h-environment roundtable reviews · 2018-12-14 · h-environment roundtable reviews, vol. 8, no. 6...

H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviewsVolume8,No.6(2018)https://networks.h-net.org/h-environment

Publicationdate:December12,2018RoundtableReviewEditor:MelanieA.Kiechle

DagomarDegroot,TheFrigidGoldenAge:ClimateChange,theLittleIceAge,andtheDutchRepublic,1560-1720(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2018).ISBN:9781108419314.ContentsIntroductionbyMelanieA.Kiechle,VirginiaTech 2CommentsbyNicholasJ.Cunigan,CalvinCollege 4CommentsbyJamesBergman,TempleUniversity 7CommentsbyKatrinKleemann,RachelCarsonCenter/LMUMunich 12CommentsbyThomasWickman,TrinityCollege 16 ResponsebyDagomarDegroot,GeorgetownUniversity 20AbouttheContributors 28Copyright©2018H-Net:HumanitiesandSocialSciencesOnlineH-Netpermitstheredistributionandreprintingofthisworkfornonprofit,educationalpurposes,withfullandaccurateattributiontotheauthor,weblocation,dateofpublication,H-Environment,andH-Net:Humanities&SocialSciencesOnline.

H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviews,Vol.8,No.6(2018) 2

IntroductionbyMelanieA.Kiechle,VirginiaTechswefaceclimatechange,isthereanyhope?Mystudents,dismayedbythehistorytheyhavelearnedandalarmedbythenewstheyread,askthisquestionattheendofeveryenvironmentalhistorycourseIteach.Idonothaveagoodanswerforthem—untilnow,thatis.DagomarDegroothas

writtenahistorythatwillletmeoffermystudentssomecomfort.AsitexploresandexplainsthenuancedrelationshipbetweenclimatechangeandthesuccessoftheDutchRepublic,TheFrigidGoldenAge:ClimateChange,theLittleIceAge,andtheDutchRepublic,1560-1720teachesusthatsocietiescansurviveandeventhriveinthefaceofclimateextremes.Degrootaccomplishesthisfeatbydrawingupontextualsourcescommontoallhistorians—letters,intelligencereports,diaryentries,andshiplogs—whichheintegrateswithscientificreconstructionsofthepast.Bringingscienceandhistorytogetherinthiswayenrichesbothfieldsofinquiryandisacompellingexampleofhowhumanistsandscientistscanlearnfromoneanother.Ofcourse,scientistsandhistoriansoftenworkatdifferentscales.DegrootnavigatesthesescalesnotonlytorevealtheconnectionbetweenglobalclimateandlocalweathereventsintheLowCountries,butalsotoruminateonhowhistoriansmightthinkabouttherelationshipbetweentheshort,localscaleofhumanactionsandlong-term,globalclimatechanges.Thekeychallengeiswheretolocateandhowtodiscusscausality.Degrootencourageshistorianstoborrowprobabilityfromscientists,andtoopenlydiscusstheprobablecausalityofnumerousfactorsinspecificevents.Degroothasmoretosayaboutthisapproachinhisresponsetotheroundtable,sopleasereadon.ThereviewersinthisroundtablealsoseizedonthehopethatDegroot’sbookoffers,evenastheyaskedprobingquestionsaboutmethodology,approach,andhowfarweshouldextendthisoptimism.Inwhatquicklyemergedasacommontheme,NicholasJ.Cuniganbeginsbynotingthatthefocusonsocialprosperityisanewdirectioninclimatehistory.AsahistorianofrelationsbetweenindigenouspeoplesandtheDutchWestIndiaCompany,CunigandrawsonhissubjectexpertisetosuggestwhatincludingreligionmighthaveaddedtoTheFrigidGoldenAge,andtorecognizethatthishistoryisasominousasitishopeful—whiletheDutchprospered,otherssuffered.JamesBergmanfollowsthispointbydiscussingresilienceandrepressionintheLittleIceAge.Ahistorianofsciencewhostudiesthegenerationanduseofclimatedatainthetwentiethcentury,BergmanasksaboutthelimitsoftheclimatereconstructionsthatDegrootemploys.BergmanalsowonderswhathappenedontheperipheryoftheDutchempire,andifwecanuseDegroot’shistorytothinkaboutenvironmentaljusticeonaglobalscale.EarlymodernhistorianKatrinKleemanncontinuestheconversationbyhighlightingthemanycontributionsthatDegroothasmadethroughhisinterdisciplinaryworkbeforefocusingonaspecificgroupofactorsandtheir

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possibleunderstandingofclimatechange.Whenconsideringtherichdocumentationthatpreviousgenerationskeptabouttheweather,canhistorianstalkaboutaclimatechangeconsciousness?ThomasWickmanroundsouttheconversationwithhisreflectionsonthefieldofclimatehistory.Asascholarofpeopleincoldclimates,WickmandeeplyappreciatesDegroot’srecognitionthatpeoplereacttosimilarconditionsinvastlydifferentways—andsuggeststhatmorehistoriansshouldlookforexceptions,asDegroothas,forwhattheycanteachusaboutthepast.Therearemanystoriesyettotell.Beforeturningtothefirstsetofcomments,Iwouldliketopausehereandthankalltheroundtableparticipantsfortakingpart.Inaddition,Iwouldliketoremindreadersthatasanopen-accessforum,H-EnvironmentRoundtableReviewsisavailabletoscholarsandnon-scholarsalike,aroundtheworld,freeofcharge.Pleasecirculate.


CommentsbyNicholasJ.Cunigan,CalvinCollege

SocialProsperity:ANewDirectioninClimateHistoryinceitsinception,climatehistoryhaslargelyfocusedonthenegativeconsequencesofclimatechangeonsocietiesacrosstheglobe.Historianshavelinkedchangingclimateandextremeweathertosocietalcrises,catastrophe,

andcollapse.Thistrendhashighlightedtheimpactofextremeweatheronagriculture,harvestfailures,famines,anddisease.GeoffreyParker’sGlobalCrisisisthemostwell-knownexampleofthisdecades-longtradition.1HistorianssuchasGeorginaH.Endfieldhavereframedthediscussionbyfocusingonsocietaladaptationsandresilienceduringtimesofabnormalclimateregimes.2Degrootbuildsontheworkpioneeredbytheseandotherswhileadvancingthefieldinimportantnewdirections.Ratherthanfocusonsocietalvulnerabilities,DegrootexploresthebeneficialconsequencesoftheLittleIceAgeonDutchbusiness,warfare,andculturalexpressionsduringtherepublic’sseventeenth-centuryGoldenAge(5-6).Thisisamuch-neededandwelcomeddeparturefromthetypicaldeclensionistnarrativesofclimatehistory.TheFrigidGoldenAgeisessentialreadingforanyoneinterestedinpursuingresearchinthefieldofclimatehistory.Throughoutthebook,Degrootoffersguidance,suggestions,andmini-lessonsonhowtomergethehumanarchiveofwrittenrecordswiththenaturalarchiveofclimatescience,insistingalongthewaythatclimatehistoriansmustbecautiousindrawingconnectionsbetweenstatisticaltrendsandhumanevents(17).Degroot,meticulousinhisownmethodology,appliesthislogicmostfullyinhisanalysisofDutchseventeenth-centurywinterlandscapes.HearguesthatwhileitmightseemobvioustodrawconnectionsbetweentheweatheroftheLittleIceAgeandthewinterlandscapesofDutchpainterslikeHendrickAvercamp,theseconnectionsarenotasstraightforwardasthemightappear(263-268,276).Instead,Degrootrightfullyinsiststhathistoriansmust“contextualizehoweachartworkwascreated”(266).Indoingso,hehighlightsthepossibilitiesaswellasthelimitsofconnectingclimatechangeandweathertothepast.DegrootadeptlycontextualizeshisanalysisoftheimpactofclimatechangeandweatherontheDutchRepublicwithinthecultural,socioeconomic,andpoliticalstructuresofthetime.Indoingso,heavoidsfallingintothetrapofclimatedeterminismandinsteadshowsthecapacityofweathertolimitorexpandhumanchoices(16).ThiscontextualizationshinesinDegroot’sanalysisoftheimpactof

1GeoffreyParker,GlobalCrisis:War,ClimateChangeandCatastropheintheSeventeenthCentury(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2013).2GeorginaH.Endfield,ClimateandSocietyinColonialMexico:AStudyinVulnerability(Malden,MA:BlackwellPublishers,2008);GeorginaH.Endfield,“TheResilienceandAdaptiveCapacityofSocial-EnvironmentalSystemsinColonialMexico,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences109(2012):3676–81,https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1114831109.

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changingwindpatternsonnavalbattlesandmovementsduringtheDutch-AngloWarsandGloriousRevolution.ShiftingwindpatternswouldeventuallyprovidetheDutchnavywithanadvantageovertheEnglish,butasDegrootwrites,“[c]limatechanges…wereacatalystfor,butrarelyacauseof,militaryvictoriesanddefeats”(195).Degroot’sabilitytocontextualizeweatherwithinthe“bigstructuresthatgiveshapetohumanhistory”makehisworkrelevanttoawideaudiencethatextendsbeyondclimatehistorians(16).DegrootpairshisargumentthattheLittleIceAgewasanactiveagentinDutchGoldenAgehistorywithaconvictionthatthecomplexityofhuman-climateinteractionsbeliesstraightforwardrelationships.Throughout,Degroottempershisconclusionsbyinsistingthatweather“mayhave”impactedthingsaswiderangingasthecostandtimingofroadmaintenance(145),Dutchunderstandingsofnature(149),themutiniesofSpanishtroops(168),andGoldenAgeliterature(285)tonameafew.Degrootrightlycautionsreadersfromdrawingaclearlineofcausation.Yet,inrepeatedlydeployingamodalsentenceconstruction,Degrootrisksleavingreaderswithandimpressionthatthesignificanceofclimatechangeandweatheronhumaneventsisopen-endedandspeculative.Howcanclimatehistoriansuntangletheconnectionsbetweenclimateandhumaneventsinawaythatmovesawayfromconclusionsof“probablecausality”towardsconclusionsofgreatercertainty,whilealsorecognizingthelimitationsofthefield(17)?Greatercertaintywillsurelyrequiremoreworktobedoneinthefieldsofhistoricalclimatologyandclimatehistory.Degrootisattheforefrontofanewwaveofinterdisciplinaryscholarscapableofnavigatingthesciencesandhumanitiesinfluid,novel,anddynamicways.Inordertoensurethiswavecontinuesandexpands,abroaderacceptanceamongsthumanistsandperhapsinsistenceuponcollaborativescholarshipisneeded.Degrootacknowledgeshistemptationtowriteamoreexpansivebookthatmighthavecoveredmoregroundwhilesacrificingdepth(9).AndonecannotfaultDegrootforreigninginthistemptation;however,thereligiousattitudesanddifferencesofDutchCatholicsandProtestantsseemnotablyabsentinDegroot’sanalysisofDutchculturalresponsestotheLittleIceAge.Inhisdiscussionofseventeenth-centurywitch-hunts,DegroothighlightsDutchReformedpastorBalthasarBekker’sbiblicalexegesisthatledhimtotheconclusionthatscripturalreferencestowitcheswereinfactfigurativeallegoriesofsin(289).Bekkerfoundsupportforhisviewsamongstthe“enlightened”public,buthislocalAmsterdamconsistoryandthepublicChurchreceivedhisinterpretationwithhostilityanddemandedhebestrippedofhisministry.3OneisleftwonderinghowadeeplyreligiouspeopleliketheDutchregistered,interpreted,orrespondedtothechangingclimatearoundthemandtowhatextentDutchProtestantsexhibitedthesame“pragmaticattitude”thatDegrootfinds“typicalofGoldenAgeculture”(297).

3JonathanI.Israel,TheDutchRepublic:ItsRise,Greatness,andFall1477-1806(NewYorkCity:OxfordUniversityPress,1995),925-927.


DegrootconcludesTheFrigidGoldenAgewithanominousandprescientwarning.“[E]venmoderateclimatechangeshelpedshapethecourseofhumanhistory,andwhatourfuturehasinstoreisanythingbutmoderate.Ifwearenotcareful,warmingmayeventuallyoverwhelmevenourbesteffortstoadapttoit”(309).JustdaysbeforeIsatdowntowritethisreview,theIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC)releasedtheirassessmentreportontheimpactof1.5-and2.0-degreesCelsiuswarmingabovepre-industriallevels.Sincetheearth’sclimatehasalreadywarmedonedegreesincethisperiod,theworldisonlyone-halfdegreeaway.Theassessmentofferedasoberingportraitoftherisksglobalsocietiesfaceevenifhumanscurtailtheroughly50billiontonsofCO2releasedintotheatmosphereeachyear.Inlightofthisreport,perhapsthemostpressinglessonDegrootoffersisthateven“moderateclimatechangescanhaveveryunequalconsequencesfordifferentsocieties”(308).Climatehistoriansshouldandmustprovideexamplesofhowpastsocietiesfaredasaresultofchangingclimate.Thesewillincludenarrativesofcrisis,collapse,adaptation,andresiliency.Now,thankstoDegroot,wecanalsolearnsomethingabouthowsocietiesprospered.IftheDutchRepublicprosperedduringtheLittleIceAgewhilemuchoftheworlddescendedintoaglobalcrisis,whowillprosperandwhowillsuffertoday?


CommentsbyJamesBergman,TempleUniversity

ResilienceandRepressionintheLittleIceAgesIfinishthiscomment,aheadlineappearedontheAtlantic’s“Citylab”newsletter:“TheDutchCan’tSaveUsfromRisingSeas.”4ThearticlereferredspecificallytothehydraulicexpertisethathasmadetheDutchfamousand

maybeingreaterneedassealevelsrise,butI’vebeenmullingovertheroleoftheDutchindealingwithclimatechangesincereadingDagomarDegroot’sFrigidGoldenAge.Degroot’sbookcapturedmyimaginationfortworeasons.First,heskillfullytranslatesregionalandglobalpatternstolocallandscapes,seascapes,andcityscapes.Byintroducingathirddimension—theatmosphere—tothestudyofhybridlandscapesandwaterscapes,hecreatesanenvironmentthatis,touseawordDegrootfrequentlyuses,dynamicintheshorttermandlongterm.ThesecondreasonDegroot’sworkissosuggestiveandfertileisthatitexaminesastoryofprosperityinthefaceofclimatechange.HeiscarefulnottolethisaccountminimizethethreatofclimatechangeintheAnthropocene—theLittleIceAge,forallthehavocitwrought,wastheresultoflessthanadegreeCelsiusofcooling,versusthe1.5-Cormorewarmingwehaveinstore.Infact,thebookcommunicatestheurgencyofclimatechangeallthemoreclearlybyusingtheDutchRepublicasacasestudyinresilience.Degroot’sDutchrepublicwasnotjustculturallyprolific,orrich,orpowerful,butagileinitsadaptationstoachangingclimate.Inadditiontosoil,water,roads,dikes,andcanals,Degrootconsidersrain,snow,ice,andwind,andheconsidersthemalongsidetraderoutes,shipdesign,andcommunityrituals,allimportantfactorsinDutchresilience.DegrootcontrastshissuccesscasewithGeoffreyParker’ssuccesscase,Japan,whichdidjustabouttheoppositeoftheDutch,turninginward,cuttingofftrade,andimposingarigidlyautocraticsocialandpoliticalsystem.5Degroot’ssympathiesclearlyresidewiththeDutch,asdomine,ifgiventhischoice.Atthesametime,therearenumerousreasonstothinkoftheDutchcaseasacautionarytale.AfteraconcisebutcarefulexpositionontheLittleIceAgeandthescienceandsourcesheusestoreconstructthelocalweatheroftheperiod,Degrootconsiderstheimpactsofcoolingthroughinthreedifferentpointsofinfluence:commerce,war,andculture.Thestrongestandmostinterestingpart,tomymind,ishisconsiderationoftheimpactsoftheLittleIceAgeontransportationnetworksandthecirculationofcommodities.InDegroot’sanalysis,water,wind,andiceblendwiththeconstructionoflow,sturdyships,thewarehousingofsurplusgrainstocks

4BillyFleming,“WhytheU.S.Can’tApproachClimateAdaptationLiketheNetherlands,”CityLab,October17,2018,https://www.citylab.com/perspective/2018/10/the-dutch-cant-save-us-from-rising-seas/573079/.5DagomarDegroot,TheFrigidGoldenAge :ClimateChange,theLittleIceAge,andtheDutchRepublic,1560-1720,n.d.,304;seealsoGeoffreyParker,GlobalCrisis:War,ClimateChangeandCatastropheintheSeventeenthCentury,FirstEditionedition(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2013),484–506,https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/templeuniv-ebooks/detail.action?docID=3421144.

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incaseofcropfailure,andtheconsolidationofoverseasventurestobetterabsorbrisk.Dutchmercantileprowessisanoldstory,butbyweavinginyear-to-yearchangesofwinddirection,icemass,andprecipitation,DegrootaddsafargreaterprecariousnessandcomplexitytothecommercialempireoftheDutchGoldenAge.HeredistributestheagencyfromtheDutch,themselves,tothechangingice,water,andwindthatphysicallyembodied,andoftenimpeded,thetraderelationshipstheDutchcultivated.Inthesecondpart,ahistoryoftheeightyyearsandAnglo-Dutchwars,Degrootremindshisreadersthatcommercialprowesshasoftenbeenbackedupbyconsiderablemilitarypower.Onceagain,though,Degroot’sfocusonclimateimmersesusinmuchmorethanmilitarystrategy.WelearnofthewaysinwhichDutchlandscapesweremilitarizedduringsieges,theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofrainfallandfloodingduringsieges,andthedecisionstheDutchmadetofloodthefieldsoftheirowncitizenstogainadvantages.Navalbattles,aswell,wereamixtureofcalculatingtheprobabilitiesofdifferentwinddirectionsandhavingabitofluck.Thisisonecaseinwhichtheanswerwas,indeed,blowinginthewind.Consideringthatcommerceandwarfarewereoftenmutuallyconstitutiveintheseventeenthcentury,IwonderhowDegrootmightsituateDutchprosperityinthebroaderhistoryofglobalization,exemplifiedbytheworkofscholarssuchasImmanuelWallersteinandKennethPomeranz.6DegroothasmadeaconsciouschoicetofocusontheDutchRepublic,itsshippingroutes,anditsexpeditions,ratherthanits“oftenbrutalexpressionsofDutchcommercialmight.”7Thiswaslikelynecessarytomakehiscasefortheimportanceofclimateandforthemanywaysinwhichclimatechange’seffectsarerefractedthroughhumanchoices.HeisrightthatGeoffreyParker’sinvaluableglobalsurveyoftheLittleIceAgeistoobroadforthekindofin-depthanalysisDegrootwantedtodo.Butistherestillawaytogoin-depthwhilestillconsideringadaptationtoclimatechangeinmultiplenodesintheDutchtradingnetwork?InTheGreatDivergence,KennethPomeranzfindsthat,toaccountforthedivergenceineconomicdevelopmentbetweenWesternEuropeandtherestoftheworld,networksofcoercionandexploitationhadtobeconsideredinadditiontointernaleconomicfactors,andavarietyofcomparativeapproacheshadtobetakentounderstanddivergingpathsofdevelopment.8TheDutchwerenottheonlycolonizers,ofcourse,butitisworthgoingdeeperintotwocomparisons,first,howDutchcoerciondifferedfromotherstates,andsecond,whatadaptationtoclimatechangelookedlikefromthestandpointoftheirtrading“partners,”particularlythoseintheEastIndies.

6Iamthinking,specifically,ofImmanuelWallerstein“ProtectionNetworksandCommodityChainsintheCapitalistWorld-Economy"inFrontiersofCommodityChainResearch,JenniferBair,ed.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2009,pp.83–89andKennethPomeranz,TheGreatDivergence-China,Europe,andtheMakingoftheModernWorldEconomy(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2001).7Degroot,8.8Formoreondifferentapproachestocomparativeanalysis,seePomeranz,5,10.


WhatwouldthehistoryoftheDutchRepublicintheLittleIceAgelooklikeiftoldfromitsperiphery,ratherthanitscore?Whatwoulditlooklikeifwethoughtlessabouttheconsequencesofclimatechangetoaparticularlocality,andthoughtmoreabouttheconsequencesofclimatechangeforglobalenvironmentaljustice?AlthoughDegrootcreditsdynamismandversatilityforDutchprosperity,healsomentionsthatDutchmerchantscontrolledtheBalticGraintradeandprofitedhandsomelyfromgrainshortageselsewhereinEurope;theyencouragedcashcropmonoculturesinIndonesiaandlaterseizedcontrolofregionaltraderoutesintheIndianOcean;andtheyfloodedtheirownfieldsformilitaryadvantage.9Theseeventsbegthequestion:HowoftendidcoercionofthesetypeshinderopportunitiesforDutchtradingpartnerstoadapttoclimatechange?Toparaphraseanotherinnovatorandbeneficiaryofadynamiceconomy,theDutchRepublicmovedfastandbroke(quiteafew)things.WouldaglobalhistoryoftheDutchGoldenAgelooklikeasuccessstoryoranothercautionarytale?Thethirdpartofthebookistheweakestofthethreeparts—itiscertainlytheshortest—butitisstillfascinatingandopensawholenewsetofquestions.DegrootexaminesthemanyculturalmanifestationsoftheLittleIceAgeintheDutchRepublic.HeisappropriatelycautiousaboutascribingtoomuchcausalinfluencetoclimatewhenDutchculturewasactuallyfarmorecomplex.Paintingsoficylandscapesmayhavebeeninfluencedbyclimatechange,butDegrootwarnsthatmuchofithadtodowithpublicdemandforparticulargenresofpaintingsandmetaphoricalimagerythatwasemployedinpainting.But,ifyouwillforgivethepun,Degrootpaintswithtoobroadabrushinthisthirdpart,especiallyinhistantalizingeffortstoteaseoutaconsciousness,amongtheDutch,ofthelong-termcoolingoftheclimate.Hecertainlyhintsatthisquestionearlieroninthebook.Heaskswhethershipmasters,merchants,andnavalcommanders“perceive[d]thatweatherpatternschangedoverdecades,”andhesuggeststhattheydid.10Buthetacklestheissuehead-oninthethirdpartbyidentifyingreferencestolong-termweatherchangesinavarietyofsources—diaries,letters,paintings,and,mostintriguingly,waterleveltables.Hefindsthatobservers“developedanunderstandingofmeteorologicalvariabilitythatwaspreciseenoughtobearudimentaryformofclimatehistory.”11Degroothasuncoveredafascinatingelementofclimatehistory,anditisatestamenttohisarchivalprowessthathehasfoundthistreasuretroveofobservationsfromavarietyofsources,andthatthesesourceswereprobablynotallsittinginthesamearchive,muchlessinafolderlabeled“Weather.”ButcouldDegroothavegonefurtherinteasingoutthemeaningoftheseweatherobservations?Whatdiditmean,fortheDutchintheseventeenthcentury,thattheclimatewaschanging?Degroot’sfrustrationwiththeoftensparsementionsofweatherinthecorrespondenceofmerchantsandshipcaptainsisapparentandsharedbyhisreaders.Atthesame

9Degroot,126,304–305,172.10Degroot,247.11Degroot,257.


time,thesesilencesare,themselves,fascinatinganddeservemoreattention.Why,forinstance,wouldseventeenth-centuryobserversbeinterested,atall,inchroniclingdecadaltrendsintheweather?Theanswerdependedgreatlyonwhowasnoticingthechange,whotheywerewritingto,whentheywerewriting,andwhethertheyhadaninterestinmakingtheirobservationknownorinkeepingittothemselves.First,thereisthequestionofwhatkindsofpeoplerecordedandtransmittedknowledgeabouttheclimate,andwhattheirinterestswereindoingso.WeseethatliterateDutchmenoftenrecordedtheirimpressionsoftheirchangingclimate,painterspaintedicescapes,and“IceCultures”developedinresponsetoparticularlycoldwinters.Butmoregeographicandsocialdifferentiationseemstobewarranted,here.Sailors,evencaptains,mightnothaverecordedtheirobservationsaboutclimatechange,giventhatsailors,accordingtohistorianMargaretSchotte,werefiercelyindependentandresistanttosurrenderingtheirtacitknowledgetothosewhomightgainanadvantageoverthem.12Overthecourseoftheseventeenthcentury,Schottenotes,logbooksbecameincreasinglystandardizedandusedbygovernmentofficials,VOCauthorities,andscholarstodiscernbetterroutesandbroadtrendsinweather,amongotherthings.13AsDegrootmentions,theVOChadavasttreasuretroveofships’logsbywhichtheycoulddecide,forinstance,howtostandardizeroutestotheEastIndies.Buttherecordersofthelogs,themselves,wouldneverberecognizedasinterpretersoflong-termtrends.14WhenconsideringtheknowledgeoftheDutchauthoritiesabouttheweather,itismoreusefultodeterminehowtheseobservationsoflong-termtrendscirculatedinsocialandpoliticalnetworks.Theotherquestiononemightaskiswhethertherewasanincentivetoresistrecordingorcirculatingobservations.AsAnyaZilbersteinhasnoted,ideasaboutclimatewereofteneconomicallyandpoliticallycontingent.15Itwasintheinterestofexplorers,boosters,andmerchantstoportrayaclimateasfavorablyaspossible,anditmayhavebeenintheinterestofmerchantstobemuteaboutpotentiallyhazardousclimatechangethatcoulddampeninvestmentorencouragethestockpilingofgraininotherlocalities.ThisisnottomentiontheincreasingcommodificationofknowledgeduringtheDutchGoldenAgethatDanielMargócsyexaminesinhisbook.16Thismeantthatweatherknowledgemayhavehadapriceattachedtoit,andthat,aswithspicesorgrain,profitdependedonthecarefulcontroloftradethroughAmsterdam.Whenexaminingweatherobservations,we

12MargaretSchotte,“ExpertRecords:NauticalLogbooksfromColumbustoCook,”Information&Culture:AJournalofHistory48,no.3(August29,2013):285,https://doi.org/10.1353/lac.2013.0015.13Schotte,298.14Schotte,285.15AnyaZilberstein,ATemperateEmpire:MakingClimateChangeinEarlyAmerica(OxfordUniversityPress,2016).16DánielMargócsy,CommercialVisions :Science,Trade,andVisualCultureintheDutchGoldenAge/,n.d.,https://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/templeuniv-ebooks/detail.action?docID=3038620.


shouldnotonlyconsiderindividualobservations,butalsonetworksofknowledgeproductionandtheirpoliticaleconomy.InwritingabouttheDutchrepublic,andbyaddinganewlayer—theatmosphere—tothewaterscapesandbuiltenvironmentforwhichitwassofamous,Degrootalsoaddednewcontingencies,andoccasionalhaphazardness,totheeconomicandpoliticalhistoryoftheseventeenthcentury.Moreimportantly,however,Degroothasputforwardaboldcontentionthatwehavemuchtolearnfromsuccessandprosperityinthefaceofuncertainty,andthatwecanlearnfromaplacewithoutresortingtosentimentalityorcelebration.Additionally,andmostimportantly,hehaslaidoutapathtowardunderstandingtheroleofclimateinglobalizationoverthelonguedurée,arolethatisattheveryheartofourpoliticaldiscoursesontheAnthropocene.


CommentsbyKatrinKleemann,RachelCarsonCenter/LMUMunich

ThrivingintheFaceofClimateChange—LessonsfromtheLittleIceAgeheearlymodernperiodwascharacterizedbycrises.Religiousconflicts,socialunrest,wars,harvestfailures,commoditypriceshocks,famines,andboutsofdiseasesshapedthistime.Extremeweather,mademorelikelybytheclimate

changethatwastheLittleIceAge,playedasubstantialrole.TheLittleIceAgewasaperiodof cooling that causedglacial surges around the globe and lasted from thethirteenth to the nineteenth century. It triggered weather extremes that affectedmillions. Itwas not a periodof constant cold, itwas heterogeneous and also sawmild winters and hot summers, but overall it saw a greater extreme of colderseasons with less predictable weather. This was particularly true for two of thecoldest periods, the Grindelwald Fluctuation (1560-1628) and the MaunderMinimum(1645-1720),bothofwhichDagomarDegrootfocusesoninhisbookTheFrigidGoldenAge.AsDegrootputsit,“[t]heconceptofglobalcrisisgivesusapowerfuldevicetomakesense of the traumatic earlymodern period and provides a clearwarning forourfuture”(p.304).Previously,manyenvironmentalhistorieshavefocusedonsocietaldisastersorevencollapse triggeredby theunpredictableandunstableweatheroftheLittle IceAge.Millionsofpeople lost their lives—butnotall communitiesandsocietiescollapsedduringtheLittleIceAge.Manysurvived:somebychance;someby developing a sort of resilience to the change in average weather; most by acombinationofboth.DegrootbreakswiththeassumptionthattheLittleIceAgeonlyspelledcrisis forsocietiesaroundtheglobeand, instead,shedslightonhowsomethrived.OverallthepopulationoftheDutchRepublicseemedtodoparticularlywellduringthesetwocoldspells,whichalmostperfectlycoincidewiththeDutchGoldenAge(1590-1715).TheLowCountrieswerenostrangertobeingchallengedbytheirenvironment;thecoastalregionswerelocatedroughlytwometersbelowsealevelandlandhadtobeprotectedfromstorms,stormsurges,andfloodingbydrainingandbybuildingandmaintaining dikes. In this regard, the Little Ice Age was perhaps just another“damagingenvironmentalcircumstance”theDutchhadtofaceandendure(p.304).Interestingly, theLowCountriesdidnotonlybattle theelementsduring this timebutwerealsoatwar formostof thisperiod:TheEightyYearsWarwasragingonfrom1568to1648andtheAnglo-DutchWarstookplacebetween1652and1688.Degroottakeshisreadersonajourneythatspanstheglobe:fromtheLowCountriesontheNorthSea,totheicyshoresofNovayaZemlyaintheArcticOcean,allthewayto the warm waters around Batavia in the Dutch East Indies. The book coversclimate,weather,war,trade,nutrition,transportation,ecosystems,andcolonialism.Hetracesclimatechangefromtheglobaltothelocallevel.Heusesawiderangeofsources:theanalysisofthousandsofjourneysundertakenbyshipsoftheDutchEast

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India Company (VOC) to the study of famouspaintings andmaps from theDutchGoldenAgetolettersanddiaryentries,tonamebutafew.TheFrigidGoldenAge isitselfahighlyinterdisciplinarybookthatstartsoffwithanintroductiontothelatestscientificresearchandclimatereconstructionsoftheLittleIce Age. It becomes clear that the climate regime is a very complex and at timescounterintuitive system that is interconnected on a global scale. The climate isdetermined by the complex interplay between oceanic and atmospheric currents,solarforcing,volcaniceruptions,andtheEarth’sorbit.Degrootreferstothestateofthe different oscillations throughout the bookwhen he explains how a particularclimatic regimewas influenced by the complex interactions between atmosphere,hydrosphere,cryosphere,andbiosphere.TheLittleIceAgesawtemperaturesthatwereonedegreeCelsiusbelowthe1900to1960norm (p. 2). Todaywe are roughly already one degree above pre-industriallevels. In the field of climate history, it is extremely difficult to define thesetemperature differences because there is no neutral time when the climate wasstable. The further we go back in time, the less reliable the instrumentaltemperaturerecordsare.Itallboilsdowntowhatthebaselineisthatonerefersto.Thebaselineisareferenceperiodfromwhichonecalculatesthedeviationoffutureclimate change, whether it be 1720-1800, 1850-1900, or 1900-1960, etc. ThebaselineisnotonlyimportantforunderstandinghowmuchcoldertheLittleIceAgewas, but also in order to understand how much the world has warmed sinceindustrializationbegan.This brings us to one extraordinary and fresh aspect of Degroot’s work: he askswhether the people shivering through the chilliest phases of the Little Ice Agenoticedthedecadallevelchangeinweatherpatterns.Ofcourse,thecontemporariesregistered whether a winter was extremely cold, but did they also notice theaccumulation of extremely cold winters? Degroot asks this question in severalchapters and concludes that sometimes they noticed something, “but nevermorethanavagueawarenessthatthepresentwasunusualinthecontextofthepast”(p.257).Whatmakesthisstudyspecialisthathedoesnotjustlookattheintellectualelite’spointofviewbutincludesexplorers,whalers,artists,authors,andinventors.It is,ofcourse,aquestionthat isdifficult toanswer: It isnotpossible toconcludethattheywereawareofclimaticchange,evenwhenweconsiderthattheyinventedtheiceskate,because“culturalresponsestoclimatechangedonotrequireexplicitawareness of climate change” (p. 299). Even if, unconsciously, they invented newtechnologies that helped them cope, endure, and even exploit the weather, wecannot draw a definite conclusion. A fine example of the “when life gives youlemons, make lemonade,” was how the commercial value of ice blocks (to storeperishablesincellarsinatimebeforetheinventionoftherefrigerator)financedtheicebreakingofriversandlakestoenabletransportationinwinter.Sledsandskateswereusedtomovearound inthe frozenworldof thechilliestwintersof theLittle


IceAge.Itisclear,asDegrootpointsout,thattheDutchwerenotpassivevictimsoftheclimatechangetheyendured(p.138,276).Itwouldbevery interesting if futureenvironmentalhistoriesof theLittle IceAgecould examine this question for other societies around the globe. In the face ofadverseclimaticconditionswhenone’sverysurvivalisatstake,wouldn’tanybodybecomecreative trying toprotectoneselfbymitigating the impendingdisaster? Itwouldbeinterestingtoseewhatstrategiesothergroupsorsocietiescameupwith,whether they were similar to or different from the Dutch example. Interestinglythough, this prompts the question of whether today’sworld population could bedescribed as passive victims considering the ongoing ignorance of scientificconsensus?Scientificpublicationshaveoverwhelminglyproventhathuman-causedfossilfuelemissionsdrasticallyaltertheclimateandwillcontinuetodoso,themostimportantcourseofactionistoreducefossilfuelemissions—andyetthisdoesnothappenonthescaleorwiththesortofcommitmentthatisnecessarytopreventtheworstconsequencesofanthropogenicclimatechange.Inhis conclusion,Degrootbrings theargument full circle toourpresent, inwhichclimatechangeisthemostpressingmatterofourtime.In300pages,onelearnshowlivesaroundtheworldwereseverely impactedby“modestclimatechange”ofonedegree Celsius on a decadal scale. This downturn of “only” one degree Celsiuswroughthavoconcommunitiesglobally.EventheDutch,whocopedwellduringthecoldestperiods,stilloccasionallysuffered,withaccountsofindividualscrashingintofrozen rivers or lakes and dying in icy waters, freezing in their homes or in thestreet,attimesbeingfamishedandsick,dyingonbattlefieldsordrowninginfloodscausedbyicedamsorstormsurges.Today, we are already experiencing more severe andmore common heat waves,wildfires,droughts, and flooding.At theendof the century, thepopulationonourplanetmightwellfaceglobalaveragetemperaturesfourdegreesCelsiushigherthanpre-industrial levels. It is almost unimaginable how much worse it could get,comparedtothe impactsofclimatechangewehaveseen illustrated indetailhereforsocietiesduringtheLittleIceAge.Unlikeourearlymodernancestors,weknowwhatishappeningandwhy.Howcanwe,ashistorians,communicatetheresultsofourresearchdifferentlytonotonlypreachtothechoirbutalsoreachpeopleoutsideourcircles?Inhisbook,DagomarDegrootmakesastrongargumentforbringingthehumanitiesand the natural sciences closer together to produce interdisciplinary studies thatcangeneratenewperspectives.TheclimateofplanetEarthhasneverbeenstable.Climatehistoryisafairlyyoungdiscipline,itselfroughlyhalfacenturyold.Itisaninterdisciplinary field that usually looks at topics other scholars have not yetcovered and therefore it produces newworkwith fresh insights on howhumanshavecopedwiththeclimatechange inthepast thatmayhelpuswithourcurrentpredicamentonthiswarmingplanet.Degrootpointsout thathistoriansarerarelyinvolved in the debate about global warming and uses his book to make a very


powerfulcasethathistoriansshould,infact,beconsulted(p.307).Historianshaveimportantinsightsthatshouldbeconsidered,lessonswecanlearnfromthepastinordertobemoreresilientinthefuture.Inthepast,historianshavelookedonlytothepastandnottothefuture,butperhapstodayinarapidlywarmingworldclimatehistoriansnolongerhavethatluxury.Degrootraisesanimportantandoftenignoredaspect,thatmightmotivateresidentsofwealthy,developedcountriesandtheirleaderstotakeactionassoonaspossible:WhereastheDutchthrivedduringtheLittleIceAge,manyofthewealthiestsocietiesdidnot:MingChina,theOttomanEmpire,theSpanishEmpire,andMughalIndiaallproved to be less resilient than the Dutch. Can lessons be learned from theunravelingofthesesocieties?Perhapsstudyingthesesocietiesnotjustattheirpeakbutalsoattheirdownturnorcollapsecanshowushowmuchchange—climaticorother—canbetoomuchtobear?Thelessonfortodayis:Ourcollectivewealthmightnotprotectusfromtheconsequencesofanthropogenicclimatechange(p.308-309).It is all a question of howmany resourceswe need to prosper, judging from theecologicalfootprintofmostdevelopedcountries,weusemuchmorethanwehave,whichwillnotbesustainableinthelongrun.In this context, it is very interesting that Degroot argues the citizens of the LowCountries during the Little Ice Age had a shared experience of the Little Ice Age.That,forinstance,onthefrozenriversduringfairsmenandwomenfromallsocialbackgroundswouldmingle(p.287).Today,perhapsdifferentpeopleacrossnationaland socialboundaries should fostera sharedexperienceof living in and trying tomitigate the consequences of a warming world. Essentially, “we are all in thistogether”isthekeymessageoftheIPCC’sassessmentreporton1.5°CwarmingthatwaspublishedinOctober2018.Unfortunately,toooftenclimatechangestillappearstoratherbeanotionofanabstractfutureproblemthatdoesnotseemtoaffectmostpeople personally. Are there concepts or ideas, developed during this sharedexperience of the Little IceAge thatwe can apply today to the national and eveninternationaldebateonclimatechange?PerhapsthesharedexperiencewasoneofthecopingmechanismsthatallowedtheDutchtothriveduringthistime.DagomarDegroot“hopestoprovideanovelperspectiveonhumanity’slongexperiencewithclimatechange”(p.9).WithTheFrigidGoldenAge,hecertainlymanagedtodothatfortheDutchRepublicintheDutchGoldenAgeduringthecoldestpartsoftheLittleIceAge.Futureclimatehistoriescanelaborateonthehumanexperiencewith(hi)storiesofclimatechangeinothertimesandplacesaroundtheglobe.


CommentsbyThomasWickman,TrinityCollege

SignsofChangeinClimateHistoryhatifclimatehistorianscheckedfirstforevidenceofprosperityduringpastperiodsofclimaticinstability,asaprecautionagainstlettingnarrativesofcrisisorcollapsebecomethedefault?DagomarDegroot’s

FrigidGoldenAgeshowsthatcoldtemperaturescouldbeaboonforsomepeopleinthepast.Thishighly-originalbookquestionsareflexamongscholarstoassumethatchillytimeswereusuallybadforcentralized,stratified,agriculturally-basedsocieties.Degrootisnotjustdiscussingresilience,whichforsomeclimatehistoriansisreducedtoasimpleassessmentofsocieties’comparativebreakingpoints.Degrootwantstoknowhowpeoplecouldthriveinthemidstofchangeandwhytheymightwelcomeconditionsthatotherswouldcallsevereoradverse.Insomeways,Dutchfortunesfromthelatesixteenthtoearlyeighteenthcenturyrestedonwar,colonialism,andeconomiccompetitionforlimitedresources.YetasDegrootexplains,Dutchculturalresourcesalsoservedpeoplewellinlocalcommunitiesandwithinregionalrelationshipsofreciprocalbenefit.17Ithardlyneedstoberestatedthatclimatehistorianshavewrittenmuchaboutmisery,crisis,catastrophe,andcollapse.GeoffreyParkerdevotesthebulkofGlobalCrisistothe“fatalsynergy”betweenclimateandconflict.Itismainlyinthebook’sfinalsectionthatParkerconsidersacombinationofhistoricalcontingenciesandconstructivestatepoliciesthatallowedsomepeopletoescapeperpetualcrisis,evenduringperiodsofadverseweather.Whenbettertimescameforafewnations,Parkerarguestowardtheendofthebook,theimprovedsituationsresultedpartlyfroma“phoenixeffect,”inwhichgrowthandcreativityemergedfromdestruction.Thecumulativeimpactofthatlandmarktextistoemphasizehumanvulnerabilityandsufferingduetocooling,evenifoneofParker’sintentionsistosuggestthatwisepoliciescanfundamentallychangesocial,political,oreconomicoutcomesduringperiodsofclimaticextremes,producingbenignratherthanfatalsynergies.18Bycontrast,Degroot’sbookaddressesbeneficialadaptationinthebeginning,middle,andendofthestory,andintroducesnuancedandcounterintuitivewaystothinkaboutearlymodernclimatehistory.HeperiodizestheLittleIceAgewithparticularattentiontotheGrindelwaldFluctuation(1560-1628)andMaunder 17Formycritiqueselsewhereof“climatehistorians’reflexivetendencytotellstoriesaboutcrisisandcollapse,”seeThomasWickman,SnowshoeCountry:AnEnvironmentalandCulturalHistoryofWinterintheEarlyAmericanNortheast(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2018),esp.15;ThomasWickman,“NarratingIndigenousHistoriesofClimateChangeintheAmericasandPacific,”PalgraveHandbookofClimateHistory,eds.ChristianPfister,SamWhite,andFranzMauelshagen(London:PalgraveMacmillan,2018),387-411.18GeoffreyParker,GlobalCrisis:War,ClimateChange,andCatastropheintheSeventeenthCentury(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2013),xxv,589(“fatalsynergy”),612(“phoenixeffect”),641(“benignsynergy”).AsDegrootremarksinhisconclusion,Parkeralsodedicatesachaptertotheexceptionalcaseofseventeenth-centuryJapan.

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Minimum(1645-1720).Healsopointstotheunevennessofcoolingbyseasonandsub-region,whichdecisivelymattered,forexample,forDutchwhalersinSvalbard(60,78-9).Thebookwellmaybepraisedmostforstudyingclimatechangeasexperiencedatsea.Degrootassiduouslyexaminesships’logbooksandrecordsofseatollsforchangingvolumes,calendars,androutesofnavigation.SeaicepresentsoneformidablelimitatseainDegroot’snarrative.Buttheheadlinefindinginthisbookisthatwindpatternsatseacanbehistoricizedwithinthecontextofglobalclimatechange,andthatpeople’sadaptationstothewinds(orfailurestoadapt)changedhistory.WinddirectionsandvelocitiesintheMaunderMinimummayhavefacilitatedtheDutchEastIndiaCompany’svoyagestoAsia(52,83,106).YetthesinglemostimportantvariablethatmostaffectedeventsinDegroot’snarrativeisasuddenshiftinthewindduringanavalconflict.Thesidethattooktheweathergageoftenprevailed(159,231).Morebroadly,thebookseemstochallengea“terracentric”biasamongclimatehistoriansstudyingagrariancommunitiesforwhomglobalcoolingprimarilycausedcropfailuresordeepenedfuelshortages.AsDegrootobserves,“weatherthatunderminedthesupplyofuseableenergyforfarmersandpastoralistsactuallyincreasedhowmuchenergytheDutchcoulduseontheirships”forcommerceorbattle(18).19Degrootnarrateseventsvividly,butwithoutsensationalism,anddoessointheserviceofeducatingreadersaboutclimaticsystems.Degrootexpectsallreaderstobecomescientificallyliterate—andheoverseesthatlearningprocesswithadmirablepatienceandskill.Alistof“ClimateTerms”immediatelypriortotheintroductioniswellplaced(xvi-xvii).Thefirstchapterofthebookisanespeciallyusefulprimerforstudentswhowanttounderstandclimatehistorians’methodsandsources.Intheremainingchapters,Degrootstandsouttomeasanauthorwhoisalwaysteaching.Itisrareinthehumanitiesforanauthortoposequestionssoclearly,continuallylayoutthedatabeforethereader,andthenassesssoopenlytheresults,whetherthoseresultsproveconclusiveorambiguous.Inthissense,Degrootismodellingtheapplicationofthescientificmethodtotheworkofahumanist—acharacterizationthatbestappliestochapterstwotofive,thecoreofthebook.Atthesametime,Degrootpromptsscientifically-literatereaderstocarefullyinterpretarchivaldocumentsandtointegrate“bigdata”with“qualitativeaccountsofshort-termeventsonalocallevel”(17).Healsointegratesnuancedinterpretationsofmapsandpaintings,refusingtotreatthesesourcesasmereclimatologicalindices.Inunifyingscienceandhistorytoexplaincomplexandunpredictableshiftsinnaturalcontextsandinhumandecision-making,Degroot’schronicleshareswithJohnMcNeill’sMosquitoEmpiresthedualcapacitytoeducateandsurprise.Describingharshpreindustrialconditionsandassessingthelimitedknowledgeavailabletopastactors,bothauthorscalibratethebalanceofpowerbetweennatureandpeoplein

19Foracritiqueof“terracentric”history,seeJohnR.Gillis,TheHumanShore(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2012).


everyhistoricalsituation,whileatthesametimedemonstratinghowquicklypeople’sadvantagesovereachothercouldturntodisadvantages,orvice-versa.20IsFrigidGoldenAgeabookforoptimists?Iposethequestionwiththestudentsof2018andbeyondinmind.DoesDegrootgiveundergraduatesawayforward,ifyoungpeopleborninthetwenty-firstcenturyreadhisbookthinkingabouttheirownfutures?Inscrutinizingdomesticadaptationsandinternationalstrategy,Degrootseemstobesearchingforproblemsolversinthepastandtobeweighingthebenefitsanddrawbacksofincreasingconnectivity.Cognizantofthefoiblesofleaders,attentivetothedepthofearlymodernreligiousconflict,andsensitivetorealitiesofoppression,Degrootneverthelessrecoversauseablepastinwhichsomepeoplerespondedpragmaticallytounstableorextremeweatherpatterns.Thestoryisneverapocalyptic.IfoundendlesslyinterestingDegroot’sattentiontotechnologiessuchasturnandpullferries(130),icebreakers(138,292),milkboats(140),sleds(141),skates(142-3,166),andice-wagons(291).Heatingpatentsareawonderfulsource(291).Somepracticesandtechnologieswereintegraltowarsfoughtathome,includingtacticalfloodingandtheconstructionofstar-shapedforts(156,172).YetequallyimportantforDegrootwastheflexibleandthoughtfulschedulingoftransportationformaximalsafety,convenience,andprofit.Thefinalchapterwillchallengetechno-optimiststothinkmorebroadlyaboutculture,memory,andimagination.Degrootunearthsrichdocumentsshowinghowpeoplehistoricizedtheirownexperiences,suchasalengthypoemaboutthewinterof1666/7writtenbytheheadoftheDutchherringfleet’sguildofpilots—andpostedtohisdoor(286).AsAnyaZilbersteinhasargued,peoplechronicledandcommentedonearlymodernclimatechangeasithappened,notjustaccessingcollectivememorybutcreatingarchivesandenactingvaluejudgments.DegrootjoinsZilbersteininlookingfor“rudimentaryform[s]ofclimatehistory”(257).Surely,thereareotheraspectsofordinaryDutchpeople’sknowledgeandcopingstrategiestoberesearchedfurther—forexample,soldiers’well-timeddesertionsfrommilitaryservice,women’svillage-levelsocialstrategiesinwartime,orDutchphenologyandethnobotanyforcoldseasons.BycombiningafocusedstudyoftheDutchrepublicfromwithinandaselectiveexaminationofthemaritimelogisticsofcommerceandwar,DegrootlargelyoptsnottoaddressDutchcolonialism’shumanconsequencesoverseas.Degroot’sFrigidGoldenAgeisaninvaluablemodelforscholarsdoingclimatehistory,butitishardlythelastword,anditspublicationshouldcreateopportunitiesforscholarsofgender,indigeneity,orempiretopushforwardtheresearch.21 20JohnR.McNeill,MosquitoEmpires:EcologyandWarintheGreaterCaribbean,1620-1914(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2010).21AnyaZilberstein,ATemperateEmpire:MakingClimateChangeinEarlyAmerica(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2016).Foranargumentaboutearlyclimatology,seeSamWhite,“UnpuzzlingAmericanClimate:NewWorldExperienceandtheFoundationsofaNewScience,”Isis106:3(2015):544-66.FornewworkonDutchcolonialisminclimaticcontext,seeNicholasCunigan,“WeatheringExtremes:Climate,Colonialism,andIndigenousResistanceintheDutchAtlantic”(PhDdissertation,UniversityofKansas,2017).


Everyshiftinclimatetestspeople’sresilience,whetherwarmerorcolder,wetterordrier,windsblowingmoreofteninonedirectionorinanother,andmanylocalpeopleshavecopedokaywithalloftheabove.Whythenhavescholarstendedtotellsomanytalesaboutabundanttimesforlargeagriculturalsocietiesduringstable,temperateperiods,followedbydownturnifnotworsewhentheweathercooledordroughtsoccurred?TheRomanClimateOptimuminKyleHarper’sTheFateofRomeisthelatestinstanceofawarm,wet“optimum”narratedinepicfashionasaprologuetodisaster.22Bycontrast,Degroot’sintroductionpromises(andthebookdelivers)subduedanalysisof“crisisandopportunityinachangingclimate.”Degroot’sbiggestcontributionishisclear-headedinsistenceonthediversityofhumanresponsetovariableclimate.Mostclimatehistorianstryhardtoidentifycontingencyandtoresistdeterminism,butmoreneedtolookfordivergentvalues,tactics,strategies,andpolicies,asappliedtoallformsofclimaticvariation.23Insomeschoolsofhistory,exceptionalismistaboo.Ifmoreclimatehistorianslookedforexceptions,includingatsmallerscales,wemighthavefewerstoriesofcollapseandmorestoriesofsurvival,persistenceorprosperity.Onesignthatclimatehistoryisthrivingasafieldwillbeagreaterdiversityinthekindsofstorylinespractitionersusetonarratethepast.

22KyleHarper,TheFateofRome:Climate,Disease,andtheEndofanEmpire(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,2017).Scholarssometimesuse“anomaly”or“period”ratherthan“optimum”todiscussclimaticchangeinmoreneutralterms.23Forexemplaryworkinthisvein,seeGeorginaH.Endfield,ClimateandSocietyinColonialMexico:AStudyinVulnerability(Malden,MA:Blackwell,2008);SherryJohnson,ClimateandCatastropheinCubaandtheAtlanticWorldintheAgeofRevolution(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolinaPress,2011);MatthewMulcahy,HurricanesandSocietyintheBritishGreaterCaribbean,1624-1783(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2006).


ResponsebyDagomarDegroot,GeorgetownUniversity

eopleoftenaskmewhatlessonsIlearnedwhileworkingonTheFrigidGoldenAge.UsuallytheymeanthelessonsItookfromthehistoryoftheDutchRepublic,andIusuallyhavesomethingstotellthem(keepreading!).YetwhatIdon’tsayisthis:theonethatwillstickwithmethemostisthatwritinga

book–anybook–ishard.IfirstimaginedtheroughoutlinesoftheFrigidGoldenAgein2007.IttookmorethanadecadeuntilIcouldfinallylookdownandseethebookinmyhands.Ithasbeenagruelingandprofoundlyhumblingexperience,andthereweretimeswhenIwonderedwhetheritwasworthalltheeffort.TheseremarkablythoughtfulreviewsconvincemethatIopenedaconversationworthstarting,andperhapseventhatIhavehelpedchangemydisciplineinameaningfulway.Iwouldliketobegin,then,byofferingmyutmostgratitudetomyreviewers,andtoourroundtableeditor,MelanieKiechle.EachofmyreviewersposesquestionsthatchallengedmeasIwroteTheFrigidGoldenAge,andIamdelightedtohavetheopportunitytoanswermanyoftheminthisspace.Towardstheendofmyremarks,IwillalsobrieflyaddresshowsomeofmyviewshaveevolvedsinceIcompletedthebook,andwhatabestpracticemightlooklikeforclimatehistoriansinthewakeofitspublication.CentraltoTheFrigidGoldenAgeistheideathatweneedanewmethodologytowriteclimatehistories,onethatbothaccountsforthecomplexityofrelationshipsbetweenclimaticandhumanhistories,andgivesgreateragencytopeopleinthepast.Manyclimatehistorianshavematchedbroadclimaticandsocialtrendsonhugescalesintimeandspace.YetIarguethatclimatehistoriansshouldapproachatopicbycarefullydiscerninghowclimatictrendsshapedthemeanandvariabilityofweatheronlocalscales.Wherepossible,theyshouldthenconsiderhowdiscreteweathereventsprovokedhumanresponses,againonsmallscalesintimeandspace.Onlyafterestablishingtheselittleconnectionsshouldtheyattempttomakebigclaimsabouttheimpactofclimatechangeonhumanhistory–iftheychoosetodoso.JamesBergmanaskswhetheritwouldhavebeenpossibleformetowriteadetailedhistoryoftheexperienceofclimatechangeacrosstheentireDutchtradingempire.CouldIhaveusedmymethodologytoexplore,forexample,howtheLittleIceAgeaffectedthetorturedrelationshipbetweencolonizerandcolonized,slaverandenslaved,merchantandmarketinthe“multiplenodes”oftheDutchtradingnetwork?It’saquestionIoftenaskedmyselfasIwroteTheFrigidGoldenAge.TheanswermustbeginwiththenatureoftheLittleIceAge,andtheattemptsofpaleoclimatologistsandhistoricalclimatologiststoreconstructit.First,thecoldwavesoftheLittleIceAge–includingtheGrindelwaldFluctuationandMaunder

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Minimum,whichframethisbook–likelyaffectedtheNorthernHemispheremorethantheydidthesouth.Second,climatereconstructionsforEuropeandChinainparticularhavelongbeenmorereliableandprecisethanthosethatcoverotherpartsoftheworld.Researchintopastclimateshasdeeprootsinbothplaces,andsomeofourbestsourcesforreconstructingpastclimatechangeonsmallscales–treerings,forexample–areeitherscarceintheglobalsouth,ordonotregistertheperiodsofgrowthanddormancythatallowustousethemforclimatereconstructions.Climatehistorianshavelonghadahabitofusingdatafromclimatescienceasthoughitwereobjective,impartial,andhomogenous.Perhapsmanyofuscollaboratesocloselywithscientiststhatwebegintothinkofourselveslikescientists.Maybetheideathatclimatesciencemightbe“constructed”strikesmanyofusasdeeplyproblematicinaneraofenduringclimatechangedenial.Regardless,wehavetoooftenusedtheremarkabledatathatpaleoclimatologyprovidesuswithoutthinkinglikehistoriansofscience:withoutthinking,inotherwords,aboutthepoliticalandculturalhistoriesandprejudicessubtlyencodedinthatdata.WhileImentionthehistoricalbiasesofclimatereconstructionsinTheFrigidGoldenAge,IdothinkIcouldhavemoreclearlyemphasizedwhatthosereconstructionsdidnotallowmetodo,andwhytheydidnotallowmetodoit.Inanycase,theperipheryoftheDutchtradingempireintheSouthernHemispheremightnothaveexperiencedthetemperaturetrendsoftheLittleIceAgetothesameextentasthemetropoleinthenorth,butithaslongbeenhardtoknowforsure.Icertainlydidnothavethekindofclimatereconstructionsthatwouldhaveenabledmetousemymethodologytoinvestigate,forexample,theimpactsoftheLittleIceAgeontheAfricanslavetrade.IdidwonderwhetherIcouldtiechangesinatmosphericcirculationtothemovementoftheWestIndiaCompany(WIC)shipsthattransportedAfricanslaves.YetmyexaminationoftheDutchEastIndiaCompany–theVOC–ledmetoemphasizecirculationchangesintheNortheasternAtlantic,farfromtheAfricancoast.Allofthisraisesaninterestingproblem,onethathasgrownclearertomesincethepublicationoftheFrigidGoldenAge:themethodologythatallowedmetocomplicategrandnarrativesinclimatehistoryalsolimitedtheplaces,times,andultimatelythehistoricalactorsIcouldstudy,accordingtothestateoftheevolvingscience.Luckily,thepictureischangingnow.ClimatereconstructionsformuchofAfrica,forexample,increasinglypermitdetailedscholarshiponrelationshipsbetweentheLittleIceAgeandtheslavetrade.AsIdescribeelsewhere,earlyresearchsuggeststhatprecipitationextremesintheearlyGrindelwaldFluctuationweakenedAfricanpolitiesthatthenfellvictimtoEuropeandepredations,andthatsubsequent,modestcoolinginsub-humidanddrysavannahregionshelpedtheslaveeconomytofunctionwithespeciallyruthlessefficiency.24 24DagomarDegroot,“ClimateChangeandSocietyfromtheFifteenthThroughtheEighteenthCenturies.”WIREsClimateChangeAdvancedReview.DOI:10.1002/wcc.518


SoitmaywellbethatatrulyglobalhistoryoftheDutchtradingempireintheLittleIceAgewouldincludemorecautionarytales,asBergmanputsit.Certainly,IfullyagreewithThomasWickman:mybookis“hardlythelastword,”anditsbestcontributiontoenvironmentalhistoriographywilllikelybetoencourage“scholarsofgender,indigeneity,orempiretopushforwardtheresearch.”Indeed,NicholasCuniganhaslatelypioneeredresearchintotheroleofclimaticchangeonDutchcolonialisminBrazil,andhisfindingswillinterestanyonewhohasreadmybook.IhavelatelywrittenaboutthecalamitousimpactofDutchadaptabilitytoclimatechangeonArcticbowheadwhales:sentientanimalswiththeirown,often-overlookedagency.25Still:TheFrigidGoldenAgealsorevealsthattheoverallresilienceoftheDutchmetropoletoclimatechangedidnothingeonwhathappenedintheimperialperiphery.Thebookshowsthat,evenbeforetheemergenceoftheVOCorWIC,andwellbeforetheoceanic“rich”tradesaccountedforasubstantialportionofDutchprosperity,Dutchtradersandmerchants,artistsandfarmersrespondedcreativelytonewclimaticconditions.IthereforecontinuetobelievethatmuchofthereasonfortheRepublic’sprosperityintheLittleIceAgeliesinwateryenvironmentsclosertotheLowcountries.WickmaninsightfullypointsoutthatTheFrigidGoldenAgeconfrontsthe“terracentric”assumptionssooftenmadebyclimatehistorians.IwishIhadthoughtofusingthatword!Butletmegoonestepfurtherandsaythatthebookchallengesclimatehistorians’overwhelmingfocusonrain-fedagriculture.Ofcourse,trendsintemperatureandprecipitationdidaffectmillionsacrosstheearlymodernworldbyinterruptingorshorteninggrowingseasonsforstaplecrops.YetasTheFrigidGoldenAgeshows,thisdoesnotaccountfortheentiretyofcontemporarylivedexperience.Otherwaysofmakingaliving–bytheDutch,yes,butperhapsespeciallybyindigenouscommunitiesacrossAfrica,theAmericas,andAustralia–respondedtodifferentmanifestationsofclimatictrendsindistinctandoftensurprisingways.Indeed,Iagreethatweneedmorediversityinthestoriesclimatehistorianschoosetotell,andthistakesmebacktothatissueofscale.AsIseeit,manyclimatehistorianscraftnarrativesthatconnectcoolingtosocialcrisisbecausetheyconsideronlythegrandestscalesintimeandspace,wherethefatesofentirecontinentssupposedlywaxandwane,wherecentury-scaleclimatictrendscomeandgo.Untilrecently,thelowprecision(or“resolution”)ofmostclimaticreconstructionsallbutforcedhistorianstoworkonthosescales.Evennow,suchworkretainsvalue,partlybecauseithaspermittedmoredetailedstudies,includingTheFrigidGoldenAge.

25NicholasCunigan,"WeatheringExtremes:Climate,Colonialism,andIndigenousResistanceintheDutchAtlantic.”PhDdiss.,UniversityofKansas,2017.DagomarDegroot,“ClimateChange,Whaling,andConflictintheSeventeenth-CenturyArctic.”PastandPresent.Forthcoming.


Yetitisalsotruethatoften-surprisingrelationshipsbetweenlocalvariationsinhumanandenvironmentalconditionsplayedoutintheshadowofbigtrends.Theselocalstoriescanrevealmuchaboutthecreativewaysinwhichpeopleactuallyconfrontedandthoughtaboutclimatechange.Recently,innovativescholarshaveconvincinglyarguedthatclimatehistoriansshouldfocusonthesestories.YetIhopethatTheFrigidGoldenAgeshowshowlocalrelationshipscanbefruitfullyintegratedintoglobalnarratives.26Istillbelievethatbignarrativesareimportantinclimatehistory,bothbecausetheyrevealpatternsthatwemightmissbyconcentratingonsmallerscales,andbecausetheytellstoriesthatresonateoutsideourdiscipline.Acentralchallengeinclimatehistoryisthereforetointegratehistoryondifferentscales:theglobalandthelocal,thelongandshortdurée.BothBergmanandCuniganwonderwhetherTheFrigidGoldenAgemighthavegonefurtherinexploringwhatitmeantfortheDutch–ProtestantandCatholic,elitesandcommoners–toobserve,record,andinterprettheweathertrendsoftheLittleIceAge.Infact,thebookIoriginallysubmitted–atsome220,000words–includedanentirechapterthatexploredthisquestion.Totheeternalgratitude,I’msure,ofmanyundergraduatestudentsinenvironmentalhistory,CambridgeUniversityPressaskedmetotrimsome90,000wordsfromthetotal.Whilemynewborndaughternapped,Ideletedpages,trimmedcitations,andcutfiguresthatrepresentedcountlesshoursofwork.ItwasoneofthehardestthingsI’vehadtodoinacademia,butitleftmewithamuchmoreconciseandaccessiblebook.However,toretainmymeticulousmethodologyoflinkingclimatictrendstohumanaffairs,IultimatelymadethedecisiontocutthatchapteronthemeaningofclimateandweatherforDutchobservers.ThedeletedchaptertracedhowDutchsailorsandsettlersencountereddistant,variableclimatesinwaysthatledthemtoquestionlong-standingAristotelianassumptionsaboutthenaturalworld.Atthesametime,thedistinctcultureandeconomyoftheRepubliccreatedawelcomingenvironmentforartisanaltinkerersandearlyscientists.WeatherextremesassociatedwiththeLittleIceAgeencouragedtheseobserverstodevelopnewmeansoftrackingweather,andtoincorporatemeteorologywithinrevolutionary,mechanisticcosmologies.Oneofmyarguments–whichIwilldevelopmorethoroughlyinmynextbook–isthatwedon’toftenpayenoughattentiontotheagencyofnatureinshapingscience.Inanycase,thedeletedchaptershowedhowscientificinterpretationsofweatherfoundanechointhepragmaticapproachtoweathersharedbymanyamongtheilliterateurbanpoor.Yetsupernaturalexplanationsforweatherpersistedamongtheliterateupperandmiddleclasses,andamongbothProtestantsandCatholics.Theruralpoor,meanwhile,consultedanancientblendofmagicalandreligiousweatherwisdom,especiallyintheeasternhinterlandsoftheRepublic.Still,secular 26JohnHaldonetal.,“Historymeetspalaeoscience:Consilienceandcollaborationinstudyingpastsocietalresponsestoenvironmentalchange.”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences115:13(2018):3217.


ideasaboutweathergraduallygainedacceptanceinDutchcities,anditwastheseideasthatencouragedsomeDutchobserverstotrackclimatechange.Ultimately,Iarguedthatdiverseunderstandingsofclimate,weather,andclimatechangeacrosstheDutchtradingempiretogetherreflectedandcontributedtotheoverallresilienceoftheRepublicinthefaceofclimaticcooling.Ibelievedinthisstory,butIdidnotconsideritabsolutelyessentialtothecoreargumentofTheFrigidGoldenAge.PerhapsIwaswrong;perhapsthatassumptionhadrootsinmypersonalbiastowardsmaterialism.Inanycase,afterIcutthechapter,Itriedtoturnitintoafree-standingarticle.Isubmittedittoajournal,buttheresponseconfirmedwhatIalreadysuspected:itdidn’tworkaswellbyitself.Withthebookbehindme,Iwaseagertoturntonewprojects,andIhadlittleinterestinthearticlerevisionsthatIneededtoundertake.Itisgratifyingnowtorealizethatthisstorymaystillbeworthtelling,andIthankmyreviewersforthatinsight.CuniganconsiderswhethertheexampleoftheDutchcantelluswhowillprosperandwhowillsufferinourwarmingworld.WickmanwonderswhetherI’vewritten“abookforoptimists,”onethatoffers“undergraduatesawayforward.”KatrinKleemannaskswhethermillionsinthepresentarepassivevictimsinthefaceofglobalwarming,unlikemyadaptiveDutch.ThesearepreciselythekindsofquestionsIhopedtoprovokewhilewritingTheFrigidGoldenAge.Ofcourse,onedoesnotneedtobeanenvironmentalisttowriteenvironmentalhistory;curiositycanbemotivationenough.Yetclimatehistorians,itseemstome,oftenfeelthattheyhaveaspecialresponsibilitytomakehistoryusefulinthepresent.Iamcertainlynoexception.Inthisbookandinotherprojects,Ihavearguedthatthepastcanopennewperspectivesonthegreatstruggleofourtime:thefightagainstanthropogenicglobalwarming.Giventhescaleandurgencyofthechallengeweface,ImighthavechosenadifferentprofessionhadIfeltthathistory–andhistorians–havenothingtooffer.Ofcourse,bookslikeTheFrigidGoldenAgecantelluslittleaboutwhatexactlythefuturehasinstoreforus.Mosthistoriansarerightlywaryofmakingpredictionsonthebasisofadistantpast,whenpeopleandplaceswereverydifferentthantheyaretoday.Idobelieve,however,thatmybookcontributestopresent-daydebatesaboutglobalwarmingbynotonlypresentingsomestrategiesthatmightworkinthefaceofenvironmentalchange,butmoreimportantlybyrevealingthecomplexityofrelationshipsbetweenclimateandsociety.WhileIamdeeplyconcernedaboutourfuture,Iamalsoskepticalofstudiesthat,asgeographerMikeHulmeeloquentlyputsit,“reducethefuturetoclimate.”27Projectionsofourwarmerfuturetoooftenemphasizechangesinthevariablewecaneasilypredict–warmingonaglobalscale,undervariousemissionsscenarios–butnotthevariablesthatarehardertomodel,suchassocial,cultural,andeconomicchanges.Wehavelittleideawhatnational 27MikeHulme,“Reducingthefuturetoclimate:astoryofclimatedeterminismandreductionism.”Osiris26:1(2011):245-266.


economieswilllooklikeby2100,forexample.Withthatinmind,howcanweestimatetheeconomictollofwarmingbythatdate,asinfluentialnewstudieshaveattemptedtodo?28TheFrigidGoldenAgemayremindustodaythatnoteverythingcanbequantified;thatthefuturewillbesurprising,andthatwehavemoreagencythanwemightassume.WickmanwritesthatIhavemodelled“theapplicationofthescientificmethodtotheworkofahumanist.”Indeed,justasmanyscientistshavemuchtolearnfromthehumanities,Ibelievethehumanities–perhapsespeciallythehistoricaldiscipline–havemuchtolearnfromthesciences.Agreatdealhasnowbeenwrittenonthepotentialofdatafromnaturalarchivestorevealpreviouslyunimaginedtruthsaboutthehumanandnaturalpast.Formanypartsoftheworld,thisdataisnowpreciseenoughtounlockanewkindofhistoricalscholarship,onethatencouragesmulti-authorcollaborationsbetweenresearchersinverydifferentdisciplines.Inthepastyear,I’vecommittedmyselftoorganizingmoreofthesecollaborations,inadditiontotheusualhistorian’sworkofwritingsingle-authoredbooks.YetI’vealsostartedtothinkmoredeeplyaboutincorporatinguncertaintyintohistoricalscholarship.InTheFrigidGoldenAge,andespeciallyinmymorerecentscholarship,IacknowledgethedifferentlevelsofcertainlythatIascribetodifferentrelationshipsbetweenenvironmentsandcommunities.Iweighthestrengthsandweaknessesofdifferentsources,andindeednowIwouldwritemoreaboutthoseshiplogbooks,owingtothepioneeringworkofearlymodernhistorianMargaretSchotte.29YetIhavefoundthatscientistsarefarmorecomfortablethanmanyhistorianswithsuchopenadmissionsofdoubt.ThequalifiersIuseinmywritingwouldberightathomeinanIPCCreport,yetstrikesomehistoriansasatroublingadmissionofdoubt:asuresignthatanargumentneedsstrengthening.AsIargueelsewhere,thatattitudecannotsurvivesustainedworkwithnon-textualsources.30Connectingtrendstoeventsinhumanandnaturalrealmsalwaysinvolvesacertainlevelofspeculation,forthemostaccuratereadingofthepast–theonethataccountsforthedynamismofthenon-humanworld,ortheagencyofactorswhohaveleftnowrittentrace–israrelythebest-documented.Tobehonestwithourselvesandwithourreaders,wehavetoacknowledgethelimitationsofoursources,methods,andconclusions.Inmyview,thatstrengthens,ratherthanweakens,ourscholarship.Ithastheaddedbenefitofinvitingreadersintoouranalyticalprocess,ofshowingthemhowwethinkthroughpossiblerelationshipsandreachconclusions,whichinturnpermitsmoreinsightfulcriticism.

28“FourthNationalClimateAssessment.”Availableat:https://nca2018.globalchange.gov.29MargaretE.Schotte,SailingSchool:NavigatingScienceandSkill,1550-1800.Washington,DC:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,Forthcoming.30DagomarDegroot,“WaroftheWhales:ClimateChange,Weather,andArcticConflictintheEarlySeventeenthCentury.”EnvironmentandHistory.Forthcoming.


SincethepublicationofTheFrigidGoldenAge,I’vealsocontinuedthinkingabouttheshelflifeofbooksinclimatehistory.Thepaleosciencesandthehistoricaldisciplinemoveatverydifferentspeeds.Paleoclimaticreconstructionsofatmosphericoroceaniccirculation,forexample,canundergorevisionsthatmaynotchangebig,multi-centennialtrends,butmaystillalterthepictureonscalesthatmatterforhumanhistory.BooksontheLittleIceAgethathingeonsuchreconstructionscan–andhave–becomeobsoleteinthetimebetweensubmissionandpublication,asthestateofthesciencechanges.Itis,perhaps,avainambitiontowrite“future-proof”booksinanyfield,letaloneclimatehistory.YetIdothinktheremightbeasimplebestpracticethatcouldaddtothestayingpowerofmostbooksinclimatehistory.InTheFrigidGoldenAge,Idomybesttodrawonalargeanddiversegroupofsourcestomakeabigclaim.Onekindofsource–atreeringreconstruction,forexample–mighteventuallyundergorevision,yetitisveryunlikelythatallwillchangeenoughtoalterthebigpicture.Ialsoattempttofortifyeveryenvironmentalreconstructionwithobservationsofweather–oractivitiesthatdependonweather–intextualsources.Ofcourse,historiansmayunderstandorapproachdocumentsdifferentlywithtime,andthereforesomedocumentsmaynotrecordweatherasaccuratelyastheyseemto.Again,wherepossibleItrytousedifferentanddiversetextstosupportmyinterpretationsofweathertrends.YetIbelievethatreconstructionsbasedonobservationsofweatherandweather-relatedactivitiesarelesssubjecttochangethanthosethatmakeexclusiveuseofpaleoclimaticdata.Theyalsoreflectthelivedexperiencesofhistoricalactors,whichare,ofcourse,thefocusofTheFrigidGoldenAge.WhileIadmitthatnoteverypublicationinclimatehistorycanorshouldfollowthisapproach,Ihopeitwillmakemycoreconclusionslesssubjecttofundamentalrevisionintheyearsahead.IwillleaveittomycolleaguesintheenvironmentalsciencesandhumanitiestojudgewhetherIhavebeensuccessful.Finally,Kleemannwondershowclimatehistoriansmight“communicatetheresultsofourresearchdifferently,”sothatwemight“reachpeopleoutsideourcircles.”IshouldbeginbysayingthatIdothinkthatthereisvalueinpreachingtothechoir–tothosealreadysoldonthescienceofanthropogenicglobalwarming–becauseclimatehistorycanleadthosepeopletothinkdifferentlyabout,forexample,thesocialconsequencesofwarming.Betteryet,theemphasisonindividualorcommunalagencyinbookslikeTheFrigidGoldenAgemaymotivatesomeinthechoirtothekindofactionthatfatalisticnarratives–socommoninclimatejournalism–typicallydiscourage.YetIalsohopethatastudentorlaypersonwhoisn’tentirelysoldonthescienceofclimatechangewillbemorelikelytopickupabooklikeTheFrigidGoldenAgethanonethatfocusesentirelyonthethreatofglobalwarming.ClimatologistKatharineHayhoearguesthateventhosewhodisagreeaboutclimatesciencecanfindsharedintereststhatmightstillleadtolowercarbonemissions.31Differentstakeholders, 31KatharineHayhoe,“Whenfactsarenotenough.”Science360:6392(2018):943.


forexample,mightfindverydifferentreasonstosupporttheconstructionofasolarpolarplant,buttheeffectonEarth’sclimatewillbethesame.Ihavecometothinkofhistoryinmuchthesameway.Hardcoredeniersofanthropogenicglobalwarmingmaybeimpossibleforustoreach,butIwonder:canhistorybeabridgebetweenskepticsandproponentsofclimatescience?Canweuseawidespread–anddareIsay,bipartisan–fascinationwiththepasttoawakenmorepeopletothedangersofrunawayclimatechange?Climatescientistsoftentellmethattoreachabroadaudience,sharingdataislesseffectivethantellingstories.Maybewecanbethestorytellerswholeadskepticstoamoreaccurateunderstandingofthechallengeswe’llfaceinthecenturytocome.Ofcourse,writingbooksisnotenough.Asweallknow,academicbooks,evenpopularones,rarelyreachamassaudience.Likeotheracademicswhodoubleasactivists,myapproachhaslongbeentomakemyselfavailableforinterviewswithjournalists,andtosubmitarticlestopopularpublications.Ineveryintervieworpublication,Istruggletoexplainhowthepastcanofferuniqueperspectivesontheinjusticesofourpresent,andtheperilsofourlikelyfuture.Thiscanbefrustratingwork.Journalistscan,attimes,distortthemeaningofouranswers,andsomeofmybestarticles–submittedduringthe2016election,forexample–wereneverpublished.Ihavethereforefounditespeciallyfulfillingtocreateplatformsthatallowotherstospeakwithloudervoices.IstartedHistoricalClimatology.combackin2010asapersonalresearchblog,forexample,buteventuallyworkedwithtalentedcolleaguestoremakeitintoapopularwebsitewitharticlesbydiversecolleaguesintheenvironmentalhumanitiesandsciences.BasedontheemailsIreceive,manyofourreadersdonotvisitoursiteasbelieversinclimatescience(thoughsomemightleaveasconverts).Inmyexperience,itdoesn’ttakemuchtechnicalskilltocreateandadvertisetheseplatforms.Theycannotreplaceotherkindsofoutreach,andtheycertainlycan’treplacebooks,yettheydoprovideaneasywayforevenveryjuniorscholarstocreatecommunitiesandreachbeyondourusualaudience.Inanagewhenourmediaischangingasfastasourclimate,weneedtoexperimentwithnewwaysofreachingthebiggestaudienceswecan.


AbouttheContributorsJamesBergmanteachesU.S.HistoryandtheHistoryofScienceatTempleUniversity.HerecentlycompletedaMellonPostdoctoralfellowshipattheUniversityofPennsylvania,wherehepursuedaproject,“AfterlivesofClimate,”inwhichhestudiedthewaysinwhichclimaticdatafromastudywasrepurposedaftertheendofthestudy.Bergmaniscurrentlyworkingonabook,ClimateontheGround:Data,Planning,andthePursuitofStabilityintheUnitedStates,1933–1963,underadvancecontractwiththeUniversityofPittsburghPress.NicholasCuniganisanAdjunctProfessorofHistoryatCalvinCollegeinGrandRapids,MI.Hisresearchliesattheintersectionofenvironmental,Atlantic,andindigenouspeoples’history.Heiscurrentlyworkingonamanuscriptthatexaminestheimpactofseventeenth-centuryclimatechangeonDutchcolonialismintheAmericas.DagomarDegrootisanAssistantProfessorofEnvironmentalHistoryatGeorgetownUniversity.Hissecondbook,CivilizationandtheCosmos:AnEnvironmentalHistoryofHumanity’sPlaceintheSolarSystem,isundercontractwithHarvardUniversityPressandPenguinRandomHouse.Heisco-founderandco-directoroftheClimateHistoryNetwork,andfounderanddirectorofHistoricalClimatology.com.Hetweetsattwitter.com/DagomarDegroot.MelanieA.Kiechle,AssociateProfessorofHistoryatVirginiaTech,studiesthenineteenth-centuryUnitedStates.SheistheauthorofSmellDetectives:AnOlfactoryHistoryofNineteenth-CenturyUrbanAmerica(UniversityofWashington,2017)andiscurrentlyexploringthefateofsmallerwaterwaysinurbanspaces.KatrinKleemannisadoctoralcandidateattheRachelCarsonCenter/LMUMunichinGermany,whereshestudiesenvironmentalhistoryandgeology.HerdoctoralprojectinvestigatestheIcelandicLakifissureeruptionof1783anditsimpactsonthenorthernhemisphere.ShealsoisthesocialmediaeditorfortheClimateHistoryNetworkandHistoricalClimatology.com.ThomasWickmanisAssociateProfessorofHistoryandAmericanStudiesatTrinityCollegeinHartford,Connecticut.HisfirstbookisSnowshoeCountry:AnEnvironmentalandCulturalHistoryofWinterintheEarlyAmericanNortheast(CambridgeUniversityPress,2018).Heiscurrentlyworkingonahistoryofenvironmentandpoweratseventeenth-centurySuckiaug/Hartford.Copyright©2018H-Net:HumanitiesandSocialSciencesOnlineH-Netpermitstheredistributionandreprintingofthisworkfornonprofit,educationalpurposes,withfullandaccurateattributiontotheauthor,weblocation,dateofpublication,H-Environment,andH-Net:Humanities&SocialSciencesOnline.

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