,focusinginsteadonwhattookplacewithinthecampsaftertheywerealreadybuilt.Bydetailingtheprocessbehindsomethingasseeminglyinconsequentialassiteselection,however,ChianghasbroadenedthestoryoftheJapaneseAmericanincarcerationandopenedupnewavenuesofinquiry.Assheshows,thegovernmentwasquitedeliberateinitsselectionofthesitesandprioritizedtheacquisitionofpubliclandsthatcouldbeimprovedbyJapaneseAmericanlabor.Thisputgovernmentofficialsintocontactandconflictwithavarietyofactors,includingtheLosAngelesDepartmentofWaterandPower,whichownedthesiteuponwhichManzanarwasbuilt,andseveralNativeNationsacrosstheSouthwestwhoopposedthefederalconfiscationanduseoftheirlands,particularlyforthepurposesofincarceration.ThisisimportantbecauseitplacestheJapaneseAmericanincarcerationwithinabroaderhistoricalframeworkandshowsitsconnectionstoissuessuchaspubliclandreclamation,settlercolonialismand

1989);andRogerDaniels,ConcentrationCampsUSA:JapaneseAmericansandWorldWarII(NewYork:Holt,Rinehart&Winston,1972).3Thiswasparticularlytrueaftertheredressmovementofthe1980s,whichcompiledandmadeavailablehundredsofthousandsofdeclassifieddocumentsunearthedbyresearcherstomountacaseforJapaneseAmericanreparations.4Films:ReaTajiri,HistoryandMemory:ForAkikoandTakashige,1991;JaniceTanaka,Who’sGoingtoPayforTheseDonutsAnyway,1992;EmikoandChizukoOmori,RabbitintheMoon,1999;andTinaTakemoto,LookingforJiroOnuma,2011.Art&publicexhibitions:BarbaraJohns,ed.,SignsofHome:ThePaintingsandWartimeDiaryofKamekichiTokita(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2011);EricMuller,ed.,ColorsofConfinement:RareKodachromePhotographsofJapaneseAmericanIncarcerationinWorldWarII(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2012);JenniferSaville,“ReflectionsonInternment:TheArtofHawaii’sHiroshiHonda,”publicexhibition,HonoluluAcademyofArts,1994;DelphineHirasuna,“TheArtofGaman:ArtsandCraftsfromtheJapaneseAmericanInternmentCamps,1942-1946,”publicexhibition,SmithsonianAmericanArtMuseum,2011;andShiPuWang,“ChiuraObata:AnAmericanModern,”publicexhibition,Art,Architecture&DesignMuseum,UCSantaBarbara,2018.


indigenousdispossession,andthedevelopmentofinfrastructure,particularlyaroundwater,intheSouthwest.WhileChiangdoesnotexplicitlymaketheseconnections,herattentiontoland-useandownershipasitrelatestoJapaneseAmericanincarcerationnonethelessreorientsthefieldandlaysthegroundworkforfuturestudy. WhileIwelcomedChiang’sdiscussionofsiteselection,largelybecauseofitspotentialtotakethefieldinnewdirections,themiddlechaptersoncampmaintenanceandJapaneseAmericanlaborarewhereshemakesthemostoriginalandcompellinginterventions.Chiang’sfocusonlandscapeandenvironmentallowshertohighlighttheeconomicaspectsofincarceration,includingthecostofoperatingthecamps,thelaborneededtomaintainthem,andtheconnectionbetweenJapaneseAmericanincarcerationandthebroaderwartimeeconomyoftheU.S.Thoughgovernmentofficialscarefullyselectedthelocationofeachcamp,theydidnottakeintoaccounthowweather,soilcomposition,andotherenvironmentalfactorswouldimpactcampinfrastructureandoperations.Asaconsequence,itfelltoJapaneseAmericansthemselvestoperformthelabornecessarytokeepthecampsrunningandensurethattheirfellowprisonershadatleastadegreeofmaterialcomfortintheformofheat,hotwater,andnutritiousfood.JapaneseAmericansrespondedverydifferentlytothedemandsfortheirlabor,andChiangdoesnotshyawayfromdiscussinghowtheseenvironmentalconditionsexacerbatedtensionswithinthecamps(bothbetweencampadministratorsandworkersandamongtheimprisonedpopulations).ChiangalsoshowshowthecripplinglaborshortagesacrossU.S.industriesimpactedcampoperations.AgriculturalcompaniesbegantohireJapaneseAmericanworkerstoharvestkeycropssuchassugarbeets,whichreducedthepoolofworkersavailableforcampmaintenanceandothertasksandcontributedtoworseningconditions,particularlyduringtheharshwintermonths.Chiang’sattentiontothepoliticaleconomyofincarcerationmattersgreatlybecauseitunderscoresthecentralityofJapaneseAmericanprisonlaborduringthewartimeperiod,bothtotheWarRelocationAuthorityandtheoutsideagencieswhohiredthemasseasonalworkerswellbelowmarketrates.ItillustrateshowtheprecariousstatusofJapaneseAmericansasworkersmateriallybenefittedtheU.S.wartimeeconomyandalso,perversely,madepossibletheveryconditionsoftheirownconfinement. It’shardtooverstatejusthowrefreshingChiang’scontributionsarehere.Becausesheapproachesthetopicofcamplaborwithadifferentsetofquestionsandframeworksofanalysis,sheisabletorevealnewinsightsaboutthecomplexityofJapaneseAmericanpoliticallivesandtheirvariedresponsestoincarceration.Scholarshavestruggledwiththisquestion,inpartbecauseofhowJapaneseAmericanhistoriographyevolvedafterWorldWarII.Intheimmediatepostwaryears,JapaneseAmericanleaderscraftedasanitizedversionofhistory,onethatemphasizedJapaneseAmericancompliancewiththegovernmentandstressedtheirpatriotismandloyalty.Thischangedduringthe1960sand1970sasyoungergenerationsofJapaneseAmericanactivistsandscholars(alongwithotherallies)grewcriticalofthemainstreamnarrativeandbegantopublishrevisionisthistories


thatexploredresistanceandprotestwithinthecamps.5However,thetopicofresistancevs.complianceneverfullyresolved,andinfactcontinuedtodividetheJapaneseAmericancommunityfordecadesafterthewar’send.6Thisdebatecastalongshadowonthefield,withscholarsoftenportrayingthepoliticallandscapeofthecampsasstarklydividedbetweenthosewhocompliedwiththegovernmentandthosewhoactivelyresisted.WhileChiangdoesn’tignorethesedebates,sheshowshowlaborconflictwasrootedintheenvironmentalconditionsthatcampadministratorseitherignoredorgrosslymismanaged.Thisallowshertoincludenewactorswhoweren’tnecessarilymotivatedbyaprincipledobjectiontotheinjusticeoftheincarceration,whichhaslongservedasalitmustestformeasuringwhoresistedandwhodidnot.7Instead,Chiangdescribestheroleofhighschoolstudentsandteenagerswhoworkedas“compulsoryvolunteers”inTopazandquitafteronedayonthejobbecauseofthehorrendousconditions.WealsoseeboilermenandjanitorsinMinidokausingthechangingseasonsandinparticularthespikeindemandforheatandhotwaterduringthewintermonthstonegotiateforhigherpay.ChiangiscarefultonotethatonlyasmallnumberofJapaneseAmericansengagedinsuchlabordisputes,withthevastmajorityexpressingindifferencetoissuesaroundcampmaintenance.Butthis,too,grewoutofawidespreadbeliefthattheWRAwasresponsibleforprovidingahabitableenvironmentandthustheapathyofmanyJapaneseAmericansdidnotsignalresignationoracceptanceofthestatusquo,butservedasaformofrefusalmeanttoholdthegovernmentaccountable.Byreframingtherootsofconflictincamp,ChiangoffersthemostnuanceddiscussionyetofhoweverydayJapaneseAmericansnegotiated,challenged,andrespondedtotheharshrealitiesoftheirimprisonment. Astheseexampleshighlight,NatureBehindBarbedWireclearlydemonstratesthevalueofenvironmentalhistorytoourunderstandingoftheJapaneseAmericanincarcerationand,insodoing,reinvigoratesafieldthathaslongbeendominatedbylegalandpoliticalapproaches.Andyet,onthequestionofwhattheJapaneseAmericanincarcerationilluminatesaboutenvironmentalhistory,or 5ForadiscussionofhowJapaneseAmericansusedthehistoryoftheWorldWarIIincarcerationinpostwarpoliticalactivism,andhowthoseinterpretationschangedovertime,seeAliceYangMurray,HistoricalMemoriesoftheJapaneseAmericanInternmentandtheStruggleforRedress(PaloAlta,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2007).6Thistopichasbeenexploredmostfullyinfilmandfiction.SeeRabbitintheMoon;FrankAbe,ConscienceandtheConstitution:TheUntoldStoryofJapaneseAmericanDraftResistanceduringWorldWarII,2001;JohnOkada,No-NoBoy(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,1979).7MuchofthehistoricalworkthataddressesthetopicofresistanceincampfocusesondraftresistanceorJapaneseAmericanswhotookapublicstanceagainstthegovernmentandcalledattentiontotheinjusticeoftheincarcerationatthetime(GordonHirabayshi,FredKorematsu,FrankEmi,etc.).Becausetheseleadersweresilencedandostracizedinthepostwaryears,thecurrentoutpouringofscholarshipandattentionislongoverdue.However,westillknowverylittleabouthoweverydayJapaneseAmericansnegotiatedandchallengedtheconditionsoftheirimprisonment.Chiangpointsustoawayforwardhere.SeeEricMuller,FreetoDiefortheirCountry:TheStoryoftheJapaneseAmericanDraftResistersinWorldWarII(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2001);RogerDaniels,TheJapaneseAmericanCases:TheRuleofLawinTimeofWar(Lawrence,UniversityofKansasPress,2013);GordonHirabayashi,JamesHirabayashi,andLaneRyoHirabayashi,APrincipledStand:TheStoryofHirabayashiv.UnitedStates(Seattle:UniversityofWashingtonPress,2013).


morespecifically,abouttherelationshipbetweenraceandtheenvironment,thebookhaslesstosay.Whydidtheenvironmentplaysuchacriticalroleinthisparticularprojectofincarceration?Thisisakeyquestionthatrunsthroughoutthebook,butonethatChiangneverexplicitlyaddresses.Here,thebookwouldhavebenefittedfromamoresustaineddiscussionoftheideologicalpurposeofthecampsasspacesofsocialengineering.WhileIcommendChiangfornotdwellingonthistopic,whichhasbeenwellcoveredintheliterature,stillIthinkitwouldhavehelpedtoknowmoreabouttheWRA’sendgoalsforJapaneseAmericansandhowtheenvironmentfiguredinthisprocessofAmericanization.AshistorianBrianHayashi(amongothers)hasargued,manycampadministratorsandWRAofficialsviewedthecampsasanopportunityforJapaneseAmericanstoshedtheirculturalinfluencesandprepareforlifeinmainstreamwhitesociety.8ThisiswhatDillonMyermeantwhenhelikenedJapaneseAmericansinthecampsto“‘pioneercommunities.’”9Hedidn’treallyseeJapaneseAmericansaswhiteyeomanfarmers.Rather,hebelievedthatJapaneseAmericanscouldbetransformedintoproductiveAmericancitizensthroughatamingofthewildernessandworkingoftheland.Ironically,thisbringstomindtheforcedassimilationprogramstargetingNativeAmericansinthelatenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiesandthenotionthattheywerewastingthelandbyholdingitincommonandnotembracingprivateproperty.10Inbothcases,governmentofficialspromotedland“improvement”asameansofAmericanizationandofforcedintegrationintowhiteProtestantcapitalistsociety. Butperhapsthisisbeyondthescopeofthebook.AsIhopeI’veshowninthisessay,oneofthemanystrengthsofChiang’sbookisthatsheusesenvironmentalhistorytoopenupnewavenuesofinquiryandthuslaysthefoundationforfuturestudy.Byaskingadifferentsetofquestionsabouttherelationshipbetweenthehumanandnaturalworlds,sheisabletorevealfreshinsightsabouttheexperienceoftheJapaneseAmericanincarcerationinwaysthatwillshapethefieldforyearstocome.EvenwithatopicaswellstudiedandanalyzedastheWorldWarIIincarcerationofJapaneseAmericans,Chiangshowsusthatthereisstillalotlefttolearn.

8Hayashi,DemocratizingtheEnemy.9AsquotedinChiang,NatureBehindBarbedWire,4.10See,forexample,theDawesActof1887.


CommentsbyDuncanRyūkenWilliams,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia

nNatureBehindBarbedWire,ConnieChiangtellsthestoryoftheforcedremovalbytheWarRelocationAuthority(WRA)ofover110,000personsofJapaneseancestryonthePacificCoasttocampsintheU.S.interiorduringWWII.Chiang’s

novelapproachtothisfamiliarstoryisthelensofnature—howthenewenvironmentofthesecampsshapedthewartimeJapaneseAmericanexperienceandhowthoseincarceratedhelpedshapethenaturallandscapesoftheirnewhomes. Chiangbeginswithadetaileddiscussionoftheprocessofchoosingtheconfinementsites.LeadingWRAadministratorshopedthecampswouldbehumanecommunitiesengineeredfortheassimilationofJapaneseAmericansthroughself-government,education,andpublicworks-orientedprojectssuchasfoodproduction.InlinewithNewDealandDepartmentofAgricultureideals,theWRAprojectdirectorsimaginedthecampsasenvironmentalexperimentsforturningnon-productivelandsintoagriculturallandsusingtheprewarfarmingexperienceofmanyJapaneseAmericans.AsChiangmakesclear,thelanguageoflandimprovementandwareffortcontributionscouldbeframedasamatterofupgradesonIndianreservations(Poston,AZorGilaRiver,AZ)orforfuturewhitesettlers(Minidoka,ID),butwasalwaysanecessaryrhetoricalstanceagainstthosewhoviewedwhoviewedthe“relocation”ofJapaneseAmericanstocertainsitesascontributingtoanenvironmentaldegradation. FearsofsabotageandwatershedpoisoningbyacommunitydeemedathreattonationalsecurityalsodrovetheoppositiontothesiteselectionofcampslikeManzanar,andChiangarguesthatsuchfearswereovercomeonlybyreassurancestheArmywouldprovidesufficientguardstoprotecttheaqueductandtherebytheLosAngeles-arearesidents’watersupply.JapaneseAmericansthereforedealtwithasocialandgovernmentalresponsetotheirpresenceontheWestCoastthatoscillatedbetweenoutrighthostilityandeffortstoframethe“relocation”intermsofsacrificeduringwar. Thehastily-builtWRAcampswereoftenmarkedbyshoddyconstruction,withbeetles,scorpions,andotherdesert“bugsofathousandvarieties”seepingthroughthecracksandknotholesofthetar-paperbarracks.Asthenewenvironmentpresenteditselfevenintotheinterioroftheinternees’newhomes,ChiangarguesthatthisradicalshiftinbothnaturalandbuiltenvironmentshadaprofoundeffectonhowJapaneseAmericansexperiencedtheirwartimedislocationandloss. Thebookhasanicebalancebetweenstoriesfromtheinsideout(howthoseincarceratedexperiencedthecoldwintereveningsandproblemswithheating)andstoriesabouthowgovernmentofficialsdevelopedpoliciestodealwithhousingalargepopulationinratherunforgivingenvironmentalconditions.Thecentral

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chaptersofthebookexploreagricultureindesertsandthegrowingofgardensinthecampsasformsofenvironmentalpatriotism.ThestandarddiscussionofpatriotisminthecampscentersaroundhowJapaneseAmericansrespondedtothe1943leaveclearanceform(ortheso-calledloyaltyquestionnaire)andtheserviceofNiseiintheU.S.armedforces,eitheraspartofthesegregated442ndRCTintheEuropeantheaterortheMilitaryIntelligenceService(MIS)inthePacifictheater.Inaratherinventivere-framingofthepatriotismquestion—whichhadprovokeddeepsplitsinthecommunitybetweenmostinterneesandthosewhoweresegregatedas“disloyals”toanewlyformedsegregationcampatTuleLake,betweenthosewhowillinglyservedinthemilitaryversusthosewhoresistedthedraft,andbetweenthosewhosawtheirfuturesinJapanandthosewhoviewedthemselvesasbelonginginAmerica—Chiangfocusesonfoodproduction(largescaleself-sufficiencyprojects,smaller“victorygardens”,orfarmworkonbeetfarmsoutsidethecamps)aswarcontribution.PatriotisminthismodealsoincludedcontroversialprojectsliketheManzanarguayuleproductionproject,amoreovertpatrioticprojectofgrowingrubberinthecampthatdirectlyaddressedashortagecausedbytheJapanesemilitaryadvanceonrubbergrowingregionsofthePacificandSoutheastAsia. Finally,Chiangnicelycaptureshowthewartimeencounterwiththesenewenvironmentsaffectedpostwarresettlementprocessesaswellaspostwarremembranceprojects,suchasthepilgrimagestotheconfinementsitesbycampsurvivorsandtheirdescendants. MyonlyminorquibbleswiththebookhavetodowithsubjectsthatChiangoptednottocover.Forexample,Chiangstatesthatsheleftoutofherdiscussion“thetemporaryassemblycenters,whichhousedJapaneseAmericansforanaverageofthreemonthswhilethecampswerebeingbuilt.BecausethesecenterswerelocatedincloseproximitytoJapaneseAmericans’homesontheWestCoast,thedisplacementexperiencedwasbothshort-livedandnotasdramaticasinthepermanentcamps.” IwonderiftheregionalproximityoftheAssemblyCenterstointernees’prewarhomesactuallyoffsetsthedramaticnatureofthispartoftheincarcerationstory.Justasoneexample,HisaAokiinherreflectiononhavingbeenmovedfromherhomeinLosAngelestoahorsestallattheSantaAnitaAssemblyCenter,notes,“presently,thousandshavebeenthrownintounsanitaryhorsestallsandforcedtolivethere.IwonderifJapanhasconfinedAmericannoncombatantsinhorsestalls[with]womenforcedtousetoiletswithnodoors.”Inadiaryentryseveraldayslater,shewritesdespairinglyofthelatrinesituation:“Fromtheholeusedtopumpoutwaste,sewageispouringout,pouringout!Ontotheroad,underthebarracks,toanylowarea,flowsthisstinkyriverofhumanwaste....Idon’tcareifIamsenttoJapanwithonlywhatIamwearing.Iwanttogetoutofthisinsulting,humiliating,melancholy,uncertainlifewithoutpurpose.” ItcouldbearguedthatthesuddendisplacementfromthecomfortsofhometoahorsestallattheAssemblyCenters—withsomanyofthemlocatedonsitesof


horseracingtracks,countyfairgrounds,andotherfacilitiesthathadonlyrecentlybeenoccupiedbyanimals—wasaverydramaticshiftofenvironment,insomewaysmuchmorejarringthanthemovetotheinteriorWRAcamps.GiventhatthesefacilitieswererunbytheU.S.Army(asopposedtotheWRAcampsrunbyacivilianagency),scholarswidelyregardthemashavingamuchmoredraconiansetofconstraintsonnormallivingthanlifeintheWRAcamps. TheothermajoromissioninthebookarethetwocampslocatedinArkansas(RohwerandJerome).Chiangarguesthat“theexactlocationoftheirconfinement,was,insomerespects,lessimportantthanthelargerprocessinwhichtheyparticipated.”Thismaybetrueinthebroadestsense,butespeciallyforJapaneseAmericanswhoexperiencedlifeinmorethanonecamp,theseinterneesoftencommentedonstarkcontrastsbetweentheenvironmentsofthosecamps.Theswampyforest-surroundedcampsinArkansasmighthavebeenveryfruitfultoexploreinabookdedicatedtohowthenaturalenvironmentimpactedthelivesofthoseconfined.Also,givenChiang’swonderfulsectiononJapaneseAmericantemporaryexplorationsofareasjustbeyondthebarbedwire(suchashikingandfishingnearManzanar),theremighthavebeenfruitfulcontrastswithhowRohwerandJeromeresidentsfoundthemselvesremindedofthestrictsegregationistlifeoftheregion,symbolizedbythehistoryofracesearedintothecottonfieldsjustbeyondthebarbedwire,echoingtheambivalentpositionsAsiansfacedintheJimCrowSouth. Overall,“NatureBehindBarbedWire”isatremendousadditiontothegrowingscholarlyworkontheWWIIJapaneseAmericanincarceration.Theenvironmentalprismthroughwhichtoexplorethishistoryissoobvious,andyetsomuchoftheliteratureonthewartimecampexperiencefocusesontheimpactofexecutiveorders,violationsofconstitutionalideals,andformsthatdeterminedloyalty.Chiang’sfocusonhowthehistoryofnatureandthehistoryofacommunityareintertwinedmakethisbookamustreadforanyoneinterestedinthischapterofAmericanhistory.


CommentsbyBrianMcCammack,LakeForestCollege

onnieChiang’sNatureBehindBarbedWire:AnEnvironmentalHistoryoftheJapaneseAmericanIncarcerationisanimportantcontributiontoagrowingenvironmentalhistoricalliteraturethatexamines“howracialidentitiesand

thedynamicsofracerelationshaveintertwinedwiththeenvironmentthroughtime”(4).Inwell-conceivedchaptersthatcomprehensivelyexploremyriadenvironmentaldimensionsofmorethan110,000JapaneseAmericans’incarcerationduringWorldWarII—includingdetainees’environmentalconnectionspriortointernment,theharshenvironmentalconditionsdetaineesfacedinremoteareasoftheMountainWest,theenvironmental(oftenagricultural)labordetaineesperformedduringtheirincarceration,andtheextenttowhichsomedetaineeswereabletofindameasureofagencyandself-determinationinenvironmentalleisure—Chiangconvincinglyarguesthat“theconfinementofJapaneseAmericanswasanenvironmentalprocess,deeplyembeddedinthelandsandwatersalongthecoastandthecampsfurtherinland”(5). OneofNatureBehindBarbedWire’skeyargumentsisthatnaturecontributedbothtotheoppressivenessofincarcerationand—totheextentpossiblegiventheprofoundinfringementofcivillibertiestheysuffered—thehopefulnessmanyJapaneseAmericandetaineeswereabletocultivateduringtheirincarcerationbyfinding“manywaystoharnessnatureandassertsomecontroloverthetermsandconditionsoftheirconfinement.Indoingso,theyoftenproclaimedtheirAmericanness”(5).Thosethemescometotheforemostremarkablyinchapters5and6,theformerofwhichistitled“EnvironmentalPatriotism,”atermwhichChiangdefinesas“theideathatone’sdevotiontonationcouldbeexpressedthroughengagementwiththenaturalworld”(123).LikemillionsofAmericansduringWorldWarII,forexample,somedetaineesspentleisuretimegrowingsmallvictorygardensforwhichtheycouldchoosewhatcropstoplant,harvest,andultimatelyconsume,supplementingfoodstuffsdetaineesproducedfromlarger-scalefarmprojectsdirectedbyWarRelocationAuthority(WRA)officials(124-7).Bythesametoken,ornamentalgardening,hiking,swimming,andespeciallyfishinggavesomedetaineesasenseofcontrolandempowerment,allowingthemtocarveoutsomesmallmeasureofautonomyandparticipateinenvironmentalleisureactivitiesthatmillionsofAmericansenjoyed(214-5).AsChiangpointsout,officials’willingnesstograntdetaineessomecontrolovertheseenvironmentalrelationshipscouldhavebeenmotivatedbyulteriormotives—akintoslavemastersgrantingslaveshuntingandfishingrights,orwelfarecapitalists’creationofrecreationalactivitiesforemployees—becausesuchactivitiescouldbe“toolstoreinforcetheincarcerationofJapaneseAmericans.Ifdetaineesenjoyedthemselvesintheoutdoors,theywouldhavefewerreasonstoobjecttotheirconfinement”(173). Whenitcametoenvironmentallabor,thatcoercion—andtheillusorynatureoffreedominthecontextofincarceration—wasevenmoreapparent.Muchofthelabordetaineesperformedincampswasagricultural,asofficialswereintenton

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makingcampsasself-sustainingaspossibledespitetheirlocationsonsubmarginallandsill-suitedforgrowingfood.Ultimately,however,thoseharshenvironmentalconditionsincombinationwithpoorlaborconditionsmeantthat“onlyabout14percent”ofthetotalfoodconsumed(bycost)wasproducedbydetainees(121).It’shardlysurprisingthatofficialsconstantlyhadtroublefindingenoughlaborerstoworkthefieldswhendetainees’wagesrangedbetween$12and$19permonth,roughly1/10thofthewagessimilarworktypicallygarneredontheopenmarket(101).Thosepitifulwages—inadditiontothepromiseoftemporarilyescapingdetentioncamps—helpexplainwhymanydetaineesjumpedattheopportunitytoearnprevailingopenmarketwagesinlocalagriculturalindustrieswhentheWRArelaxedincarcerationpoliciesinanostensiblypatrioticefforttopropupindustriescriticaltothewareffort.Mostnotably,thesugarbeetindustryemployed8,000JapaneseAmericansin1942(134),butmanydetaineesfoundthebackbreakingworkexploitativeandwereincensedthatthecompaniesemployed“patrioticrhetorictocoercethemintoworking”(133).EspeciallyforthoseJapaneseAmericansforcedtoabandonsuccessfulagriculturalenterprisestheyhadbuiltpriortoincarceration,theconscriptionandexploitationoftheirenvironmentallaborandknowledgeaddedinsulttoinjury.AllthisfitsintoabroaderthemeinNatureBehindBarbedWire:thesurprising(atleasttome)extenttowhicheconomicconsiderationssurroundingenvironmentallaborfactoredintotherationalesbothforandagainstinternment(asopposedto,say,nationalsecurity).AgriculturalindustriesfrettedoverlossesfromfieldsandfisheriesthatinternmentforcedJapaneseAmericanstoabandon(14-23),justasmuchasthesugarbeetindustrysalivatedovertheprospectsofaliterallycaptivelaborpool. Withsomeofthosekeyenvironmentalelementsofincarcerationaspretext,I’dbeeagertohearChiang’sthoughtsonhowinternmentmightreflectmorebroadlyonthewayAmericans—especiallymarginalizedcommunitieslikeracialandethnicminorities—understoodnaturethroughenvironmentallaborandleisureinthisperiod.Moretothepoint:didenvironmentalleisurepromisemorefreedomthanlabor?Forme,thevictorygardensdetaineescultivatedareaparticularlyinterestingsiteforthinkingthroughtheserelationships,especiallyincomparisontothelarger-scale,WRA-directedagriculturalendeavors.Bothwerefundamentallyagricultural,buttheformerwasmuchmorerecreational/leisurely,andhenceseemedtoofferadegreeofautonomyandcontrolunattainableinthelatter.WithmoneyatstakeforboththeWRAandprivatebusinesses,environmentallaborgraftedanimbalancedemployer-employeerelationshipontopofanalreadyprofoundlyimbalancedWRAofficial-detaineerelationship.Environmentalleisure,bycontrast,oftenconstitutedapartialandtemporaryreprievefromthesepowerinequalities,whendetaineescouldsometimesstrikeoutontheirownwithminimalsupervision,freetoestablishenvironmentalrelationshipsontheirownterms(thoughalwayswithintheprescribedboundariesofdetention). ThesequestionssurroundingenvironmentallaborandleisureconnecttoanothersetofquestionsI’dbeinterestedtohearChiangaddress:namely,howJapaneseAmericaninternmentmightspeaktoAmericans’changingrelationshipsto


theenvironmentinarapidlyurbanizing(andsuburbanizing)nation.Paintingwithexceptionallybroadstrokes,urbanizationmeantthatfewerandfewerAmericans—especiallyracialandethnicminoritiesthatwouldincreasinglyclusterincitiesafterWorldWarIIasmiddle-classwhitespopulatedsuburbs—primarilyunderstoodnaturethroughlabor(atleastviaextractiveindustrieslikeagriculture,timber,mining,fishing,etc.).Instead,naturebecamealeisureretreat—someplacevisited,notdwelledin.Despitethesetrends,thesortofagriculturallaborundertakenatinternmentcampstendstoleadNatureBehindBarbedWiretofocusonJapaneseAmericanswithpriorexperienceinagriculture,seekingcontinuitiesanddiscontinuitiesconcerning“JapaneseAmericans’environmentalknowledge”thatwasnotableontheWestCoastbecause“workersknewhowtoplantandharvestcropsinaspecificandunusualenvironmentalcontext”(22).That’safascinatingstory,butitmademewonderjusthowvarieddetainees’“environmentalknowledge”was—beyondagriculture—becausetheJapaneseAmericansatthefourcampsChiangexaminesindepth“camefromawideswathofruralandurbanlocalesupanddownthePacificCoast”(4)includingurbandwellersfromLosAngeles,theSanFranciscoBayArea,Seattle,andPortland.Indeed,fewerthanhalfofthenearly50,000adultdetaineesinMilitaryArea1wereemployedinagriculture(29);priortoincarceration,detaineeshelda“rangeofoccupations,fromfarmersandforesterstoskilledprofessionalsandbusinessproprietors”(69),andatonecamp,“only200outofthe8,000[…]hadeverlivedonafarm”(qtdon105).Inotherwords,amajorityofdetainees—insomecasesanoverwhelmingmajority—hadbeenurban-dwellerspriortoincarceration. Therearehintsofthesortsoftensionsthisurban/ruraldividecreated:welearnthat“Asurbanitesmixedwithcountrydwellers,conflictssometimesemerged”(69)andthatbecausedetaineeswholaboredinWyoming“weremostlyurbanitesaccustomedtoaneight-hourdayandmodernhousingwithsanitationandheat,theyfoundrurallifeunpleasantandfailedtomeetfarmers’expectations”(136).Butwiththefocusonnatureasagricultural“workscape,”asThomasAndrewscalleditinKillingforCoal,IwonderifwelosesomesenseofthediversityofJapaneseAmericanunderstandingsofnature,andtheextenttowhichplace—cityandcountry,notjustraceandethnicity—shapedthoseunderstandings.Andwhile,asInoteabove,NatureBehindBarbedWiredevotesanexcellentchaptertodetainees’leisureinthenaturalenvironment,it’snotentirelyclearifeitherenvironmentallabororleisureininternmentcamps—andhencetheenvironmentalsignificanceofinternmentitself—resonateddifferentlyforurban-dwellingJapaneseAmericanscomparedtothosewhohadcomefromlivesclosertotheland,sotospeak.ThisquestionofJapaneseAmericans’urbanorruralbackgroundspre-internmentseemsevenmorepotentgiventhatfarmlandsdispossessedandagriculturalmarketnichesdestroyedduringinternmentseemstohave,onthewhole,furtherurbanizedJapaneseAmericansafterWorldWarII(196);morethan6,000detaineesresettledinChicagoalone(177). Myownresearchhasgrappledwiththeseurban/ruralandleisure/laborissuesinthecontextoftheAfricanAmericanGreatMigration,andit’salsoledmeto


thinkalotabouthowtheparticularitiesofplacegovernenvironmentalrelationshipsforracialandethnicminorities.FortheAfricanAmericanmigrantsIwriteaboutinLandscapesofHope,forexample,theinterplaybetweenthesocial,political,cultural,andenvironmentalwasfundamentallydifferentintheAmericanSouththanitwasintheNorth;migrationnecessitatedadaptationtonewenvironments,thetranslationofculturalpractices,andtheforgingofnewenvironmentalrelationships.ThewaysinwhichplacedictatesthosechangesarewhyI’dbecurioustohearmoreaboutthechoicetofocusonfouroftheteninternmentcamps,allfourofwhichwereintheWest.ThatfocusmakesNatureBehindBarbedWireanindispensablecontributiontotheregion’senvironmentalhistory;asChiangrightlyasserts,thebookoffersnewinsightson“keythemesinthehistoryoftheAmericanWest—theprevalenceofpubliclands,theinfluenceofaridity,andanenduringrecordofdisplacementandsocialinequality”(6).ButitcomesattheexpenseofbracketingofftwoArkansasinternmentcamps(RohwerandJerome)thathousedbetween15,000and20,000detainees,about1/6thetotalinternmentpopulation(I’malittlebitashamedtosaythis,butIhadnoideathesetwointernmentcampsexisted).Thosecampswerelocatedinthe“marshydeltaoftheMississippiRiverfloodplain[which]containedbayousandswampsandweresurroundedbyforests”(7),anenvironmentfardifferentthanthearidmountainWest.Chiangwritesthat,“Whilejuxtaposingthesouthernandwesterncampscouldyieldsomeintriguingpointsofcomparison,itisbeyondthescopeofthebook”(7)andconcludesthat,“Theexactlocationoftheirconfinementwas,insomerespects,lessimportantthanthelargerprocessinwhichtheyparticipated”(7).I’mnotsureI’mcompletelycomfortablewiththatdevaluationoftheparticularityofplace—atleastinanenvironmentalhistory—inpartbecausetheArkansascamps’environmentsdifferedsoradicallyfromtheiraridWesterncounterparts,nottomentiontheWestCoastenvironmentsfromwhichdetaineesweredrawn.DetaineesinArkansaspresumablydidn’thavetocontendwiththeduststorms(61-65)or,asoneinterneenoted,“theabsenceofgreenthings”(qtdon60)thatlargelydefinedlifeintheWesterncamps,forinstance,andArkansasthunderstormswereanotabledeparturefromwhatdetaineeswerefamiliarwithontheWestCoast(59-60). ThinkingmorespecificallyabouttherelationshipsbetweenraceandenvironmentinSoutherninternmentcamps,IwonderwhatsortofinterracialinsightsmightbereachedfromthestoryofJapaneseAmericaninternmentcampsinthelandofslaveryandJimCrow.ChiangpointsoutthatintheseArkansascamps,“JapaneseAmericanslogged[thesurroundingforests]forheatingfuel”(7),anditimmediatelymademethinkofcenturiesofAfricanAmericanenvironmentallaborintheSouth—clearingforests,cultivatingfields,andmore.Similarly,whenChiangwritesthat“FormostJapaneseAmericans,wartimeincarcerationwaspartofanongoingexperienceofexclusionanddiscrimination”(9),Icouldn’thelpbutthinkofthesimilarexperiencesthatAfricanAmericansharecroppersandlaborersenduredinwhatJamesCobbcalled“TheMostSouthernPlaceonEarth,”justastone’sthrowawayfromthoseArkansascamps.Whatdiditmean—todetainees,toblackSoutherners,towhiteSoutherners—forJapaneseAmericans’civillibertiestobeinfringeduponandtheirenvironmentallaborsexploitedneartheheartofthe


MississippiDelta,aplaceinmanywaysemblematicofAfricanAmericans’exclusionanddiscriminationintheSouth? ThesecomparisonsareallthemoreintriguinggiventhewayJapaneseAmericans’environmentallaborwasracialized.TheywerevaluedinWestCoastagriculturalindustriesbecauseof“theirwillingnesstoperformundesirablework”(23);whiteemployersbelievedthatJapaneseAmericanswere“goodworkers,dependableandthoroughlylawabiding.Whitemenwillnotdothework”(qtdon18)andthat“therigorsofourclimatehavebeenfoundtobeunsuitedforthemostpartevenforthestrongestofwhitemen”(qtdon22-23).ThatkindofthinkingbearsastrikingresemblancetothewaymanywhitesracializedblacklaborintheSouth(andwellbeyond),andperhapsisevenmoresimilartoenduringstereotypesaboutLatinxagriculturallabor.Ofcourse,allthisisgettingalittlefarafieldfromJapaneseAmericaninternmentspecifically,andIdon’tfaultChiangatallforstayingfocusedonthatparticularexperience—youhavetodrawtheboundariessomewhere,andNatureBehindBarbedWireisacoherent,focusedaccountoftheenvironmentalimplicationsofinternment.ButIraisetheseissuespartlyasawayofthinkingthroughhowenvironmentalhistorians,withplaceasourprimarylensofinquiry,maybeuniquelypositionedtobreakthroughorreachacrosstraditionaldisciplinaryboundariesthattendtolimitanalysistoaparticularracialorethnicgrouptotheexclusionofothers. Potentiallyonewaytoanchorthesequestionsabouthowdifferentracialgroupsforgeddifferentorsimilarenvironmentalrelationshipsinthesametimesandplacesistoexaminehowtheyengagedwithspecificinstitutionsorenvironmental(ist)movements.Inthisparticularcase,IwonderhowtheenvironmentalrelationsJapaneseAmericandetaineesforgedincampsfitintothebroaderhistoriographicalunderstandingofraceandtheevolvingconservationmovementinthisperiod.Anenvironmentalhistoryofinternment—andespeciallythesortofenvironmentallabormanydetaineesundertook—invitescomparisonstoNewDealpublicworksagencies,mostofwhichendedataboutthesametimeinternmentbeganin1942,pivotingonthebombingofPearlHarborinDecember1941andtheUnitedStates’entryintoWorldWarII.AsChiangpointsout,oneofthemost“criticaldistinctions”betweenthetwowasthatJapaneseAmericans“laboredunderconditionsofforcibleconfinement”(41-2).Butintermsoftheconnectionsmanydetaineeshadwiththenaturalenvironment,similaritiestotheCivilianConservationCorps,inparticular,arestriking.Perhapsmostimportantly,asChiangwrites,“MuchliketheCivilianConservationCorps(CCC),theWRApromotedtheuseoflabortobothimprovepubliclandandAmericanizeitscharges”(41).Additionally,justastheCCCwasmeanttorehabilitatenaturalresourcestoaideconomicrecoveryduringtheDepression,WRAlaborwasmeantto“harnessnaturalresourcesforthewareffort”(43);bothleveragedtheexpertiseofconservationistsinagenciesliketheSoilConservationService.ButwhiletheovertcomparisonsbetweentheWRAandNewDealagenciesinNatureBehindBarbedWiremostlyendthere,othersimilaritiesarealsostriking.Forexample,onecampinparticular,MinidokainIdaho,wasselectedinpartdueto“JapaneseAmericans’abilityto


improvethelandforwhites”(47),andafterthewar(overwhelminglywhite)“veteransalsoreceivedprioritytopurchaselandandbarracks”atseveralcampsJapaneseAmericanshadbuiltorimproved(203).Similarly,asIwriteinLandscapesofHope,thelong-termbenefitsofAfricanAmericans’environmentallaborintheCCC(higheragriculturalyields,moreabundantrecreationalareas,andthelike)mostlyaccruedtowhites. Alltheseinequalities(andmore)wereperpetuatedundertheauspicesofgovernmentagenciesliketheCCCthat,asNeilMaherwritesinNature’sNewDeal,emphasizedpatrioticreasonsfortranslatingearly-twentiethcenturyconservationistidealsintoaprescriptionforremedyingsocialandenvironmentalstrifeintheDepression.Insodoing,theCCCarguablyhelpedlaythefoundationsofthemodernAmericanenvironmentalmovementbycreatingagenerationofpost-warconservationiststhatcarriedwiththemagreaterappreciationforhuman-natureinterrelationshipsasaresultoftheirenvironmentallabor.IwonderhowJapaneseAmericans’environmentalexperiencesduringinternmentmighthelpshedlightonthesebroadertrends,particularlybecauseChiangtouchesonyouthdetainees’participationinBoyScoutsandGirlScouts(159-162)andlocalconservationists’suspicionthatdetaineefishermenweredepletingstocks(159),bothofwhichbroughttomindAfricanAmericans’similarexperiences(ontheformer,seeLandscapesofHopeaswellasMarciaChatelain’sSouthSideGirls,whichexaminetheroleofscoutingintheblackcommunity;onthelatter,seeScottGiltner’sHuntingandFishingintheNewSouth,whichdetailsthewayJimCrowconservationismwasoftenwieldedasacudgelagainstblackSoutherners,proppingupwhitesupremacy).Morepointedly:isthereanywayinwhichinternmenthelpsshedlightonhow“mainstream”Americanenvironmentalism/conservationisminthepost-WWIIerabecame—orremained—apredominantlywhitemiddle-classmovement(atleastinasmuchasthecontoursofthemovementweredefinedanddrivenbylargeenvironmentalNGOsandsoforth)? Lastbutnotleast,Ihavearelatedmethodologicalquestion:I’msomewhatselfishly(giventhechallengesIfacedinmyownresearchontheCCC)eagertohearChiang’sthoughtsonthepromisesandperilsofwritingenvironmentalhistoriesaboutsubjectsthatarethicklydocumentedbygovernmentagencies.AsChiangwritesintheintroduction,“voluminousrecordsoftheWRAfigureprominently”inNatureBehindBarbedWire“astheyprovideadetailedportraitofthecamps’dailyoperationsfromtheperspectivesofgovernmentofficials”(8-9).TherecordsoftheCCC,likemanyothergovernmentagenciesparticularlyfromtheNewDealeraforward,arealsovoluminous,andaboontoresearchers.ButasChiangpointsout,thosedocumentsalmostinevitablyskewtowardtheperspectiveofthoseinpower(governmentofficials,whowereoverwhelminglywhitemen)andevenafantasticjobofreadingbetweenthelinesinadditiontousingsourcematerialfromtheperspectiveofthemarginalized—bothofwhichChiangdoestogreateffectthroughoutthebook—cansometimesstillleavethereaderwithafrustratinglyimbalancedsenseofhowtheenvironmentwassignificanttomarginalizedgroups.Oneofthemomentswherethisimbalancecomestotheforeisintheaccountof


detainees’researchintosupplyingrubberfromguayule,“asmall,woodydrought-resistantshrubthatresembledsagebrushandwasnativetothesouthwesternUnitedStatesandnorthernMexico”(137).TheWRA’sdocumentationillustratestheracial(andevenracist)dimensionsoftheproject,butwe’restilllargelylefttospeculateastothewaydetaineesthemselvesviewedtheirparticipation.AsChiangputsit,whileWRAofficials“clearlyinvokedenvironmentalpatriotismtodescribetheguayuleprojectandtoeitherdefendorchallengetheincarcerationofJapaneseAmericans,itisnotcleartowhatextent[detainees]pursuedthisworkinanefforttoprovetheirloyalty”(145).Intheend,then,thisparticularvignettearguablyrevealsmuchmoreaboutthoseinpowerthanaboutthemarginalized.Thisisbutoneinstanceinanarrativethatgenerallydoesanexcellentjobofilluminatinginternment’senvironmentalsignificancetodetainees,however,andI’dlovetohearmoreaboutChiang’sapproachtobalancingextensivearchivalmaterialsdocumentingofficial/institutionalperspectiveswithwhatseemtobecomparativelyskimpierarchivalsourcesdocumentingdetainees’perspectives.Archivalbarrierstoaccessingtheexperiencesofmarginalizedgroupsareobviouslyproblemsthattranscendenvironmentalhistory,butinsomewaysIthinktheymayactuallybemorevexingtoenvironmentalhistorianssincetheenvironmentitselfsooftenisrelegatedtothemarginsofarchivaldocumentation.Researchersworkingattheintersectionofraceandtheenvironmentoftenconfrontasortofdoublearchivalmarginalization,then,andNatureBehindBarbedWireisinspiringforthewaysinwhichitoverwhelminglysucceedsinsurmountingtheseobstacles.Itwasagreatpleasuretohavehadtheopportunitytoengagethisdeeplywithsuchanexcellentbook,andIhopeenvironmentalhistorianscontinuepushingthefieldinthisdirectionintheyearstocome,enrichingourknowledgeofthewaysdiversecommunitiesexperienceandunderstandtheenvironment.


ResponsebyConnieY.Chiang,BowdoinCollege

henKeithWoodhouseapproachedmeaboutthisroundtable,Iwaskeentogatheragroupofscholarswhowouldbringmultipleperspectivestomywork.Thebookis,firstandforemost,anenvironmentalhistory,butI

wantedtoengagecolleagueswhowerenotself-identifiedenvironmentalhistorians.Indeed,whenIstartedthisproject,oneofmygoalswastoencouragescholarsindisparatefieldstoconsiderthevalueofanenvironmentalperspectivewhenstudyingandteachingtheJapaneseAmericanincarceration.Keithimmediatelyunderstoodmyidealroundtableandassembledastellargroup.MeganAsaka,DuncanRyūkenWilliams,andBrianMcCammackbringarangeofintellectualandpersonalperspectivestotheirreviews.IamdeeplygratefulfortheirthoughtfulcritiquesofNatureBehindBarbedWire. BeforepursuinganacademiccareerinAsianAmericanandurbanhistory,MeganAsakawasanoralhistorianandvisualhistorycoordinatorforDensho,theSeattle-basednon-profitorganizationdedicatedto“preserv[ing]andshar[ing]historyoftheWWIIincarcerationofJapaneseAmericanstopromoteequityandjusticetoday.”1AnyquickglanceatmynotesandbibliographymakesclearhowindebtedIamtoDensho;itsarchiveandencyclopediaareindispensableresourcesforanyoneresearchingthewartimeexperiencesofJapaneseAmericans.GivenAsaka’stimeatDenshoandthemanyinterviewssheconductedwithcampsurvivors,Iamgratifiedthatsherecognizedmyeffortstobringnewquestionstobearonthisepisode. Asaka’smaincritiqueconcernsthebook’spositiononwhattheJapaneseAmericanincarcerationilluminatesabouttherelationshipbetweenraceandenvironment.Or,assheputsit,“Whydidtheenvironmentplaysuchacriticalroleinthisparticularprojectofincarceration?”Furtherdiscussionof“theideologicalpurposeofthecampsasspacesofsocialengineering”couldhaveaddressedthisquestion.Asshenotes,Idonotignoretheseissuesbutdonotdwellonthem,either.Forinstance,inchapter2,IdrawaconnectionbetweentheWarRelocationAuthoritycampsandearlierCivilianConservationCorpscampsintheirmutualapplicationofoutdoorlabor“tobothimprovepubliclandsandAmericanizeitscharges”(41).Moreover,theunderlyingpremiseofchapter5isthatcertainenvironmentalactivities—suchasgrowingvictorygardensorcultivatingguayule—couldhelptoturndetaineesintopatrioticAmericans.Still,IrecognizethattheselinksbetweentheenvironmentandtheWRA’sassimilationgoalscouldhavebeendevelopedfurther.

Whileideologywasimportant,IthinktheanswertoAsaka’squestionalsoturnsonpracticalconsiderations.Theenvironmentplayedsuchacriticalroleinthisparticularprojectofincarcerationbecauseexpellingandconfiningover110,000

1“AboutDensho,”https://densho.org/about-densho/,accessedNovember8,2019.

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peoplerequiredspaceandresources,suchasfood,water,andenergy.Federalofficialshadtodetainthemsomewhere.Theyhadtoprovidefortheirbasicneeds.AsIdetailinchapters2and3,theseenvironmentalrequirementsshapedwherethecampswerelocatedandwhatJapaneseAmericansdidwhentheysettledthere.Withnationwidefoodandlaborshortages,theyhadtoworkonthefarms,cleantheirownlatrines,andfixtheirownleakypipes.Alloftheseactivitiesrequiredthemtoengagewiththenaturalworld.Intheprocess,JapaneseAmericansraisedquestionsaboutwhethertheyshouldworktoperpetuatetheirownrace-basedconfinement.

Asforthelargerrelationshipbetweenraceandenvironment—“whatthe

JapaneseAmericanincarcerationilluminatesaboutenvironmentalhistory”—theansweriswoventhroughoutthebook.ThereisnoquestionthattheenvironmentwaspartandparceloftheWRA’ssocialengineeringgoals,asAsakasuggests.However,itwasnotjustaforceofracialoppressionorcontrol.Insomeinstances,JapaneseAmericansharnessedtheenvironmentinordertorebufftheirracialmarginalizationandtoasserttheirplaceinAmericansociety.TheWRAalsofoundthatthevagariesofthenaturalworldstymieditseffortstoassertpoweroverdetainees.Justasinothertimesandplaces,theenvironmentservedasbothaforceandinstrumenttosimultaneouslyestablish,circumvent,andrejectracialdomination.Therelationshipbetweenraceandenvironmentwasthuscomplexandrarelystraightforward.2

DuncanRyūkenWilliams,arenownedscholarofBuddhismandauthorofthemuch-acclaimedAmericanSutra:TheStoryofFaithandFreedomintheSecondWorldWar,focuseshiscritiqueontwokeyomissions.First,IdonotexaminetheseventeentemporaryassemblycenterswhereJapaneseAmericanstypicallyspenttwotothreemonthsaftertheirinitialexpulsionfromtheirhomes.Williamsquestionsmyreasonsforleavingthemout,usingthecompellingstoryofHisaAokitodemonstratehowlivingconditionsintheassemblycenterswereharsherandjustasbewilderingasthoseofthetenpermanentWRAcamps.JapaneseAmericans’timeinthetemporaryfacilitiesundoubtedlyrepresentedaformofenvironmentaldisplacementthatwastraumaticandunsettling,buttheywerenotexperiencingentirelynewclimatesorsurroundedbyunfamiliargeographicalfeatures.Theyalsohadfarmoretimetoengagewithandalterthelandinthepermanentcamps.Thesearecriticaldistinctions.Still,Williamsraisesanintriguingpoint,andIwelcomefutureresearchontheenvironmentalhistoryofthetemporaryassemblycentersandcomparisonstotheWRAcamps. WilliamsalsocallsattentiontomydecisiontoexcludetheArkansascamps,JeromeandRohwer,frommystudy.BrianMcCammack,authoroftheaward-

2Forarecentdiscussionofthisscholarship,seeKathleenA.Brosnan,“TheLiftingFog:Race,Work,andtheEnvironment,”EnvironmentalHistory,Volume24,no.1(January2019):9–24.SeealsoConnieY.Chiang,“RaceandEthnicityinEnvironmentalHistory,”inOxfordHandbookofEnvironmentalHistory,editedbyAndrewC.Isenberg(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2014),573-599.


winningLandscapesofHope:NatureandtheGreatMigrationinChicago,makesasimilarcriticism.TheybothnotethattheArkansascampsprovideasharpsocialcontrasttotheothercamps,asJapaneseAmericansthereencounteredthemoresoftheJimCrowSouth.ThispointresonateswithAsaka’scritique;anexaminationofJeromeorRohwerwouldcertainlyaddfurtherinsightintotherelationshipbetweenraceandenvironment.AlthoughJohnHowardandJasonMorganWardhavealreadyexploredthecomplexplaceofJapaneseAmericansintheArkansasracialhierarchy,moreworkcouldbedoneonhowthenaturalenvironmentshapedtheirtenuousposition.3LikeWilliamsandMcCammack,IamintriguedbypossiblecomparisonsbetweentheracializationofJapaneseAmericanandAfricanAmericanlaborintheSoutherncontext.IamalsocurioustowhatextentthehistoryofslaveryresonatedwithJapaneseAmericansastheyworkedtheMississippiDelta. InexplainingmydecisiontoexcludeJeromeandRohwer,Iassertthatthe“exactlocation”ofconfinementwaslessimportantthanthelargerenvironmentalprocessofincarceration.McCammackcalledthispointthe“devaluationoftheparticularityofplace,”andIrecognizenowthesloppinessofmystatement.IdidnotmeantosuggestthatthespecificenvironmentsofthecampswereirrelevanttoJapaneseAmericans’experiences.Rather,Iwantedtobeclearthatmybookwasprovidingabroaderframeworkforunderstandingtheincarcerationasawhole.WhetherthecampwasinArkansasorWyomingorCalifornia,Iarguethattheincarcerationwasanenvironmentalprocess,“deeplyembeddedinthelandsandwatersalongthecoastandthecampsfurtherinland”(5).Theparticularitiesoftheprocessvariedbylocation,buttherewerecommonissuesandactivities—labor,agriculture,andrecreation,forexample—thatshapedallofthem.Ultimately,Ihopethatfuturescholarswillexaminetheenvironmentalhistoryofallthecamps,buildingupon,modifying,andevenrefutingmyframework.

Ialsowanttonotethatscholarsoftenhavetomakedifficultdecisionswhendefiningthescopeoftheirprojects,sometimesomitting—muchtotheirchagrin—importanttopicsandmaterialsintheinterestofdeeperanalysisormoreconcisebooks.Thus,excludingtheassemblycentersandsixpermanentcampswasalsoapragmaticdecision.WhenIfirststartedmyresearch,Ihadambitionstostudymorecampsbutquicklydiscoveredthateachfacilitygeneratedcopiousprimarysources,fromfederalcorrespondenceandcampnewspaperstomemoirsandoralhistories.Intheinterestoftime,space,andanalyticaluniformity,Ifounditabsolutelynecessarytolimitmystudytofourcamps.

McCammackalsoposesseveralprobingquestionsabouttheroleofJapaneseAmericans’ruralandurbanbackgroundsinshapingtheirengagementinlabororleisureactivities.Ashepointsout,thebookdevotesconsiderableattentionto

3JohnHoward,ConcentrationCampsontheHomeFront:JapaneseAmericansintheHouseofJimCrow(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2008);JasonMorganWard,“‘NoJapCrow’:JapaneseAmericansEncountertheWorldWarIISouth,”JournalofSouthernHistory73,no.1(February2007):75-104.


detaineeswithprioragriculturalexpertise,moresothananyothertypeofenvironmentalknowledge.Thisfocusmarginalizestheenvironmentalexperiencesofmanyurbandwellers,glossingoverthewaysinwhichcitylivingshapedtheirunderstandingsofnature,too.Thisleadstohisbiggerpoint:“it’snotentirelyclearifeitherenvironmentallabororleisureininternmentcamps—andhencetheenvironmentalsignificanceofinternmentitself—resonateddifferentlyforurban-dwellingJapaneseAmericanscomparedtothosewhohadcomefromlivesclosertotheland.”Thisisanexcellentpoint,andIagreethatIcouldhavepaidmoreconsistentattentiontothisdistinctionthroughoutthebook. Thatsaid,theurban/ruraldividedidnotalwaysmapneatlyontothelabor/leisuredivide.Putanotherway,urbandwellersdidnotjustseenatureasaplaceofleisure,whileruraldwellersdidnotjustseenatureasaplaceoflabor.4Infact,someurbandwellersdevelopedtheirenvironmentalknowledgethroughlabor.ThiswasthecaseatManzanar,whereexperiencednurserymenandgardenerscamefromthegreaterLosAngelesregionandhonedtheirskillsinarecentlyurbanizedarea.Inthecamps,acurioustransformationoccurred.Whatwasonceaformofenvironmentallabor—raisingornamentalplantsforandtendingtothegardensofwhiteclients—becameaformofenvironmentalleisure,astheycouldnowconstructandtendtotheirowngardensforpersonalbenefit.GardeninghelpedthemforgeapathtowardgreaterautonomyevenastheincarcerationreinforcedJapaneseAmericaninferiority.Ontheflipside,someJapaneseAmericansfromruralbackgroundshadextensiveleisureexperiencesinnature.ConsidertheYasuifamilyofOregon’sHoodRiverValley.MasuoYasuibecameasuccessfulbusinessmanandorchardist,buthischildrengrewupfishingforsalmon,campinginthewoods,andswimminginalocalcove.5Theirparticipationintheseleisureactivitiesalsoreflectedagenerationaldivide,whichfurthercomplicatesattemptstogeneralizeaboutJapaneseAmericanexperienceswithorknowledgeofthenaturalworld.Avarietyoffactors—generation,age,gender,education,inadditiontourbanorruralbackground—shapedthewaysthatJapaneseAmericansinteractedwiththeenvironment. Indeed,environmentalknowledgewasnotjustacquiredthroughlabororleisure.IcannothelpbutthinkofToyoSuyemoto,whosememoir,ICalltoRemembrance,includesperceptiveobservationsofthenaturalworldinbothproseandpoetry.IquoteherdescriptionofthesilenceofTopaz,whichlackedthemelodiousbirdsongsofherhomeinBerkeley,California(60).ThatSuyemotonoticedthatcampsoundeddifferentbecauseoftheabsenceofcertainsongbirdswasnot,Ithink,areflectionofapre-incarcerationlifelivedclosertoorfurtherawayfromtheland.I’mguessingthatshewassimplyattunedtotheworldaroundher,urbanorotherwise.

4LawrenceLipin,WorkersandtheWild:Conservation,Consumerism,andLaborinOregon,1910-30(Urbana:UniversityofIllinoisPress,2007).5LaurenKessler,StubbornTwig:ThreeGenerationsintheLifeofaJapaneseAmericanFamily(Corvallis:OregonStateUniversityPress,2005),109-110.


ThedifficultyofdetermininghowenvironmentallabororleisureresonateddifferentlyforurbanandruralJapaneseAmericansisalsoareflectionofthesourcebaseforthisproject.Inmanyaccounts,itisunclearifdetainees’environmentalactivitieswereinfluencedbytheirurbanorruralbackgroundsoranyotherelementoftheiridentities.Forinstance,inchapter6,IdiscusshowdetaineesatGilaRiverrevivedaculturaltraditionof“moonviewing”inwhichtheywentonwalksduringthefullmoonandrecitedhaikuandtankapoems.ThisactivitywasobservedbyRobertSpencer,afieldworkerfortheJapaneseAmericanEvacuationandResettlementStudy.Henoted,“Now…thatthereisleisuretime,andthatthemoonlightnightsarereminiscentofthoseofJapan,thedesiretodothishasreturnedonthepartofsome”(150).BecausehereferredtoeveningsinJapan,IcansurmisethatitwastheIsseiwhoparticipated.Itisalsoclearthathewasreferringtoindividualswhohadworkedpriortoincarceration,astheynowhadleisuretimetoengageinthisactivity.Butwhatkindofwork?SinceGilaRiver’spopulationdrewfrombothurbanandruralareasinCalifornia,therearemanypossibilities.Withoutadditionalsources,Idonotknowhoworifdetainees’urbanorruralbackgroundsinfluencedthisleisureactivity. ThequestionofsourcesbringsmetoMcCammack’sfinalquestionaboutthe“promisesandperils”ofusingfederalsourcestowritestudiesattheintersectionofraceandenvironment.I’lladdressthepromisesfirst.TheWarRelocationAuthorityrecordsprovedtobeteemingwithmaterialspertinenttotheenvironmentalhistoryoftheincarceration.Ifoundboxesoverflowingwithreportsaboutthecampsitesunderconsideration,thefarmprojects,andtherecreationalprograms,justtonameafewtopics.Sometimes,Idugalittledeepertofindmaterial.Forinstance,eachcamphadaprojectattorneywhooftenadjudicatedlegalissuesinvolvingdetainees.IhadahunchthatIwouldfindplentyofrelevantinformationinthiscorrespondence,andIwasright.Inadditiontostoriesoffarmlandandcropsleftbehind,itwasherethatIdiscoveredthestoryofTakanoAsano,whowasburnedbyhotroofingtaratTopaz(56-57).Thisincidentdidnotimmediatelyscream“environmental,”butIwasstruckbyitslargerenvironmentalcontext—thatconfiningpeopleinthedesertrequiredhousing,andthequalityofthehousingtypicallydidnotmatchtheharshconditions.Ihadtoteaseouttheenvironmentalsignificanceofthisincidentandothers,butIdidnotfindthattheenvironmentwasburiedverydeeply,ifatall,intheWRArecords.

However,IdidfacetheperilsoftheWRArecords,namelythemarginalizationofJapaneseAmericanvoices.WhiletherecordssometimescontainedcorrespondencefromJapaneseAmericans,theWRAofficials’voicesarethemostpronounced.Theirlettersandreportsarelargelydescriptive,withsomesubstantivecommentaryoncampeventsandmanagementissues.Wheneverpossible,IanalyzedJapaneseAmericanoralhistoriesandpersonalnarrativesalongsidethesesources.Fortunately,mosttopicscoveredinthisbookhadcorrespondingJapaneseAmericanmaterialsfromwhichtodraw.However,asMcCammacknoticed,theguayuleprojectwasonetopicwithadearthofJapanese


Americanmaterials.BecauseIhadtorelyalmostentirelyonWRArecords,Icouldonlyofferarangeofpossiblemotivationsfortheirparticipationinthisprogram,basedonwhatIhadlearnedabouttheirmotivationsinothercontexts.Iremainquiteunsatisfiedwithmyeducatedguesses.Nonetheless,Ithinkitisimportanttoincludearangeofstoriesinournarratives,eveniftheperspectivesofthemarginalizedgroupsareobscured.Inthecaseofguayule,thefactthattheprojectgeneratedsomuchinterestandcorrespondenceultimatelyspeakstoJapaneseAmericanpowerandinfluence,eveniftheiractualvoicesarelargelysilentintherecord.

While“doublearchivalmarginalization”isarealobstacleforhistorians

workingattheintersectionofraceandenvironment,theJapaneseAmericanincarcerationhasarobustsourcebasethatusuallymitigatesagainstthisproblem.Thewillingnessofcampsurvivorstosharetheirmemories—beforeCongressinthelate1970s,withoralhistoriansoverthecourseofthree-plusdecades,andindozensofpoignantmemoirs—ensuresthatscholarscancontinuetoteaseoutthenuancesandcomplexities,environmentalandotherwise,ofthiscriticalepisodefromtheAmericanpast.Ofcourse,thesesourcesarenotwithoutproblems,butIamnonethelessgratefulforsurvivors’candorandbraveryinthefaceofinjustice.

MeganAsaka,DuncanRyūkenWilliams,andBrianMcCammackhaveshown

thatthereisstillmuchtobesaidabouttheenvironmentalhistoryoftheJapaneseAmericanincarcerationspecificallyandraceandenvironmentintheUnitedStateshistorymorebroadly.IamappreciativeoftheirsmartquestionsandthoughtfulengagementwithNatureBehindBarbedWire.Theirinsightsprovideplentyoffodderforscholarswhocontinuetoprobethehistoricalsignificanceoftheenvironmenttoracialminoritiesacrosstimeandspace.


AbouttheContributors Megan Asaka is an assistant professor of history at the University of California, Riverside. Trained as an interdisciplinary scholar and public historian, her work examines how marginalized peoples navigated, inhabited, and transformed the urban landscapes of the Pacific Northwest during the early twentieth century period. She also worked as an oral historian for Densho, a grassroots organization dedicated to preserving and sharing the stories of Japanese American history through an online archive and other digital platforms. Connie Y. Chiang is Professor of History and Environmental Studies and Director of Environmental Studies at Bowdoin College. Nature Behind Barbed Wire is her second book and the 2019 recipient of the Agricultural History Society’s Theodore Saloutus Memorial Award for best book on agricultural history. Brian McCammack is Assistant Professor of Environmental Studies at Lake Forest College, where he teaches environmental history and politics & policy. His next book examines 1970s environmentalism and the roots of the environmental justice movement. Duncan Ryūken Williams is Professor of American Studies & Ethnicity and Religion at the University of Southern California and Director of the USC Shinso Ito Center for Japanese Religions and Culture. He is the author of The Other Side of Zen (Princeton University Press) and American Sutra: A Story of Faith and Freedom in the Second World War (Harvard University Press). Keith Makoto Woodhouse is an associate professor of history at Northwestern University and director of the Environmental Policy and Culture Program. He is the author of The Ecocentrists: A History of Radical Environmentalism. Copyright©2019H-Net:HumanitiesandSocialSciencesOnlineH-Netpermitstheredistributionandreprintingofthisworkfornonprofit,educationalpurposes,withfullandaccurateattributiontotheauthor,weblocation,dateofpublication,H-Environment,andH-Net:Humanities&SocialSciencesOnline.

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