DYNAMIC ASSESSMENT: A HISTORY OF FUNDAMENTAL

IDEASH. Carl Haywood

Vanderbilt University

Invited address, International Association for Cognitive Education and Psychology, Boston, MA, July 13, 2011

Basic Idea #1: Individual Differences

Galton: We can learn about the nature of human beings partly by studying how they differ from each other in lawful ways.

Binet & Henri: The Psychology of Individual Differences

Nomothetic science Idiographic science

Dynamic assessment

When a child is behind in school (Binet)..

The state of physical development Illness, physical and/or mental Sensory impairment Inadequate intellectual development,

lack of understanding, low intelligence Deficient memory: understands, does not

retain Difficulty understanding abstractions,

generalities, but adequate intelligence

..more of Binet’s suggestions about poor school performance Momentary disorientation, distraction,

environmental/social life changes Apathy, laziness, distaste for intellectual

work Instability of character Lack of discipline, hostility toward the

teacher Failure of family to support school’s

efforts

Idea 2: Process Assessment

How, rather than merely how much

Post hoc analysis of error types and patterns

Differential scoring, e.g., partial vs all-or-none

Direct observation during learning

Learn about processes by changing them

Some Methods for Assessing Processes of Learning

Direct observation of use of systematic cognitive strategies

Emphasis on how, not merely how much Comparison of “help” or “intervention”

modes Use of transfer of learning as an indicator

of LP Use of a mediation paradigm Generalization of mediational learning

Useful Paradigms for Studying Learning Processes: An Historic Progression

Learning Set (Harlow) 2-choice discrimination problems, e.g.,

A+ B- Many unique problems, each one only 6

trials Did repeated experience with the

discrimination learning problems establish a learning set; i.e., did the animals learn to learn? (Yes; They performed much better than did inexperienced subjects on new problems)

Discrimination Reversal

2-choice discrimination problems, e.g., A+ B- Each unique problem presented for 7 or 13

reinforced trials, regardless of performance Then contingency reversed: A- B+, for 10 trials

regardless of accuracy, to test for transfer Then training and testing continues with new

pairs of objects Reflects individual and species differences in the

ability to be flexible, to learn rules, to transfer what has been learned from one problem to the next. Would this reversal experience facilitate or impair learning on new problems?

Transfer Index (Rumbaugh)

2-choice discrimination problems, e.g., A+ B- Continue training to a preset criterion of

learning, e.g., correct 67% or 84% of the time THEN reverse the rewarded choice, e.g., A- B+,

for the next 11 trials Assess transfer of learning effects by testing

subjects on at least 10 new problems Negative transfer (a negative effect on

performance on subsequent problems) indicates S-R associative learning, whereas positive (facilitative) transfer indicates relational/conceptual learning.

The Transfer Index

Introduced 40+ years ago (D. M. Rumbaugh)

Simple two-choice discrimination problems

Learn to criterion, then Reverse “correct” choice, then Learn reversal problem or new

contingencies Efficiency of transfer is a clue to learning

processes and potential

TI Used to Study:

Learning potential across species Prediction of success on subsequent

problems; readiness to engage in learning tasks

Developmental (ontogenetic) effects e.g., environmental/experiential deprivation

Specific cognitive processes e.g., Visual attention

Advantages of Transfer

Data do not merely reflect operant conditioning

Transfer index permits inferences of processes rather than merely of outcomes

Helps to mitigate or equalize variables that influence performance Motivation Prior knowledge Language deficiencies or differences

Mediation Paradigm (Rumbaugh)

Addition of more challenges more clearly requires the learning of relations in the face of arbitrary changes, and the generalization of that relational learning to subsequent problems.

Simple two-choice discrimination problems, e.g., A+ B-, on a succession of unique problems, each continued to a criterion of learning.

Reversal trials given (A- B+) Test trials continue with introduction of a new second

choice : A- C+, or B- C+. Provides even stronger evidence of relational vs associative

learning. In highly encephalized subjects (great apes, e.g.), overtraining on the original A+ B- contingency leads to FEWER ERRORS on reversal and novel-choice trials: Subjects had learned a relation about learning itself.

Basic Idea 3: Learning Potential, Educability, ZPD

Emphasis on learning effectiveness and/or efficiency

Ability that is not readily apparent, that is hidden

Possible better performance, under different conditions

Some Currently Observed Obstacles to Effective Learning Deficiencies in language development Language difference Knowledge/information gaps; e.g.,

impoverished vocabulary, inadequate information store

Inadequate development of basic cognitive processes

Cultural differences, e.g., in attitudes toward learning

..more currently observed obstacles to learning

Cultural deficiencies, i.e., failure to have developed strong cultural identity, associated with transculturality

Ineffective motivation systems Negative self concept, especially as

learner Sub-optimal life experiences and/or

opportunities; e.g., limited language elaboration at home

Poor teaching

Does = Can Does not ≠ Cannot

Based on illogical assumptions Samples of tasks are representative or

exhaustive. Conditions are optimal. Corollary requires negative proof.

Idea 4: Mediation

Need for and efficacy of “help” suggested by Vygotsky

Many possible kinds of intervention/help Selection depends on purpose Mediation elaborated by Feuerstein

Nature of the Intervention: The Critical Variable in DA

Clarification of task and instructions Elaborated verbalization Successive clues to solving problem

(graduated prompt) Motivation to engage in task, succeed Stimulus enrichment (more examples) Accommodations for special needs Mediation of cognitive functions

Goals of Mediational DA

Discover obstacles to effective performance

Neutralize obstacles whenever possible Assess effects of “obstacle removal” on

subsequent performance Assess transfer to different learning tasks Identify conditions under which better

performance is achievable

What is mediated?

Regulation of behavior Motivation to engage in task Belief in subject’s capability Rules of the task Applicable modes of logical thought Value of verification Transfer, Generalization

Some Approaches to Mediation

Journal of Cognitive Education and Psychology, 3 (1), 2003. [online: www.iacep-coged.org/journal]

Mediated learning, Feuerstein (by Ruth Deutsch)

Vygotsky (by Yuriy Karpov)

Nyborg (by Andreas Hansen)

Neo-Piagetians (by Carl Haywood)