Gypsum Recycling in PlaNYC 2030: Spaces for Government Intervention

A Thesis Presented to the Faculty of Architecture & PlanningCOLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science in Urban Planning

byCaroline Bauer

May 2012

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research could not have been done without help from: Thomas Abdullah, Kate Aglitsky, Dana Coyle, Walter Czwartacky, Barry Dinerstein, Barry Fries, Mike Giraramita, David Hillcoat, Linda Jacobs, Samantha MacBride, Patrick Manning, Tom Piano, Michael Plottel, Raymond Ruggerio, Michael Snidal, Susana Siman, Rachel Van Tosh, Robert Viola and Patricia Zander.

A very special thanks to my advisors Robert Beauregard and Terri Matthews.

ACRONYMSADC Alternative Daily CoverBIC Business Integrity ComissionC&D Construction & DemolitionDEC Department of Environmental ConservationDCP Department of City PlanningDDC Department of Design & ConstructionDSNY Department of Sanitation EPA Environmental Protection AgencyESD Empire State Development AgencyFGD Flue gas desulfarization (synthetic gypsum)H2S Hydrogen Sulfide GasLEED Leadership in Energy & Environmental Design MTA Metropolitan Transit AuthorityNADC National Association of Demolition ContractorsNYC New York CityNYCT New York City Transit Authority USGBC United States Green Building Council

CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH QUESTION & DESIGN 4

CHAPTER 2: GYPSUM IN CONSTRUCTION 13

CHAPTER 3: THE C&D WASTE STREAM IN NYC 32

CHAPTER 4: ANALYSIS & FINDINGS 43

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 56

ABSTRACTInitiative 5 of PlaNYC 2030 details the city’s support in developing “cost-effective recycling options” for gypsum scrap in the construction & demolition (C&D) waste stream (148). Currently only 0.06% of drywall waste is recycled, a very low rate in comparison with the fact that nearly 70% of the entire C&D waste stream is recycled in NYC. This research will follow a question posited in alignment with the city’s agenda: How can NYC incentivize drywall recycling? Primary research components include observation of demolitions as well as interviews with key stakeholders in the gypsum supply chain. Illustrative diagrams are included to explain the life-cycle of gypsum from extraction to disposal. A key finding of this research is that the poor recycling rate for gypsum does not present a significant environmental or public health threat. As such, the gypsum problem does not warrant regulatory intervention to solve. Nevertheless, recommendations for future policy directions are still provided.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

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CHAPTER 1

RESEARCH QUESTION & DESIGN

Introduction In2007,theNewYorkCityMayor’sOfficeofLongTermPlanningandSustainabilitypublished

PlaNYC2030,apolicydocumentdefinedbytheagencyas“aboldagendatomeetthechallengesofa

growingpopulation,aginginfrastructure,achangingclimateandanevolvingeconomy(CityofNew

York,2011:5).”Anupdatetothisstrategicpolicyagendawaspublishedin2011,withadditionalgoalsfor

thecitytobecomea“greener,greaterNewYork.”

Thisthesisprojectisfocusedononeofthe132goalspublishedinthePlaNYCupdate.Initiative5

oftheSolidWasteManagementstrategystatesthatthecitywill“workwiththebusinesscommunityand

theCityCounciltoenactmandatoryrecyclingforcertainconstructionanddemolition(C&D)wasteprod-

uctsandencouragecost-effectiverecyclingoptionsforthesematerials(CityofNewYork,2011:140).”The

Planprioritizesgypsumwallboardscrapasan“optimalcandidateforrecycling,”yetalsoacknowledged

that“fewornolocalresourcestoeffectivelyrecyclecleangypsumscrap”currentlyexist(140).

Thepurposeofthisresearchistwofold.First,tofindthereasonsforthepoordrywallrecycling

rateinNYC.Secondly,torecommendhowthecitycancorrectthisproblemwiththedevelopmentof

newpolicy.Tomeetthesetwogoals,itaskstheresearchquestion:How can New York City incentivize

drywall recycling?

Material % of total stream

Wood 42%

Drywall 27%

Carpeting,fixtures,tile 15%

Brick 6%

AsphaltRoofing 6%

Plastics 2%

Metals 2%

Exhibit 1: Material proportions of United States Construction Waste(Franklin Associates, 1998)

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Gypsumwallboard,alsocommonlyknownasdrywall,gypsumboard,orSheetrock™1,hasbeen

usedinnearlyeverystructureintheUSsincetheearly1900s.Drywallcomprises27%ofC&Dwastegen-

eratednationally.AsevidentinExhibit1,drywallisthesecondmostprevalentwastematerialgenerated

fromconstructionprojects.Theuniquenessofeachbuildingnecessitatesthatdrywallsheetsbecutto

building-specificdimensionsduringnewconstructionprojects.Additionally,renovationanddemoli-

tionprojectsareprevalentthroughoutNYCduetothecity’srelativelyoldbuildingstockandscarcityof

developableland.Eachpracticegeneratesasignificantamountofdrywallwaste.Wastecreatedfrom

cuttingnewdrywalliscalled“cleangypsumscrap,”thatiscompletelyrecyclablebutoftenthrownaway

withothertrashonthejobsite.Ontheotherhand,demolitionandrenovationprojectsgenerate“dirty”

gypsumscrap,ordrywallthathasbeencontaminatedbypaint,nails,jointcompoundorasbestos.Due

tothepresenceofthesecontaminants,mostpurchasersofrecycleddrywallwillnotbuymaterialmade

fromdirtyscrap.

Interestingly,thereissomeimpetustokeepdrywalloutoftheC&Dwastestreamentirely.When

thegypsumcoreofdrywallisexposedtowater,itcreatesahydrogensulfidegaswithasignificantand

persistentodor.Materialsinevitablygetwetduringprocessingandinthelandfillmeaningthatthepres-

enceofdrywallinbothplacescancreatepublicnuisanceconditions.

Generated in New York State

(estimated tons)

Recoveredin New York State

(tons)

Proportion Recycled

(%)

Plastics 110,613 5,558 .5%

Metals 276,533 211,158 76%

Asphalt,brick&concrete 497,759 637,476 128%*

Cleandrywall

(fromconstruction) 331,839 35,085 .06%

Dirtydrywall

(fromrenovation&demolition) 221, 226 0 0%

Unadulteratedwood

(scraps&pallets) 636,025 160,098 25%

Adulteratedwood

(painted&engineered) 1,155,907 137,755 12%

Roofing 608,372 0 0%

Exhibit 2: Estimated C&D Waste Materials Generated and Recovered in New York State(NEWMOA 2009)

Duetothesereasonsandothersthatwillbeelaboratedupon,recyclingdrywallisanissueof

1 Sheetrock™isaUSGypsumproduct.

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particularcomplexity.Manyfactorshinderitsrecyclabilitybothontheconstructionsiteandintheregu-

latoryframeworkaddressingwastemanagementinNYC.Forexample,thecurrentwastemanagement

systeminNYCrequiresallC&Dwastetobeprocessedinatransferstation.Whilethesefacilitiestypically

achievehighdiversionrates,thisenvironmentdegradesgypsumscraptothepointwhereoneoperator

opinedthatthereis“nochanceinhell”thatdrywallcanberecycledinthetransferstation.

WhiletheLEED2programhashelpedC&Dwasterecyclingbecomeamorecosteffectiveactivity,

recycledgypsumhasnexttonoendmarketsintheNYCmetropolitanarea.Moreoverthecommodity

isindirectcompetitionwithsyntheticgypsum,agreenalternativetothevirginmaterialthatisoften

cheaperandofhigherqualitythanrecycledgypsum.Thiscombinationoffactorshasresultedinanearly

0%recyclingrateforcleangypsumscrapinrecentyears.WhileExhibit2presentsdatafromNewYork

Stateonly,gypsumscrapalsohasthelowestrecyclingratesofC&Dmaterialsnationwide.

BackgroundGypsumscrapisconsideredapartoftheconstructionanddemolition(C&D)wastestreaminNew

YorkStatelegislation.Thestreamiscomprisedofthematerialscontainedinbuildings,includingtimber,

plastics,assortedmetals,concrete,drywall,insulationaswellaslightfixturesandotherarchitectural

details.In2006,NewYorkCitygenerated38,000tonsofthiswasteeveryday,whichtranslatesinto8.64

milliontonsofC&Dwasteproducedannually(DSNY,2006:IV-3).Thisfigurewasdisproportionately

higherthanthenationalaverageofC&Dwastegeneration.Thestreamconstitutes45%ofthenational

dailywasteoutputasopposedtothe60%itaccountsforinNYC(UrbanGreen,2010).3

ThereisastrongenvironmentalargumentfordivertingC&Dwastematerialsfromlandfill.Recy-

clingthesematerialsreducesrelianceonvirginnaturalresourcesandthecarbonemissionsgeneratedin

theirtransportationandmanufacture.Constructionmaterialsaccountfor40%oftotalmaterialconsump-

tionglobally(UrbanGreen:2010,3).Moreover,theextractionandmanufacturingofbuildingelements

alsoconsumes30%ofthetotalUSenergysupply(Viola,2008:5).Thestrongmetalcontentoflandfilled

C&Dwaste(i.e.arsenic,aluminumandcopper)producesaharmfulleachatethatcouldpotentiallycon-

taminatethequalityofsurroundinggroundwater(Weberetal.,2000inViola,5).

Insharpcontrasttopoorgypsumrecyclingrates,70%ofthetotalC&Dwastestreamwasrecycled

in2010(UrbanGreen,2010).Highrecyclingratesofconstructionmaterialsisdueprimarilytotheirhigh

inherentvalue.Steelandlumber,forexample,canbetakendirectlyoffajobsiteandreusedwithout

furtherprocessing.Materialsprocessorsalsopaytopdollarforsteelorlumbercuttingsfromdemolition

2 LEEDstandsfortheUSGreenBuildingCouncil’sLeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesignprogram3 ThedifferencemadeupbyMunicipalSolidWaste(MSW)comprising40%ofthecity’soutputand55%ofthenationaloutputoverall.

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projectsthatcannotbedirectlyreused.

Importantly,somecomponentsoftheC&Dwastestreamareeasiertorecyclethanothers.Thisis

inpartduetotheintrinsicvalueofthematerial,butalsobecausesteelandothermetalscanbekeptin-

tactduringC&Dactivitiesandsubsequentwasteprocessing.Drywall,ontheotherhand,iseasilycrushed

duringtheseprocesses,makingthecaptureandresaleofgypsumdifficult.

ThereisalsoagrowingeconomicconcernforrecyclingC&DwasteinNYC.Thisispartlydueto

the2001closureofStatenIsland’sFreshKills,thelastremaininglandfillinthecity.Astheentiretyofthe

city’swastemustnowbeexportedeitherupstateoroutofstate,theDepartmentofSanitation’sbudget

hasincreasedby$400millionannuallysincetheclosingprocessbeganin1996(GruzenSamton&City

GreenInc.,2003:1).Landfilloperationsinneighboringstateshaveinstitutedmaterialbans,tonnage

taxesandincreasedtippingfeestocopewiththeincreasedvolumeresultingfromtheimportofNYC’s

wastestreams.Arguably,duetothecity’shighconsumptionrateofC&Dmaterials,increasedrecyclingof

thesematerialswillhavebothregionalandnationalrepercussions.

DuetothehighinherentvalueofmostmaterialsandtheprevalenceofC&Dprojectsthroughout

thecity,jobsitescavengingisapopularactivityinNYC.InhislettertotheeditoroftheNew York Times,

anNYCconstructionworkerGeraldButlerrespondedtoanarticleaboutthelimitsofrecyclinginthecity:

It’sfascinatingthatmostofthecommentersareforcedonhectoringandlecturingthecommonmanandwomantobringtheirownknives,forksplatesandnapkinsfromhomeasameansofreducingwaste.Thethingsis,afull50%-7milliontonsoutof14milliontons-ofwastegeneratedinthiscityeveryyearisindustrialdebris.Contrarytothearticle,we’renottalkingabout‘dirt’here.We’retalkingaboutcutoffsfrommetalstuds,tracksandbeams,piecesofscrapsheetrock,cardboardboxesthatcontainedbathtubs,sinks,toiletsandstoves,piecesofwood,sawdust,scrapelectricalwiring,etc.There would probably be a lot more waste if construction workers like me didn’t scour the job-site dumpsters for scrap metal that we can sell for a profit (NewYorkTimes,2011:9,emphasisadded).

ThisresponseisparticularlypoignantformyresearchontheNYCrecyclingindustry.Notonly

doeshemakeitclearthatC&DwasteshouldbethetargetofNYCwastereductionefforts,healsoproposes

apolicysolutiontoreducingthiswastestream:

However,nobodyheretalksaboutmakingMr.Trump,Mr.Zuckerman,Mr.Silverstein,Mr.Walentas,Mr.RatnerandtheotherNewYorkrealestatebillionaires‘reduce,reuseandrecycle.’Whynotchargethembythepoundforallthegarbagetheirconstructionsitesgenerate?Thatmakesalotmoresensethanputtingaregressivegarbagetaxontheworkingclassandthepoor,orlecturingpeopletobringtheirownplatestoarestaurant!

ThefivemennamedbyButlerareprominentNYCdevelopers.Whilenoneofthesemenaredirectly

responsibleforthewayinwhichC&DwasteiscollectedordisposedinNYC,Butlerplacestheirfinancial

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interestsasthetargetofpublicpolicyinitiativesregardingrecycling.Here,Butlerastutelyhighlightsthe

circuitousnatureofconstructionfinanceaswellashowwastemanagementconsiderationsareoften

afterthoughtsinthebottomlinethinkingoftheconstructionindustry.Thesetwofactorshaveparticular

consequencesformaterialslikegypsum,whichischeaptoextractandlandfillbutexpensivetorecycle.

Theoretical Approach

ArchitectandauthorMichaelMcDonoughoffersaguidefortrackingthelife-cycleofgypsum

boardthroughtheconstructionprocess.InaninterviewforBruceMau’sMassive Change,McDonough

statesthatbeforebeginninganyproject,heaskshimself,“whataretheprocessesbywhichthisthingis

produced?Whataretheprocessesbywhichitwillenditsusefullife?”(Mau,2004:39).Clearly,the“thing”

inMcDonough’scommentreferstothegypsumcontainedindrywall.Hisuseoftheword“processes”is

ofparticularinteresthere,asthisresearchultimatelyaimstoassistmakingtheprocessofrecyclingdry-

wall costeffective.DavidHarvey(1997:17)expandsontheideaoffollowingprocessesintheurbanen-

vironment:“weshouldfocusonprocessesratherthanthings,andweshouldthinkofthingsasproducts

ofprocesses...Mostofthecategoriesweusetendtobe‘thing’categories.Ifinsteadweexaminedynamics

andprocesses,wemaytrytodosobyconceivingthemasrelationshipsbetweenpre-existingthings.”He

continuesthat“allpolitical-economicprocessesweobservearemediatedthroughoutthefilterofurban

organization(17).”

GroundingHarvey’stheoriestothetasksathand,theresearchmethodologydefinesthepro-

cess ofrecyclingdrywallinNYCbywayoftherelationshipsbetweenstakeholderswhoconstitutethe

processesthemselves.Insodoing,thediverse(andsometimesdivergent)prioritiesofthegovernment,

businessandcivilsocietygroupswithvestedinterestintheprocesswillalsobedescribed.BrunoLatour

(2005:173)describesthiseffortasmappingthe“continuousconnectionsleadingfromonelocalinterac-

tiontotheotherplaces,timesandagenciesthroughwhichalocalsiteismadetodosomething,”stress-

ingthat“eachtransactioncontainsatransformation.”Suspendingrealityforamoment,thenarrative

willfollowthetransformationsasinglepieceofdrywallundergoesinthelife-cycleofaNYCbuilding,

spanningfromtheextractionofvirgingypsumtoitstransformationintoeitherrecycleddrywallorwaste

material.InhisseminalworkEnvironment: from Surplus to Scarcity, AllanSchnaiberg(1980)asserts

thatallenvironmentalproblemsboildowntotheproduction,consumptionanddisposalofmaterials.

Scholarsaddressingaparticularenvironmentalproblemshouldanalyzetherelevantpatternsofmaterial

productionwiththisframework,payingspecialattentiontothetransformativeprocessesinthelife-cycle

ofamaterial.

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Inhis2001bookMaterialsMatter,KenGeiserpointsoutthatwhilethereareprecedentexamples

ofgovernmentinterventioninsupportofend-marketsforrecycledgoods.Hestressesthattheseincen-

tivesrequiremuchtimeandeffortfrommanystakeholders,stating:“ifrecyclingistosucceedatreducing

thedrainonvirginmaterials,thenalargenetworkofenterprisesengagedinconsumingrecycledmateri-

alsasfeedstocksmustbedevelopedandencouraged(230).”

Throughoutthecourseofthisresearch,itbecameapparentthattheNYCgovernmenthaslimited

abilitytoincentivizedrywallrecyclinggiventhecomplexityofthesystemsalludedtobyGeiser.IWhile

theseproblemswillbeelaboratedatlengthinthefollowingchapters,itisimportanttonoteherebecause

thisobservationtransformedtheresearchquestionfrom“howcanNYCincentivizedrywallrecycling”

to“shouldthiseffortbetakenatall?”IftheultimategoalsofincludinggypsuminPlaNYCaretore-

duceminingofvirgingypsumandreducethetotalvolumeofwastebeinglandfilled,thesegoalscanbe

achievedbymethodsotherthanrecycling.Indeed,thisresearchconcludesthatrecyclingisnotthebest

solutiontosolvingthegypsumproblem.ProminentsystemstheoristRussellAckoffnotes:“successful

problemsolvingrequiresfindingtherightsolutiontotherightproblem.Wefailmoreoftenbecausewe

solvethewrongproblemthanbecausewegetthewrongsolutiontotherightproblem(AckoffinGeiser,

2001:216).”Becausethisobservationcamelateintheresearchprocess,however,muchoftheresearch

followstheassumptionthatrecyclingisthebestoptionforthetreatmentofdrywallscrap.Nevertheless,

thisideaisrevisitedinthefinalchapter.

Methodology

Theresearchdesigndrawsfromthesetheoreticalconsiderationsandthethreekeyobjectives

listedbelow:

Researchcomponentsincludeinterviews,sitevisitsandprimarydatareview.Interviewswerecon-

ductedfromNovember2011–February2012.Beforebeginningtheinterviews,thisprojectwascleared

bytheInstitutionalReviewBoard(IRB)ofColumbiaUniversity.IRBapprovalofaprojectensuresthat

1

2

3 Createrecommendationsforhowpublicagenciescanmaketheprocessesofrecyclingdrywalleconomicallyviableforallstakeholders.

Analyzetherolesandinfluenceofgovernmentagencies,businessesandthird-sectororganizationsplaythroughouttheprocess.

DocumentthegypsumwallboardmaterialscyclefromextractiontowasteinNYC.

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eachintervieweeiscomfortablewiththetermsandexpectationsofparticipatingintheresearchproject.

Whilethemajorityofinterviewstookplaceinperson,sometookplaceoverthetelephoneorviaanemail

exchangeduetodistanceorschedulingproblems.Participantsincludedgovernmentofficialsfromboth

NewYorkStateandNYCrepresentativesfromtheconstruction,wastemanagementandgypsumrecy-

clingindustries,andacademicswhoconductedsimilarresearch.Theseinterviewsweredonetounder-

standtheprocessesinvolvedindrywallrecyclingfromthe“streetlevel,”ortorevealspecificsgoverning

industriesandagenciesthatarenoteasilycapturedinofficialdocuments.Afullinterviewscheduleis

includedinAppendixA.Whilethelistincludestitlesandaffiliations,nameswereremovedtoprotectthe

confidentialityofparticipants.However,namesofparticipantswhodidnotrequestconfidentialityare

includedthroughoutthenarrative.

Threesitevisitswerealsoconductedintheinterestofgatheringstreet-levelinformationabout

thegypsumrecyclingprocess.Sitesobservedincludedacommercialrenovationproject,alargeconstruc-

tionprojectandaC&Dwastetransferstation,alllocatedinNYC.Theconstructionandrenovationsites

wereselectedthroughtheinterviewprocess,meaningtheywerecurrentprojectsofinterviewpartici-

pants.Thetransferstationwasselectedduetoitsword-of-mouthaccoladesasoneofthemostefficient

operatorsinthecity.Inadditiontotheexperientialknowledgegainedfrominterviewsandguidedtours,

otherdatagatheredateachsiteincludedphotosandwastetonnagedata.

TherenovationprojectobservedwasintheHospitalForSpecialSurgeryintheUpperEastSideof

ManhattanandwasvisitedonJanuary23rd,2012.Thejobwasmanagedbythegeneralcontractingfirm

BRFriesandconsistedofamajorrenovationofseveralfloorsofthehospital.Thevisitoccurredduring

thedemolitionphaseoftheproject,andincludedawalkthroughofthescopeoftheworkandaguided

tourbytheProjectSuperintendant.Mechanicaldemolitionofgypsumwallboardwasobservedduring

thisvisit.ThesecondsitevisitwasofCooperTankRecyclingaC&DwastetransferstationinGreenpoint,

BrooklynonJanuary27th,2012.Here,thedailyoperationsofthetransferstationwereobservedviaa

guidedtourwiththeGeneralManagerofthestation.Specialattentionwaspaidtohowgypsumfaresin

themechanicalandhandsortingprocesses.Lastly,theconstructionsiteofthenewNewYorkCityPolice

AcademyinCollegePoint,QueenswasobservedonFebruary17th,2012.Theprojectwaspubliclyfunded

withtheNewYorkCityDepartmentofDesignandConstructionactingasthepropertyownerandTurn-

er/STVConstructionmanagingtheproject.ThevisitincludedatourofthefacilitybytheProjectManager

fromDDCandtheLEEDComplianceOfficerfromTurner/STVConstruction.Whiletheconstructionwas

notyetatthedrywallinstallationphase,specialattentionwaspaidthroughoutthetourofthegeneral

C&Dwastemanagementmeasuresandotherenvironmentalconsiderationsoftheproject.Unlessother-

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wisecited,themajorityofthephotosusedinthenarrativeweretakenduringthesesitevisits.

Interviewsandsitevisitsweredesignedtoelicitresponsesfromstakeholdersaboutthelimita-

tionstheyperceiveforrecyclingdrywall.Morespecifically,themethodologywasdesignedtodistin-

guishbetweenthe subjectivelimitationstotheprocess,orthoseduetoadeficiencyinconceptualization

andtheobjectivelimitationscausedbythecharacteristicsoftheenvironmentoftheproblemand/or

peculiaritiesofconstructioningeneral(Vrijhoef&Koskela,2000:176).Onthegroundobservationssuchas

theseareimportantforunderstandingtheerraticandatypicalconstraintspresentonmostconstruction

sites.

Lastly,reviewofthelegislationandavailabledataregardingC&DwasteinNYCwerealsokey

componentstotheresearch.Primarydocumentsfromthefederal,stateandcitylevelsofgovernment

werereviewed.Theseincludedthelegaldefinitionsandtherelevantplans,policiesandprogramsregard-

ingC&Dwasteaswellasthetransferstationpermittingprocess.

Analysis of Current Government Actions

Thisresearchproducedinrecommendationsforcityagenciesratherthantheconstructionindus-

try.Assuch,itisimportanttounderstandthecurrenteffortsbeingmadebythegovernmentforrecycling

gypsum,aswellasthecultureinwhichthesedecisionsaremade.Forexample,iswastemanagement

explicitlyconsideredintheplanningphaseofaprojectorisitlefttotheconstructioncompanywhowon

theprojectbid?Toanswerthesequestions,amoreindepthexaminationoftheactivitiesoftheNewYork

CityTransitAuthority(NYCT)andtheNewYorkCityDepartmentofDesignandConstruction(DDC)was

alsoundertaken.Thetwowerechosenastheyimplementandmanageconstructionprojectsthrough-

outthecity.AkeydifferencebetweenthetwoisthefactthatNYCTisastateagency,whileDDCisacity

department.Whilerecommendationswillonlyfocusontheworkofcityagencies,theactionsofNYCT

aredescribedintheinterestofexamininghowrecyclingeffortsareapproachedatthestatelevel.NYCT

isthestateagencyresponsiblefortheconstructionandongoingmaintenanceoftheentirepublictransit

systemofNYC.DDCservesasimilarfunctionforthecity’sinstitutionalbuildings,oneexamplebeingthe

PoliceAcademyProjectcoveredinthisresearch.Thus,thetwoareagaugeofcurrentgovernmentinterest

andinfluenceonC&Drecycling.Theanalysisincludesareviewofthewastemanagementcontracting

processrecordkeepingproceduresandcurrentdiversionandprocurementgoalsforeachagency.Local

lawsadoptedbythelegislatureandexecutiveorderswerealsoconsidered.Additionally,since2008,both

agencieshaverequiredsubcontractorstosubmitwastemanagementplansforeachjob.Asamplesetof

thesewastemanagementplanswerereviewedtounderstandhowdiversiongoalsactuallytranslateinto

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agencyaction.Thisdatareviewwasundertakenwithaspecialfocusonhowdrywallistreatedinthe

plansandonajobsite.Furthermore,primarydatacollectionwasnecessaryascomprehensiveanalysis

ofplansandsubsequentgypsumcapturehasyettobedoneateitheragency.Importantly,accesstothis

datawaslimitedformanyreasons.Theselimitationsarealsoaddressedintheanalysis.

Outline

Chapter2describeshowgypsumisusedinconstruction,highlightingspecificissuesthathinder

itsrecyclability.Diagramsareprovidedtoillustratetheprocessesatplaywhengypsumiseitherland-

filledorrecycled.Thesevisualsfocusontherolesofdifferentindustrystakeholdersandthecostsassoci-

atedwitheitherscenario.Chapter3analyzestheregulatorystructureofC&Dwastemanagementonthe

federal,NewYorkstateandNYClevel.Contributionsofthirdsectorinitiativestowardgypsumrecycling

arealsoconsideredinChapter3.Chapter4presentsthefindingsandanalysisthecurrenteffortsforgyp-

sumdiversionbyDDCandNYCT.AsthetwoorganizationsmanageconstructionprojectsinNYC,their

actionsandinternalincentiveprogramsareanalyzedtodescribethecurrentprocessesofstateprocure-

mentandC&Dwastemanagement.Finally,Chapter5summarizestheanalysisofthecurrentbarriersto

drywallrecyclinginNYC.Fromthesefindings,recommendationsforfurthermethodsofstateinterven-

tioninrecycledgypsummarketsarethenprovided.

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CHAPTER 2

GYPSUM IN CONSTRUCTION

Gypsum: A Brief History Gypsumisanaturallyoccurringmineralcomposedofcalcium,sulfurandoxygen.Itisasoftma-

terialwhosecolorrangesfromwhitetobrown(dependingonpurity)andappearsineitheracrystalline

orsand-likeform.Depositsareassociatedwiththeevaporatebedsofsedimentaryrocksandarefoundin

abundancethroughouttheworld.Duetoitsdurability,strengthandfire-resistance,gypsumhasbeen

usedasabuildingmaterialforthousandsofyears.ThepyramidofChoeps,constructedin3700B.C.,is

madeofgypsumblocksandplaster.Anecdotally,thewallsofKingMinos’Cretanpalacewasconstructed

ofgypsumplaster.

WhilethefirstUSdepositsofgypsumwerefoundin1792inNewYorkState,BenjaminFranklin

iscreditedwithintroducingthematerialtoUSmarketsmuchearlier.Interestingly,Franklinadvocated

fortheuseofgypsumnotasabuildingmaterialbutratherasanagriculturalproduct.Whenusedasa

soilamendment,gypsumaddsnutrientsandboostscropyields.Sometimescalleda“soilsweetener,”gyp-

sumisespeciallybeneficialtopeanutcultivation.Today,theprimaryendmarketforrecycledgypsumin

theNortheastremainsasasoiladditive.

Drywallasitisknowntodaywasinventedin1910byU.S.Gypsum,whichisstillthelead-

Exhibit 3: Gypsum rocks in a quarry mine.(Alibaba.com)

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inggypsummanufacturerintheUS.Priortotheuseofgypsumwallboard,mostinteriorwallswere

constructedoflathandplaster.Atypicallathwall,showninExhibit4,consistsofwoodenslatssealed

togetherandcoveredwithgypsumplaster.Lathwallinstallationismaterial,timeandlaborintensive.As

withmanyUStechnologicaladvancements,themilitarywasthefirstadopterofthisnewbuildingmate-

rial.MichaelGardner(2008),executivedirectoroftheGypsumAssociation,describeshowthepopularity

ofgypsumwallboardneatlyalignswithbothWorldWarI&II:“Thefirstcall-upofU.S.troopsin1917

createdanurgentneedfortemporarymilitaryhousing,bothathomeandoverseas.Themilitaryused

avarietyofbuildingmaterialstomeetthisneed;however,abarracksfirethattookthelivesofseveral

servicemenledmilitaryengineerstolookfornaturallyfire-resistantmaterials.Gypsumboardmetthis

needandconsequentlybecamethepreferredbuildingmaterialformilitaryhousingconstruction…By

1945,themilitaryhadusedapproximately2.5billionsquarefeet ofthematerial.”Gardnerdescribesthat

thepost-WWIIhousingboomwasfacilitatedbygypsumwallboard,continuingthat“bytheendofthe

decadethe{gypsum}industrylaunchedamajorpublicrelationscampaignthatreachedanestimated54

millionAmericans.”Whileafewdrywallalternativesexist,includingwoodpanelingandcementboard,

thedurabilityandlowpriceofgypsumwallboardmakeitthemostpopularinteriorwallmaterialinthe

U.S.today.

Gypsumdepositslargeenoughforcommercialexploitationarefoundinmanystatesinthe

westernpartoftheUS,makingthecountrythenumberoneproducerofgypsumintheworld.Gypsum

miningandmanufacturinghasplayedamajorpartintheUSeconomysincetheinventionofdrywallin

theearly1900s.Similartourbanizationpatternsaroundoildeposits,gypsumdepositsspurredthedevel-

Exhibit 4: Traditional lath & plaster wall. (buildapedia.com)

Exhibit 5: Gypsum mine with a mobile crusher. (SBNMachinary.com)

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opmentofcitiesandtowns.Forexample,therearetownscalled“Gypsum”inColorado,KansasandOhio.

WhiteSands,NewMexicoisalsonamedforthemineral.ThetownishometotheWhiteSandsNational

Monumenta270squaremilegypsumdeposit,whoseexpanseisenoughtosupplytheconstruction

industrywithdrywallfor1,000years.In1933,PresidentHerbertHooverdesignatedWhiteSandsana-

tionalmonumentinresponsetothestrongresidentoppositionoftheproposedminingofthearea(Abarr,

1999).

Thoughitcannotbeexploited,thevastnessoftheWhiteSands,asingledepositofthemineral,

illustratestheprevalenceofgypsumworldwide.Otherconstructionmaterialsthatarelessplentiful,like

copper,orheavilyregulated,likelumber,aremorereadilyrecycledthangypsumwhichiseasytofind

andcheaptoextractandprocess.Assuch,theabundanceofgypsumisakeybarriertogypsumrecycling.

Extraction & wallboard manufactureTheU.S.gypsumindustryconsistsof55naturalmines,locatedmostlyinthewesternhalfofthe

U.S.,whichgenerated9milliontonsofcrudegypsumin2010.46gypsummanufacturingcompanies

ownandoperatethemines,makinggypsumminingandmanufacturinga$58.5milliondollarindustry

intheUS(USGS,2011).Threemajorgypsumcompaniesservicethenortheasternregion:USGypsum,

NationalGypsumandGeorgia-Pacific.Thesecompaniesmakeavarietyofgypsum-basedconstruction

materialsinadditiontoexteriorandinteriordrywallpanels,includingacousticalceilingpanels,floor

slabsandunderlayments,jointcompoundsandstucco.In2010,90%ofthegypsumconsumedintheUS

wasintheformofgypsumwallboardandplaster-basedconstructionmaterials.26.8billionsquarefeetof

wallboardwasproducedbythenetworkofdomesticmanufacturersin2009(USGS,2011).

Gypsumistypicallyextractedfromtheearthviaan“openpit”or“surface”miningprocess.

Gypsumrocksareblastedwithdynamiteandthendrilledtoloosenlargechunksofthematerial.Assuch,

theminestypicallyresemblerockquarries.Mostmineshaveequipmentonsitetocrushrocksbefore

transportingthemtothemanufacturingfacility.AsshowninExhibit5,thesecrushersreducethevolume

ofthebulkymaterialforeasiertransport.Therocksaretakentoamanufacturingfacilitytobefurther

crushedandscreenedbeforebeingtransformedintovariousproducts,meaningthatfirmsoftenlocate

plantsclosetominesitestoreducetransportationcosts.Extractedgypsumcostsaround$8.80aton,mak-

ingitanextremelycheapvirginresource(Recology,2009:15).

Putsimply,drywallproductioncanbebrokendowninto5steps.First,thegypsumiscrushed

intotinypebbles.Itisthencalcined,ordriedatahightemperature,toevaporatewatercontainedinthe

rock.Thedrygypsumismixedwithwater,turningitintoplaster.Thisplasterisplacedintoacastbound

16

bytwosheetsofpaperwhichformstheshapeofdrywallpanels.Thefifthandlaststepoftheprocessis

dryingthesepanelsina500ºkilnsforanextendedperiodoftime.

Aswithmostconstructionmaterials,drywallisproducedtospecificdimensionsbymanufactur-

ers.Allpanelsare4’wide,rangefrom8’to14’inlengthandare½”to5/8”inthickness.Asinglepieceof

drywallcostsanywherebetween$6-$14.Pricedifferencesareduetothevarietyoffireproofingandmold

proofingtreatmentsavailablefortheboards.

Environmental ConcernsTheproductionofdrywallfromvirgingypsumisbotharesourceandenergy-intensiveprocess.

Surfaceminingcanerodethelandaroundminesites,leadingtosinkholesormudslides.Miningalso

threatenswildlifelivinginandaroundminesites.Fuelleaksfromminingequipmentcancompromise

soilandwaterneareachquarrymine.However,allextractionofmaterialsthroughsurfaceminingpres-

enttheseenvironmentalthreatsandnonearegypsum-specific.

Thecrushingandcalcinationprocessesaccountforapproximately6%ofthetotalenergyused

intheproductionofdrywall,whilethekilndryingcomprisesaround65%ofenergyuse(AthenaInsti-

tute,2010:2-8).Excludingtheenergyrequirementsfortransportationofthematerialfromminesoras

afinishedproducttoendmarkets,transformingvirgingypsumintodrywallrequires4,000megajoules

ofenergypertonofdrywallproduced(Recology,2009:16).Transportationenergycostsvarywiththe

proximityofminestomanufacturingfacilities,andalsofromdistancetoendmarkets.Forexample,the

AthenaSustainableMaterialsInstituteestimatesthattransportationofrawgypsumtoprocessingsites

accountsfor21%ofenergycostsfordrywallproducedinCanada.

Thereisnoconsensusonthetotalembeddedenergycontainedingypsumwallboard,andthus

thisinformationisonlyavailablefromproductproducers.AccordingtoaUSGypsumreport,“theembod-

Gypsum core

Paper backing

Exhibit 6: Drywall cross section.

17

iedenergyofgypsumboardisextremelylow(Master,2010:294).”InapromotionalarticleforEcoRock™4

agypsum-freealternativefordrywall,thedesignblogInhabitatreportsthat“drywallisthenumberthree

producerofgreenhousegassesamongbuildingmaterials(Flahiff,2008).”Regardlessofexactfigures,the

productionandtransportationofdrywall,aswithallbuildingmaterials,producesasignificantamount

ofenergyandemissions.However,itshouldnotbeassumedthatrecycledcontentdrywalloralterna-

tivestothematerialhavefewernegativeexternalitiesthantraditionalgypsumwallboard.Thoughthe

alternativesmaynotcontainvirginresources,theirtransportationandprocessingstillrequiresubstantial

amountsofenergyandareemissions-producing.

Wasteisalsoproducedingypsumproductmanufacture.Called“pre-consumer”waste,this

materialtypicallyexperiencesa100%recyclingrateasmanufacturersincorporatethesecutoffsintothe

in-houseproductionofotherproducts.

Synthetic Gypsum Drywallproductionhasaninterestingconnectionwithemissionscontroltechnologyforcoal

burningpowerplants.The1970CleanAirActrequiredcoalbasedpowerplantstocontroltheirsulfurdi-

oxide(SO2)emissions,asthechemicalisthemaincontributortoacidrain.Emissionscontrolregulations

havestrengthenedovertheyears.Apopularandinexpensivewayforpowerplantstomeetthesere-

quirementsisbyinstallingfluegasdesulfurizationsystems(FGD)or“scrubbers.”Essentially,thesescrub-

4 NowknownasQuietRock™

Exhibit 7: Synthetic gypsum in storage.(Nationalgypsum.com)

18

bersareslabsofcalciumrichwet-limestoneplacedatthetopofsmokestacks.Asexhaustrisesthrough

thestacks,thecalciumreactswiththeSO2,transformingitfromairpollutionintotheexactchemical

compoundofgypsum(Rubin,Hounshell,Yeh&Taylor,2004).Thisnaturalby-productoffluegasdesul-

furizationsystemscreatessynthetic gypsum,alsoknownasFGD gypsum.Thismaterialwaslandfilled

untiltheconnectionwithdrywallmanufacturingwasmadeinthe1980s.

Syntheticgypsumcostsonly$3atonandisusuallymorepurethanrecycledorevenvirgin

gypsum(Recology,2009:15).Useofthismaterialiswidespreadamongstgypsummanufacturers;in2010

7.5milliontonswasproduced,creatinga$3millionmarketforsyntheticgypsum.Since2000,USGypsum

hasproduced72millionsquarefeetofdrywallmadeexclusivelywithsyntheticgypsum(USG,2011:3).

Facilitiesthatusesyntheticgypsumareoftenlocatednearpowerplantswithwet-limestonescrubbers.

Thisdecisionismadebygypsummanufacturersutilizingthesamelogicaslocatingfacilitiesnexttogyp-

summines,asthiscurbstheirtransportationcostsforthebulkymaterials.

Industryadoptionofsyntheticgypsumbringsenvironmentalbenefits.Thematerialdecreases

relianceonvirginresourcesandreducesthelandfilldepositsforpowerplants.Recycledandsynthetic

gypsumbothprovidetheenvironmentalbenefits,yettheformerismoreexpensiveandlesspurethan

thelatter.Syntheticgypsum,however,doesnotrequireenergy-intensivecrushingorsiftingtechnolo-

giesneededforrecyclinggypsum.Moreover,manydrywallmanufacturershaverenovatedseveral

plantslocatednearcoalplantstouseonlysyntheticgypsumratherthanvirginorrecycledmaterial.As

such,whiletheabundanceandlowcostofsyntheticgypsumcontributestothe“greening”ofthebuild-

ingindustry,italsoprovidesadisincentivefordrywallrecycling.

Drywall in ConstructionAsevidentinExhibit8,themajorityofdrywallwasteisgeneratedduringnewconstructionand

renovationprojects.Drywallwasteiscreatedduringnewconstructionwhenfreshdrywallsheetsare

trimmedtomeetthedimensionsofthebuilding.

Activity %oftotaldrywallwasteproducedbyactivity

Construction 64%

Demolition 14%

Manufacturing 12%

Renovation 10%

Exhibit 8: Gypsum scrap generation by activity.(Pichtel, 2005)

Drywallwastefromnewconstructioniscalled“cleangypsumscrap,”anddiffersfromdrywall

19

wastegeneratedduringdemolitionbecauseithasyettobecontaminatedwithpaintornails.Thelatter

materialiscalled“dirtyscrap.”Wastecreatedduringmanufacturingisthe“pre-consumerscrap”dis-

cussedpreviously.Importantly,PlaNYConlytargets“cleangypsumscrap”forrecyclingincentives.

Giventhefragmentednatureoftheconstructionindustry,aseparatecontractorishiredspecifi-

callyfordrywallinstallation.Thecomplexityofthecontractstructureofconstructionprojectswillbe

discussedatlengthinChapter4,yetitisimportanttonoteherethatthepartyresponsibleforinstalling

thedrywallisnotnecessarilyresponsibleforwastemanagementdecisions.Dependinguponthecontrac-

tualstructureoftheproject,theseservicesaretypicallytheresponsibilityoftheGeneralcontractoronthe

project.

Drywallcontractorsareresponsibleforthepurchase,transportationandlaborcostsassociated

withinstallation.Wallboardisorderedfromaregionaldistributorandshippedtotheconstructionsiteon

largepallets.Consideringthebulkinessofdrywallpanels,thesepalletscanoccupyasignificantamount

ofspaceon-site.ThisfacthasparticularimplicationsforNYC,asthedensityofthecitymakesspaceon

constructionsitesscarce.

Exhibit 9: Plans detailing gypsum board installation.

Exhibit 10: Drywall installation.(buildopedia.com)

Exhibit 11: Drywall delivery on 6th Avenue & West 8th Street.

20

Drywallinstallationoccursinoneofthelaterphasesofconstruction.Asthematerialcoversthe

steelandlumberskeleton,drywallinstallmarksthepointatwhichtheinteriorformofthebuilding

becomesapparent.Sheetsarescrewedintothelumberormetalframingofthestructureandrestontop

ofalayerofinsulationmaterial.Slabscanalsoformtheceilingofabuilding,yetgypsum-basedceiling

tilesaremorecommonlyusedforthispurpose.Thesheetsaresealedtogetherusingjointcompound,

anothergypsum-basedmaterial.Drywallinstallationisaparticularlymessyendeavor.Cuttingsheetsis

dustywork,slatheringofjointcompoundismessy,andliftingtheheavysheetsishardontheworker’s

bodies.Assuch,interiorcontractorsaresomeofthelowestpaidunionconstructionworkers.Theyearn

$18.41perhour,whiletheaveragehourlyrateforstructuralironandsteelworkersis$21.42.Onaver-

age,drywallinstallersdonothaveahighschooldegreenordotheyreceiveonthejobtraining,while

moststructuralsteelworkershaveasecondarydegreeandgothroughaunionapprenticeshipprocess.

Thiscontrastineducationalattainmentisimportanttohighlightbecauseitshowsthelackofvenuesfor

whichdrywallinstallerscouldbetrainedtokeepdrywallscrapsintactduringconstruction(BLS,2010).

Exhibit 12: Floor of a demolition site, with drywall scrap high-lighted.

Exhibit 13: Drywall being demolished with a sledgehammer

21

Therecoverabilityofcleanscrapdependsuponhowthewasteishandledonsite;scrapsmustbe

keptdryandseparatefromotherwastematerials.“CenterPiling”isamethodofachievingbothrequire-

ments.Workersinstallingdrywalltossscrapsintoacentralizedlocation,whicharethencollectedin

specializedbinstobehauledtoeitheragypsumrecyclingfacility.

Drywall in Renovation & DemolitionBuildingdemolitionpresentsahostofissuesthathindergypsumrecycling.Inatraditional

demolition,alsocalledmechanicaldemolition,sledgehammersorcrowbarsareslammedagainstbuild-

ingelementstotearthemdown.Whilesteelandlumberreinforcementscansometimesremainintact

inamechanicaldemolition,drywalliscrushedanddestroyed.Muchofthegypsumcoreofthedrywall

crumblesintodust.Notonlydoesthisresultingypsumloss,italsocreatesanunpleasantenvironment

fordemolitionworkers.

Asdrywallpanelsaredemolished,thescrapsfallhaphazardlyontothefloorofthesite.Asevi-

dentinExhibits12&13,thescrapscomminglewithotherwastematerialsandaresteppedonbyworkers

throughouttheworkdaybeforebeingcollectedandplacedintowastebins.Thistreatmentofthescraps

degradesthequalityofthegypsumcore.UnlesstheGeneralConditionsspecificationinthecontractor

theWasteManagementPlanstipulatethatwastebesortedintoseparatecontainers,drywallscrapsare

Exhibit 14: Absestos joint compound identified at the Hospital for Special Surgery.

22

thrownintobinswithlumber,cardboard,insulationandothermaterials.Thisdisposalmethodcrumbles

scrapsevenmore.

Recyclingthis“dirty”scrap,whichcontainspaint,nailsandothercontaminants,isaprocess

thatrequiresmoresiftingandsortingthanrecyclingcleanscrap.Dirtyscrapisoftennotviableforrecy-

clingduetopuritystandardssetbythevariousend-usersofrecycledgypsum.AccordingtoPatrickMan-

ning,DirectorofGypsumRecyclingAmerica,dirtyscrapwillneverbeacceptedbydrywallmanufactures

duetotheriskofthematerialcontainingasbestos.Helateropinedthathe“hatesthetermdirtyscrap,”

whichreinforcesthecommonbeliefthatthematerialcannotberecycledatall.WhileGypsumRecycling

Americarecyclesdirtyscrap,thepotentialpresenceofasbestosinrecycleddirtyscraphindersitsmarket-

ability.

NYChasstrictlawsgoverningthesubstance.Notsurprisingly,thereisaseparateabatement

subcontractoroneachjobsite,whosesoleresponsibilityistodrillholesinselectsheetsofdrywalltoseeif

asbestosinsulationwasusedinthebuilding.Ifasbestosispresent,thenthedrywallalongwithallother

materialssurroundingthepieceofinsulationmustbedisposedashazardouswaste.

Often,theabatementcontractorworksonanentirelydifferentschedulethantherestofthecon-

structionteam.Forexample,theabatementcontractortestedthewallsonthethirdflooroftheHospital

forSpecialSurgery,thoughthisfloorwasnotscheduledforrenovation.Thoughthismayseemlikeami-

nordetail,itillustrateshowcoordinationproblemsbetweencontractorscreatesextrawastethattypically

issenttoalandfill.UrbanGreen,theNYCchapteroftheUSGBC,considersthecity’sabatementrequire-

mentstobeoverlystrictandresponsibleforanunnecessaryamountofC&Dwastebeingsenttoalandfill

whicharenotactuallycontaminated.

On-site DisposalThewastemanagementsubcontractorprovidesthecontainersforwastetobecollectedonsite.

Containersrangeinsizefrom1.5cubicyardsto20cubicyards.DuetothescarcityofspaceonmostNYC

constructionsites,somecontractorsplacebinsonthestreet.Howeverthispracticecomeswiththerisksof

scavengingand/orpedestriansmistakingthecontainersasregulartrashbins,asevidentinExhibits16&

17.Largerbinstakeupparkingspaces,whichareapreciouscommoditytomanyNewYorkers.Another

methodforcontractorstomaximizespaceonthesiteisbyminimizingtheamountofcontainers.Al-

lowingallwastetobethrowntogether,ratherthansegregatingitbymaterial,logicallyrequiresfewer

bins.Whenhandledinthismannerthecommingledmaterialsarethoughtofasasingleproduct,called

“MixedC&D.”

23

Incentivesdoexistforsome materialstobeseparatedonsite.Contrastingthetreatmentof

drywallversusmetalwastenicelyillustrateswhythisisthecase.Itiscommonpracticeforsteel,copper

andothermetalstobesource-separatedfortworeasons.First,metalskeeptheirshapeduringdemolition

andcanbeeasilyidentifiedinthetrashcoveringthefloorofademolitionsite.Secondly,metalhasahigh

resalevalue.Often,wastecontractorswillnotchargeageneralcontractortohaulsegregatedmetalsoff-

siteduetotheirinherentvalue.ThisoffsetstheextralaborcostsshoulderedbytheGeneralcontractorto

separatemetalfromothermaterials.

Ontheotherhand,crumbleddrywallmightnotbeaseasilyidentifiedinthismessyenviron-

ment.Assuch,laborersresponsibleforthecollectionofwastemustbetrainedtoidentifythegypsum

scrapviableforrecyclingfromcontaminatedpieces,aswellasfromtheceilingtilesandsimilarlooking

Exhibit 18: C&D waste bin occupying two parking spaces on Broadway & 99th Street.

Exhibit 16 &17: C&D waste bins on street contaminated with municipal waste.

Exhibit 15: Bins with segregated waste on site in the Hospital for Special Surgery demolition.

24

materialspresentonthefloorofademolitionsite.Duetotheextratrainingandtimerequiredtoseparate

gypsumfromotherwastematerials,on-siteseparationgeneratesadditionallaborcosts.Couplingthe

highlaborcostsrequiredtorecoverthematerialsonsitewiththehighcostofrecycledgypsumtomanu-

facturers,itisclearthattheprocessasitstandsnowisnotcosteffectiveforeitherparty.

Aspreviouslymentioned,drywallmustbeseparatedfromothermaterialsonsiteinordertobe

recycled.WhengypsumscrapistreatedasMixedC&D,itisthrownintobinswithlumber,tileandother

scrapswithsharpedges.Thisturnsthegypsumcoreintodust.TransportingMixedC&Doffsitealsojostles

thedrywall,furtherdegradingthegypsum.Drywallthatissource-separatedallowsforthematerialto

maintainitsqualityandbehauleddirectlytoafacilitythatrecyclesgypsumandbypassthetransfersta-

tion.

C&D Waste Transfer StationAllMixedC&Dgeneratedinthecityishauledtooneofthe42MixedC&Dwastetransfersta-

tionsinNYC.Uponarrival,thetrucksareweighedandthecompositionsoftheirloadsareassessed.This

isdonebyworkers’eyeballingandestimatingtheamountofmaterialscommontoC&Dprojectsineach

load.Withsomeexceptions,thefivematerialsrecordedtypicallyinclude:brickandstone,lumber,cor-

rugatedcardboard,metals,plasticsanddrywall.Bytheseestimates,CooperTankRecyclingestimatesthat

drywallwastecomprises15%-30%oftotalloads.

Exhibit 19: Tipping floor of Cooper Tank Recycling.

Exhibit 20: Mechanical sorters at Cooper Tank Recycling.

25

Haulersarechargeda“tippingfee”bythetransferstationoperator.Thesefeesareleviedperton

andrangefrom$60-$80inthecity.Haulersreceiveweighticketsfromtheoperatorsdenotingthetotal

tonnage,materialcompositionandtippingfee.Theseticketsservebothasareceiptforthehaulersand

asameansfortransferstationoperatorstotracktonnagesprocessedandthefinaldestinationofdifferent

materials.

Aftertheirloadsareweighedandassessed,haulerstiptheirtrucksontothetransferstationfloor.

Whiletechnologyvariesbetweenfacilities,thebasicmethodforprocessingMixedC&Dcanbeunder-

stoodassortingthistrashpileintodifferentmaterials.Essentially,thesortingturnswasteisbackinto

materialswithintrinsicvalue.Wasteisseparatedindecreasingsizeorder,usuallybeginningwithamag-

neticgrapplerpickingoutlargemetalpieces.Afterpickingoutmetals,stationswithlowdiversionrates

willcrushtheremainderofloadsbyrunningoverthepilewithatrackmachinebeforesendingitstraight

tolandfill.Crushingisnecessaryheretoreducevolumeandthustransportationcosts.

Stationswithhighrecyclingratesfurthersortlargematerialslikebrick,concrete,lumberand

cardboardbyhand.What’sleftofthepilesthengothroughshakersandscreenerstosegregatefinesfrom

bulkymaterials.Bulkiermaterialsaretheplacedonaconveyerbeltandfurthersortedbyamanualpick

ordirectlybyhand.AsMixedC&Dloadscontaininsulationandothermaterialsthathavenorecycled

value,eventhemostefficientprocessingmethodcreatesresidualbulkywaste.

Exhibit 21: Drywall in the transfer station environment, with the destroyed gypsum core highlighted.

26

Fines,orthedustcreatedwhenlumberandothermaterialsarecrushed,areasourceofincome

fortransferstationoperators.FinescanbecollectedandresoldtolandfilloperatorsasAlternativeDaily

Cover(ADC).ADCissprinkledontopoflandfillsattheendofeachworkdaytomitigatevermininfesta-

tion,odors,litterandscavenging.PriortothedevelopmentofADC,mulchesmadefromvirgintimber

wereusedasdailylandfillcover.Soilssurroundingthelandfillwerealsoused,effectivelyreducingthe

surfaceareaoflandfillsitesandcontaminatingsurroundingsoils.UseofC&DfinesforADCisoneexam-

pleofthemanywayswasteiseasilyturnedintoacommoditywithpropermanagement.

C&Dtransferstationsareefficientrecyclersandprocessors.CooperTankRecyclingforexample,

processesover1,400tonsofMixedC&Dperdayandboastsan85%diversionrate.70%oftheentireC&D

wastestreamofNYCiscurrentlyrecycled(UrbanGreen,54).Incontrast,only0.06%ofrecoverablegyp-

sumwasrecycledinNewYorkstatein2006,therestbeingsenttolandfill(NEWMOA,2009:NY-5).This

poorrateisnotduetooperationalormanagementdeficiencies,butsimplybecausethecompositionof

drywallcannotwithstandthetransferstationenvironment.Presumably,drywallarrivesatthestation

insmallanddeterioratedscrapsduetoroughhandlingontheconstructionsiteandduringtransport.

Scrapsaretoosmalltobehandpickedoutofpiles.Mechanicalsortingpulverizesthegypsumcoreand

ripsthepaperbacking.Exhibit21depictsdrywallscrapfoundonthefloorofCooperTankRecycling,

whichnicelyillustratesthesusceptibilityofdrywalltodamageduringtraditionalwastemanagement

processes.Couplingalltheseconsiderationstogether,theGeneralManagerofCooperTankRecyclingput

itbestinsayingthat“thereisnochanceinhellthatgypsumcanmakeitthroughthetransferstationto

berecycled.”

Gypsumalsoactsasapollutantinthetransferstationenvironment.Whenwaterreactswiththe

sulfurbaseofgypsum,itcreateshydrogensulfidegas(H2S),causingthenoxiousandlingeringodorof

rotteneggs.ThoughH2Sisapoisonousgas,itisemittedatsuchlowconcentrationsinthetransferstation

andinlandfillsthatitdoesnotposeapublichealththreat.Thesmell,however,isanuisanceforworkers

andthoselivingaroundthesefacilities.Exhibit19ofCooperTankRecycling’stippingfloorshowshow

thefacilityismostlyopenair,meaningthatwastepilesareconstantlyexposedtorainandsnow.Thisisa

commondesignforurbantransferstations,makingitdifficultforoperatorstosequesterthesmellexuding

fromdampeneddrywall.GypsumusedtobeakeyingredientinADCuntilthediscoveryofitsH2Semis-

sions.However,itisinevitablethatgypsumfineswillmixwithADCmaterialsinthetransferstation,

leadingtomanylandfilloperatorstobantheuseoffacilityfinesasADC.

Thissummaryshowsthatmaterialsleavethetransferstationinoneoftwoways,eitheraswaste

orasaproduct.Inthefirstscenario,wasteishauledtooneoftheC&Dlandfillsintheregion.Thisoption

hastransferstationoperatorspayingboththetransportationcostsandatippingfeeatthelandfill.These

27

feesrangefrom$25-$30.Whenmaterialsleaveaswaste,theyarehauledinsegregatedloadsandsoldto

recyclersforfurtherprocessing,end-marketusersorarchitecturalsalvagestores.Thoughstationoperators

havetoshouldertransportationcostsineitherscenario,itisimportanttonoteherethatrecycling = profit

whilelandfilling = loss. Moreover,theclosureofFreshKillsimpliesincreasedtransportcostsforloads

tomakeittolandfillsinupstateNewYork,LongIslandoraneighboringstate.CooperTankestimates

around$15pertonintransportationcoststosendtruckloadstothelandfill.Inthecaseofgypsum,haul-

ersarechargedpertonofscrapbyrecyclers.Assuch,neithertheconstructionsidenorwastemanage-

mentsideofthesupplychainseeaprofitfromrecyclinggypsum.

LandfillGypsumproductionofH2Sposessimilarproblemswhenlandfilledaswhenhandledinthe

transferstation.MostC&Dmaterialsareinert,meaningthattheircompositionanddecompositionposes

noimmediateenvironmentalorpublichealththreats.Wasteisdisposedinlandfillsdesignedspecifically

forconstructionmaterials.Essentially,thismeansthatthelandfillsareunlinedandenjoyapermitting

processmuchmorelaxthanthosehandlingMSW.However,gypsumcreatesH2Sinthelandfillenviron-

mentaswell.

InDecember2010,theMassachusettsDepartmentofEnvironmentalProtectionbannedthe

disposalofcleandrywallscrapfromtheC&Dlandfillsinthestate.Thisdecisionwasmadeprimarily

fromtheamountofcomplaintsfromresidentslivingnearC&Dlandfills(O’Connell,2005).Whilelandfill

concernsarenotofimmediaterelevancetothisdiscussionofplanningissuesinNYC,itshowsthatother

stategovernmentsarebeginningtoaddresstheenvironmental,socialandeconomicsustainabilityissues

presentedbylandfillinggypsum.

RecyclingRecyclinggypsumisatwo-partprocess.First,thepaperbackingisremovedfromthegypsum

core.Secondly,thegypsumcoreisrunthroughamechanicalchipperuntilthematerialisfinelyground.

Carefulconsiderationmustbepaidtotheproportionofpaperinthismix;iftoomuchispresent,theload

isnotviablefordrywallmanufactureasitwilldecreasetheproduct’sfiresafetyrating.Additionally,gyp-

summanufacturespurchasethisrecycledpapertobereusedindrywallmanufacturing.TheUSGeologi-

calSurvey2010“GypsumSummary”indicatesthat“some”ofthe4milliontonsofgypsumgeneratedas

wasteinwallboardmanufactureorconstructionactivitieswasrecycled.

TaylorRecyclingFacilityinMontgomery,NYistheonlygypsumrecyclerinthestate.Inearly

28

2008,CooperTankRecyclingconsideredinvestinginthe$1.2millionequipmentthatwouldenabletheir

facilitytoprocessgypsumonsite.Howeverthemarketcrashlaterinthesameyear,resultinginthecon-

tractionofbuildingindustriesacrosstheboard,requiredthemtoabandontheconsiderableinvestment.

GypsumRecyclingAmerica,basedinCambridge,MA,isauniqueprocesserthathasplansto

expandintoNewYorkinthenearfuture.Thecompany’sbusinessmodelisfocusedaroundtheentire

life-cycleofwastegypsumscrap.Itsuppliesthecontainersandlogisticssystemstoreceivegypsumdi-

rectlyfromconstructionsites.Shreddingequipmentisalsomobile,meaningthatitcanchangelocations

dependinguponareasinthestatewherethemostwasteisgenerated.Thisdecreasestransportationcosts

forhaulersandthusincreasesthecost-effectivenessofdrywallrecycling.

Thecompanycharges$60/tonforinboundgypsumtotheirprocessingfacilities.Togiveanidea

ofexactlyhowmuchdrywallisinaton,onecubicyardofthematerialequals500pounds.Gypsum

RecyclingAmericahasaninterestingpricingmodelforitsrecycledgypsum.AccordingtotheCEO,the

company“setsthepriceagainstthatofourenduserscurrentcostofnaturalgypsum.So,iftheyopenup

theirbooksandshowustheircurrentcosts,weofferoursfor20%less.”

Exhibit23displaystheapplicationsforrecycleddrywall.Themajorityoftheseendusers,includ-

ingdrywallmanufacturers,havestringentpuritystandardsthatallowthemtoonlyacceptcleanscrap.

Assuch,mostusedordirtydrywallcannotberesoldoncerecycled.Thisdecisiondoesseemlogical;we

wouldn’twantourfood-growingsoilenrichedwithgypsumcontaminatedwithasbestosorpaintchips,

norwouldwewantittotreatourwastewater.Couplingtheseconsiderationswiththefactthatmost

drywallwasteisactuallygeneratedduringnewconstructionprojects,itisclearwhymosteffortstoward

recyclinggypsumarefocusedoncleanscraponly.Nationally,thelargestapplicationofrecycledgyp-

sumscrapisasasoilenricher.Regionally,however,theavailabilityoftheseendmarketsisscarce.The

Exhibit 22: Gypsum Recycling Amercia’s mobile crusher.(gypsumrecycling.com)

29

primaryendmarketsintheNYCregionareasanagriculturalinput,anadditiveincementmanufacture

andinrecycleddrywall.AgricycleinPhiladelphiaprocessesdrywallwasteasanagriculturalinput.US

Gypsum’smanufacturingplantinStonyPoint,NYalsoacceptsregionallyproduceddrywallwaste,as

doesUSAGypsuminPhiladelphia.

EndMarkets SpecificUse

Drywall Corematerial

AgriculturalInputAddsnutrientstosoilforfoodgrowing,lawnareasandgolfcourses

CementadditiveAddedtocontrolsettingtimeandenhancecapacityofradiantheatslabs

Stucco&PlasterofParis

Usedasanalternativeforvirginmaterialinthisgypsum-basedproductstypicallymadebygypsummanufacturers

WastewatertreatmentSettlesuspendedclayparticlesintreatmentprocesses

ManuretreatmentWhenmixedwithammonia,gypsumreducesodorfromanimalwaste

AnimalbeddingHelpstoabsorbmoistureinbeddingwhenmixedwithwoodshavings

GreaseabsorptionCanbesprinkledontopofoilleaksonautoshoporotherindustrialfloors

AthleticfieldmarkerCreateslinesonfootballorsoccerfieldsasanalternativetochalk

DentalMolds

Thoughrecycledgypsumisnotcommoninthisapplication,virginmaterialisusedbytomaketemporarymolds

IcemitigationinroadwaysFacilitatestheleachingofsaltsfromsoilalongroads

Exhibit24displaysthegeneralformulaforcalculatingcostpertonofrecycledgypsum.InNYC,

poorrecyclingratesareprimarilyduetodrywallbeingdisposedofasMixedC&D,ornotseparatedonthe

constructionsite.Ifthematerialwassourceseparated,thenthewastemanagementsubcontractorcould

haultheloaddirectlytoagypsumrecyclingfacility.However,thisrequiresanextratrucktripandthus

resultsinextracostsforthegeneralcontractor.Thoughdrywallcouldbeseparatedatthetransfersta-

tionsiteandstoreduntiltherecyclerpicksitupforfurtherprocessing,thisisnotaviableoptiongiven

theaforementionedproblemsthisenvironmentposestogypsum.Evenifgypsumcouldbesalvagedin

thetransferstationenvironment,thelaborandtransportcostsmightoutweighthecurrent$65/toncost

tolandfillresidualwaste.Aspreviouslymentioned,thisoptionalsogeneratesextralaborcostsforthe

generalcontractor.

Exhibit 23: Common end markets for recylced gypsum.(Pichtel, 2005 & NERC 2011)

30

Cost ResponsibleEntity

SourceSeparation(labor) Generalcontractor

Transportation(constructionsite–processor) Subcontractedwastehauler(generalcontractor)

Storage(atprocessor) Processor

Transportation(processor-endmarket) Processor

Saleprice Enduser

Exhibit 24: Formula for calculating cost per ton of recycled gypsum

Generallyspeaking,itischeaperforallstakeholdersinthesupplychaintolandfillratherthan

recyclegypsumscrap.WhileGypsumRecyclingUSA’spricingmodelmakesrecycledgypsumacost-ef-

fectiveoptionfortheend-users,itdoesnotnecessarilydosoontheconstructionsideofthesupplychain.

Thecompany’s$60/tonchargeforinboundgypsumiscompetitivewithNYCtransferstationtippingfees.

However,evenifgypsumissourceseparatedandsenttoaprocessingfacility,siteswillstillhaveMixed

C&Dloadstobehauledtotransferstation.Assuch,contractorsmustconsiderhowmuchsource-separat-

inggypsumwouldreducetotalMixedC&Dtonnage.Additionally,thechargeforgypsum-onlydisposal

mustbeconsideredintandemwithitsassociatedtransportationandlaborcosts.Thisleadstotheoption

onlybeingcost-effectiveforthegeneralcontractoronlyifthereisasignificantamountofgypsumwaste

generatedbytheproject.Moreover,thoughthe$60/tonchargeis$5/lessthantheestimatedcostcharged

totransferstationoperatorstolandfillthematerial,itiscurrentlynotpossibleforgypsumtoberecovered

fromthisenvironment.

AsidefromGypsumRecyclingUSA’sbusinessmodel,itisusuallynotcosteffectiveforendus-

erstopurchaserecycledgypsum.Costspertonvarydependinguponthetechnologiesandcontractors

involvedintheprocess.Estimatesrangefrom$9-$20perton,whichissignificantlyhigherthancostsfor

virginorsyntheticgypsum.

ConclusionsExhibit25summarizesthetransformationsgypsumundergoesthroughextractionanddisposal

inthecontextofNYC.Trucktriplengthrequiredforeachdisposaloptionisshownbythevaryinglength

oflinesbetweendestinations.

ThemajorityoftheC&Dwastestreamiscomprisedofmaterialsthatarebulky,inertandhavein-

trinsicvalue.Giventhesecharacteristics,C&Dtransferstationstypicallyachievehighdiversionrates.As

inthecasestudyexample,manyofthesetransferstationsevenhave“recycling”intheirname.Further-

more,CooperTankRecyclingrecyclesupwardsof85%ofthetotaltonnagesprocessedeachyear. Assuch,

31

theconstructionindustryreliesonthetransferstationnetworktoachievetheirrecyclinggoals.While

thissymbioticrelationshipresultsinhighrecyclingratesformostmaterials,gypsumwallboardcan-

notwithstandtheconditionsofthetransferstation.Followinggypsumthroughthedrywallmaterials

cyclepresentsaparadox:the efficiency of transfer stations is a disincentive for gypsum recycling. This

paradoxobviateswhytheMayor’sOfficeofLongTermPlanningandSustainabilityaddressedgypsum

scrapmarketstimulationdirectlyinPlaNYC2030;recycleddrywallmarketsstrugglewhengovernedby

thelogicofAdamSmith’sinvisiblehand.Governmentinterventionisnecessaryforrecyclingdrywallto

becomeacost-effectiveactivityforallinthegypsumsupplychain,butitisunclearifthisactionwould

achieveanyenvironmentalbenefitsgiventhehostoftrade-offissuesidentifiedinthischapter.

Extraction

Manufacture

Consumption

Gypsum Recycler

Landfill

End Markets

Transfer Station

SourceSeparated

MixedC&D

Cement Drywall Agricultural input

Waste option 1

Waste option 2

Exhibit 25: The gypsum supply chain from extraction to disposal.

32

CHAPTER 3

THE C&D WASTE STREAM

PlaNYCdescribespathwaysforachievingthegoalsofInitiative5,thefirstbeingtoreducebuild-

ingwasteoverallandthesecondtoencouragethecosteffectivenessofrecyclingC&Dwaste.ThePlan

alsoliststwomethodsforachievingthesegoalsaswellasthecityagenciesanddepartmentsrespon-

sibleforimplementation.Thefirstisaimedatprocurement:“Requireuseofrecycledcontentinbuilding

materials,”whilethesecondispurelyregulatory:“Requirerecyclingofbuildingmaterials.”ThePlan

designatesseveralcityagenciesresponsibleforcarryingouttheseeffortsincludetheDepartmentof

Buildings(DOB),DepartmentofTransportation(DOT),DepartmentofDesignandConstruction(DDC),the

DepartmentofEnvironmentalProtection(DEP),theDepartmentofSanitation(DSNY)andtheBusiness

IntegrityCommission(BIC)astheleadagencies.ThePlanalsoliststheCityCouncilisasecondarypartner

intheseefforts,asthisisthebodythatwillultimatelycodifyregulations.

AsthePlandoesnotdetailimplementationmethods,itremainstobeseenhowtheseagencies

willcoordinatetoestablishcosteffectivemethodsforgypsumrecycling.Severalinterviewedcityofficials

indicatedtheirdisbeliefthatthegoalsofPlaNYCcouldbetranslatedintoactualpolicy.Onementioned

thattheMayor’sOfficeofLongTermPlanningandSustainabilitydevelopedthesegoalswithoutany

understandingofhowagenciescommunicateandcollaborateinpolicycreation.Thisobservationbegs

thequestionastoiftheproperresearchwasdonetoseeifthepromotionofgypsumrecyclingisaworth-

whileendeavorforthecitytotakeoninthefirstplace.Assumingitis,thischaptersummarizesthecur-

rentrolesofgovernmentstakeholdersintheC&Drecyclingprocess.Itthendescribeshowtwoagencies

responsibleforconstructionprojectsinthecityhandlewastemanagementontheirjobsites.Theimpacts

ofthesevariouseffortsongypsumrecyclinginparticularwillthenbeanalyzed.

GiventhatthisresearchisfocusedonNYC,theanalysisofthegovernmentstakeholderswillbe

fromthebottomup,beginningwithcityagenciesandascendingtothefederalscale.Thisorganization

alsomirrorstheinfluenceeachsphereofgovernmenthasonthewastemanagementprocessinNYC;fed-

eralagenciesworklargelyinanadvisorycapacityforlocalwastemanagementeffortswhilethecityand

statelevelsregulatetheprocessesviapermitsandlaws.Exhibit26providesasnapshotofagencyrolesin

C&Dwastemanagementonallgovernmentalscales.

Notably,theproblemsassociatedwithrecoverabilityofgypsumscrapdescribedinChapter2are

recognizedonthefederal,stateandlocalscales.Moreover,eachoftheseplansandstudiesmentionthe

33

samebarrierstorecyclinggypsumandnotethaton-sitesortingisthemosteffectivewayofremedying

theproblem.None,however,offersuggestionsonhowtomaketheon-sitesortingofwastecosteffective.

Organization Influence

FederalEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)

+ Worksinadvisorycapacityforstatesandcitiestocoor-dinatetheirownC&Dwastemanagementpracticesandpolicies

+ CommissionedanationalsurveyoftheC&Dwastestreamin1998,whichremainstheonlystudyundertakenontheFederalscale

+ 1998Franklinreportmentionsthelackofend-marketsforrecycledgypsumandthevariousbarrierstoitsrecover-ability

State

DepartmentofEnvironmentalConservation(DEC)

+ SuppliespermitsfortheprivatewastetransferstationsinNYCaswellasenforcementofregulatorycompliancepertainingtodailyoperations

+ 2010BeyondWastePlanacknowledgesthat“marketdevelopmentattentionisstillneeded”forgypsumwall-boardscrap,statingthattheproblemliesinthelackoflocalend-usemarketsforrecycledgypsum,alackofin-formationontonnagesandqualityofthematerialintheC&Dwastestream

EmpireStateDevelopment(ESD)

+ OffersfundingfornascentcompaniesintheWMsector.+ OpeningtheC&DResearchInstituteatSyracuse.Activi-

tiesincludeR&Dinmaterialsmanagement&recyclingandindustryoutreach

Governor’sOffice + ExecutiveOrder4(2008)requiresallstateagenciestore-ducewasteby50%.ThisactionspurredtheMTA/NYCTtotranslatediversiongoalstoconstructionprojectsinNYC

Region StatesofPA,CT,VT,MA,NCandGA

+ TherearenolandfillsinNYC,meaningthatmuchoftheC&DwastestreamisdisposedofinupstateNYorneigh-boringstates.

+ Eachstateestablishesauniquesetofregulationsregard-ingtheirC&Dlandfills.MA,forexample,banneddrywallfromlandfills

City

DepartmentofCityPlanning(DCP)

+ Sitesnewtransferstationsandmaterialsrecoveryfacili-ties

DepartmentofSanitation(DSNY)

+ LeviespermittingfeesforC&Dtransferstations&conductssitevisitstoensureoperationalcompliance

DepartmentofDesign&Construction(DDC)

+ Commissionedthe2003Construction&DemolitionWasteManualasaguideforunderstandingC&Drecyclingop-portunitiesandWMbestpracticesinNYC

+ Implementstheconstruction&renovationofcitybuild-ings

BusinessIntegrityCommission(BIC)

+ Establishesmaximumratesthathaulerscancharge+ Licensesandregisterstradewastebrokers&haulers

Exhibit 26: Federal, State & City agencies with a role in C&D waste management.

34

C&D Waste Management in NYCAllC&Dwasteisclassifiedas“non-putresciblecommercialwaste”inNYCregulations.Non-pu-

trescibleessentiallymeansthatnofoodispresentinthestream,andthusdecompositionisnotaconcern

duringprocessingorlandfilling.Thenon-putresciblecommercialstreamisdefinedbythelegislation

exclusivelyasthewastegeneratedbyconstruction,renovationanddemolitionprojects.Putrescible

commercialwaste,ontheotherhand,isthedailytrashgeneratedinofficebuildings,hotels,retailstores

andthelike.Importantly,allcommercialwastemanagementisconductedbytheprivatesector.The

NewYorkCityDepartmentofSanitation(DSNY)handlesdailytrashgeneratedinhomes(Municipal

SolidWaste)andininstitutionalbuildingsfromthesourcetofinaldisposal.Thisdivisionoflabormeans

theprivatesectorcollects,haulsandprocessesallC&Dwasteregardlessiftheprojectispublicorprivate.

Importantly,thislimitstheamountofinfluencecityagenciessuchasDSNYandDEPhaveontheprivate

C&Dwasteindustriesoutsideofthepermittingprocess.

The2006SolidWasteManagementPlanpublishedbyDSNYgivesahistoricalcontexttothedivi-

sionoflaborinthewastemanagementindustriesestablishedinthe1950s(DSNY,2006:ES-4):

Becauseprivatehaulerstookadvantageofthelow-costoptionofdisposingattheCity’slandfills,bothresidentialandcommercialwastecontinuedtodependonthesameultimatedisposalloca-tion.

Duringthelate1980s,concernsaboutpreservingcapacityat theFreshKillsLandfillcausedtheCitytodramaticallyraiseratesforprivatehaulerstotipthere.Withtheeconomicsoftheirbusinesschangeddramatically,theseprivatehaulersbeganbuildingupanetworkofin-Citytransfersta-tions,pointsfromwhichwastefromlocalcollectiontruckswastransferredtolong-haultrucksforexportoutsideoftheCity.Withtheestablishmentofthisall-privatesystem,theCity’scommercialandresidentialwastewascompletelysegregatedforthefirsttime.

TheclosureoftheFreshKillsLandfillin2001onceagainresultedinthecommingleddisposalofcommercialandresidentialwaste,onlynowtherelationshipwasreversed.WheretheprivatehaulersoncereliedontheCity’sdisposalinfrastructureattheFreshKillsLandfill,theCitywasnowtobereliantonthetransferstationsandlandfillsoftheprivatesector.

TheFreshKillsLandfillalludedtointhispassageislocatedinStatenIsland.Upuntilits2001clo-

sure,FreshKillswastheonlyfinalwastedisposalsiteinNYC.ThePlanalludestothisorganizationasthe

reasonforthe“far-flungarrayofprivatehaulers,transferstationsanddisposalcompanies(DSNY,2006:

ES-1)”requiredtohandlethecity’scommercialwaste.Additionally,thePlanstatesDSNY’sgoalofcity-

widewastereductionby75%anditsdesiretostimulatemarketsforrecycledgypsumscrap.However,

justlikePlaNYC,theSolidWasteManagementPlanonlyrecognizesthepersistentproblemsforgypsum

recyclingratherthanofferingsolutionstocorrecttheproblem.

ThefactthatDSNYdoesnothandleC&Dwastemeansthatithaslimitedpowerstocorrectthis

35

marketfailure.Forexample,DSNYrequiresbylawthatmetal,glassandplasticandotherrecyclable

materialsareseparatedfromputrescibletrashintheMunicipalSolidWastestreamsforwhichtheyare

responsible.Whilenon-recyclablesinthisstreamarehauleddirectlytoalandfill,therecyclablemateri-

alsarehauledtoa“MaterialsRecoveryFacilities”(MRF)forfurtherprocessing.Requiringthatmaterials

beseparatedatthesourcesignificantlyraiseddiversionratesforMunicipalSolidWaste.Aspreviously

mentioned,drywallmustbesourceseparatedinordertoberecycled.However,DSNYlackstheabilityto

requirethisonjobsitesgiventhecurrentdivisionoflabor.Furthermore,theDeputyDirectorofRecy-

clingatDSNYdefinedC&Dwastetransferstationsas“defacto”MRFs.Thisreinforcestheviewthatthe

efficiencyoftransferstationsprovidesadisincentivefordrywallrecycling;lowrecyclingratesforasingle

materialaremaskedbytheoverallhighdiversionratesachievedbytransferstations.

TheDepartmentofCityPlanning(DCP)isresponsibleforsitingnewtransferstationsandma-

terialsrecoveryfacilities.Transferstationsrequireamplespaceandaccesstoprimarytruckroutesfor

theiroperations.GiventhescarcityofspaceinManhattan,themajorityoftransferstationsarelocatedin

QueensandBrooklyn.Therearecurrentlynoplanstoconstructadditionaltransferstationsinanybor-

oughs,norarethereplansfornewC&Drecyclingfacilities.

DCPreviewofpotentialtransferstationsitesisfocusedontheenvironmentalimpactsrather

thansocialconcerns.Asresidentialpropertyvaluesarelowernearthemajorroadwaysfavoredbyindus-

triallanduses,manytransferstationsandotherwasteprocessingfacilitiesarelocatednearlow-income

neighborhoods.Trucktripsgeneratedbytheseindustriallandusespresentsairqualityconcernstothose

livingnexttothefacilities.Moreover,peoplelivingaroundC&Dtransferstationsarealsomorelikelyto

sufferfromthemalodorousH2Sgasemissionsfromdrywallinthestationenvironment.Assuch,these

residentsbearadisproportionalburdenofthenegativeexternalitiesfromC&Dtransferstationoperations.

DSNY’s2006SolidWasteManagementPlanaddressesthisbyreducingthetotaltonnageperdaycapacity

allowedattransferstationslocatedinwhattheyterm“relevantcommunitydistricts,”orneighborhoods

withahighrateofindustriallandusesintheirsurroundingarea(DSNY,2006:4-10).ThePlanstatesthat

DSNYwillreducepermittedcapacityofthesestationsbyupto2,000tonsperday,andthatthecity-

ownedandoperatedMarineTransferStationswillhandlethisextrawastevolume.However,thisplan

hasyettobeimplemented.Ifthisintentiseventuallytranslatedintopolicy,thenDSNYwouldhavethe

powertobandrywallfrombeingprocessedintheMarineTransferStations.Assuch,thismovepresentsa

potentialpathforthecitytohaveadirectimpactonrecycleddrywallmarkets.

TheBusinessIntegrityCommission(BIC)involvementinthisprocessistocurbdisposalofwaste

intounregulatedlandfillsaswellasprocessingandhaulingbyinformalnetworks.Itdoessobylicens-

ingallcommercialwastehaulersandestablishingthemaximumratesthatprivatecarterscancharge

36

forremovalofputresciblewaste.Therearecurrently720certifiedC&Dhaulersand52wastebrokers

operationalinNYC(BusinessIntegrityCommission,2012).Interestingly,BICdoesnotsetmaximumrates

forC&Dhauling.Thisratemusttakeintoconsiderationthetippingfeeandtheboththetransportation

costsforwhichthehaulersareresponsible.AsallC&DwastehaulersmustbringloadstoanNYC-based

transferstationforprocessing,astandardestimatefortransportationcostscouldbemadeindeveloping

apricemodelforamaximumC&Dhaulingrate.Coupledwiththefactthattransferstationssetcompeti-

tivetippingfees,itisfeasiblethatBICcouldsetareasonablemaximumrateforC&Dwastehauling.The

EPAestimatesthisaveragerateas$15.00/perton(EPA,2002).Thisistheexactamountquotedbythe

GeneralManagerofCooperTankrecycling.Clearly,thereisenoughinformationatBIC’sdisposaltocre-

ateafairmaximumrateforC&Dwastehaulers.Itisunclear,however,whytheCommissionhasnotyet

establishedthisrate.IfBICwasgiventhepowertosetandenforceabaserateforC&Dremoval,thiscould

haveanimpactontheeconomicsofdrywallrecycling.Standardizationofhaulingrateswouldminimize

therent-seekingpotentialofC&Dhaulerswhochargeunnecessarilyhighratesfortheirservices.Further

researchisneededtounderstandtheaverageratechargedbythelicensedhaulerslicensedinNYC.How-

ever,establishmentofamaximumratecouldlowercostsenoughtomakegeneralcontractorswillingto

payfortheextracartingservicesneededtosendsource-separatedgypsumdirectlytoarecyclingfacility.

Permitting: State & City ScaleAlltransferstationsreceivepermitsfromDSNYandtheNewYorkStateDepartmentofEnvi-

ronmentalConservation(DEC).DSNYpermitsmostlypertaintothephysicaloperationsofthefacility,

meaningissuesofworkersafetyandenvironmentalhealthofthesurroundingarea.TheDECismore

concernedwithhowmaterialswithinthewastestreamareclassifiedandtheirfinaldisposaldestinations.

TransferstationsareinspectedbyDECandDSNYofficialsonamonthlybasistoensurecompliancewith

eachofthepermittingterms.Muchoverlapexistsbetweentheprocessesofthetwoagencies,specifically

inthedocumentationrequiredtoreceiveinitialoperatingpermits.Thisresultsinsubstantialtimeand

monetarycostsfortransferstationoperators,especiallywhenapplyingforoperatingpermitsfornew

recyclingtechnologiessuchasagypsumwallboardshredder.InhisMaster’sthesisexploringtherea-

sonsbehinddifferingrecyclingratesfortransferstationsinNYC,RobertViola(2008)interviewedseveral

transferstationoperatorsontheinefficienciestheyperceiveinthesebureaucraticprocessesthathinder

marketsforrecycledgoods.Forexample,onetransferstationrepresentativewasquotedonhowthese

governmentalinefficacieshinderthedevelopmentofinnovativeusesforwastes:“Wehavecomeupwith

somereallyingeniousideastorecycleleachateanduseit...it’sjustshotdownimmediately;nobodywants

37

tohearit...thebureaucracyisjust,well,nobodywantstomakeamovewithoutsomeoneelsedoingitfirst.

Nobodyisatrailblazerinthatoffice(50).”ManyoftherepresentativesinterviewedbyViolaidentified

theneedforamoreefficientpermittingprocesstoallowoperatorsthefreedomneededtotrynewthings

as“marketsevolveandfluctuate,”continuing,“thisisnotpossibleanymore,notjustbecauseofthein-

flexibilityofthepermittingprocess,butalsobecausetheextremedelaysinreceivingapermitmayrender

yourinnovationsmootrelativetothecurrentmarketconditions(51).”

New York StateStateinvolvementonC&DwastemanagementactivitiesoutsideoftheDECpermittingprocessis

limited.ThisisbecauseC&DwasteislessregulatedthanotherstreamssuchasMunicipalSolidWasteor

HazardousWaste.Thelackofstateinvolvementontheissuepresentsbothbenefitsandburdenstoefforts

forincreasedgypsumrecycling.Onthepositiveside,alackofstateinvolvementmeanslessbureaucratic

redtapetowhichconstructionmanagersorwastehandlersmustdevotetimeandmoney.Negatively,

anystateeffortstowardincreasedC&Drecyclingarelostonthecitylevel.

Forexample,EmpireStateDevelopment(ESD)isastateagencywhodevotesapercentageofthe

statebudgettolocaleconomicdevelopmentefforts.Onesucheffortisthepromotionofrecyclingfacili-

tiesinstate,especiallyformaterialsthatarecurrentlynotlucrativeoptionsforrecycling.Inaninterview

withanEconomicDevelopmentSpecialistatESD,shementionedthatthegypsumrecyclingfacility

inMontgomery,NYwasarecentbeneficiaryofanESDgrant.Additionally,ESDisopeninganewC&D

InstituteinpartnershipwithSyracuseUniversity.TheInstitutewillprovideclassroomandfieldtrain-

ingtoindustryofficialsaboutsource-separation,andcollectdataonendmarketsandinfrastructuregaps

hinderingC&Drecyclingeffortsacrossthestate.Importantly,whilethisisanamazingresourceforefforts

acrossthestate,theInstitutecurrentlyhasnooutreachplannedforNYC.TheESDofficialinterviewed

mentionedthatthiswasbecausetheconditionsforC&DrecyclinginNYCaremuchdifferentthanthose

upstate.ManyintervieweesperceiveddifferencesbetweenNYCandtherestofthestateinmattersof

policycreationandmanagementtechniques.

Federal ScaleC&Dwasteisrecognizedas“solidwaste”undertheCommerceClauseoftheU.S.Constitution.

C&Dwastemanagementactivitiesareprotectedbythislegislationfromstateattemptstolimitthemove-

mentofthesematerialsacrossstateboundaries.Statesalsocannotinstituteflowcontroltolimittheim-

portationofC&Dwastefromonestatetoanother.Interestingly,theC&Dwastestreamistheonlystream

38

tobeclassifiedbyitsgenerationsourceratherthanitscompositionorfinaldisposaldestination.

Thefirstnational-levelcomprehensivesurveyofC&Dwastevolumes,sourcesandhandlerswas

commissionedbytheUSEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)in1998.Thereport,producedbythe

privateconsultancyFranklinAssociates,remainstheonlystudyofitskind.Assuch,itacknowledgedthe

manydatacaveatswithinitsstudyassources“ofconsiderableuncertaintyintheanalysis(FranklinAs-

sociates,1998:ES-1).”Theseincludethelackofpoint-sourcewasteassessmentdatafromthestateandcity

level,thedecisionoftheCensusBureautodiscontinuedatacollectiononthenationalnumberofdemoli-

tionsduetobudgetcutsin1995,andthereluctanceoftheprivatelandfillingindustrytodiscloselandfill

contents.Additionally,C&Dwasteflowsoftenoverlapwithmunicipalsolidwastestreams.Forexample,

workersoftendisposeofcardboardboxes,carpetingwoodpallets,paintcontainersandotherpackagingat

municipalsolidwastesites(1-9).

ThelimitationsoftheEPAstudycomplicateanaccuratecaptureofnationalgenerationandre-

cyclingratesspecifictoC&Dprojects,letalonetheaccurateexaminationofparticularcomponentsofthe

wastestream.Nevertheless,the1998FranklinReportremainstheonlysourceofnationaldataregarding

thecharacteristicsofC&Dwaste.In1996,136milliontonsofC&DwastewasproducedintheUS(ES-2).

Anestimated57%oftotalC&Dwasteproducednationallyisfromcommercialsources,meaningoffice

buildingsorinfrastructurelikeroads,bridgesandpiers(FranklinAssociates,ES-2).Ofthesenonresiden-

tialsources,6%ofwastegeneratedwasfromnewconstruction,36%fromrenovationprojectsand58%

fromdemolitionactivities(ES-3).

InresponsetothelackoffederalcontrolovertheC&Dwastemanagementprocess,theNational

DemolitionContractorsAssociationpublishedareportin2010arguingfortheestablishmentofanation-

alC&Dwastepolicy.Accordingtotheassociation,thispolicyisneededtostandardizewastemanagement

proceduresacrossstatelinesduetothefactthat“C&Dmaterialfromthenation’slargesturbancentersis

beingtransportedtositesfurtherandfurtherfromgenerationpointstherebyincreasingpollutionand

costsincurredfromtransportation(NADC,2010,6).”Furthermore,theyassertthat“demolitioncontrac-

torsworkinanextremelycompetitiveenvironment.Theyknowthevalueofeverycommodityonevery

jobtheyperform.Theprofitmarginsonrecycledmaterialcanbeverylow,subjecttochanginglocalmar-

ketconditions.Forademolitioncompanytomakethesizeablecapitalinvestmentinequipment,land,

time,laborandallothercostpointstosetuparecyclingprogram,itmustbeaprofitmakingventure(6).”

TheAssociationbelievesthatafederalpolicybasedonthesepointswouldstabilizepricesforrecycled

goods.Additionally,thegrouplistssixinstitutionalbarrierspresentforrecycledgoodsandformstheir

proposedpolicyasameansofcorrectingeachproblemidentified(seeExhibit27).

39

ThesebarriersaresimilarthoseidentifiedbyNYCtransferstationoperatorsinViola’sresearch.

TheAssociation’srecommendationsarethereforealsosalientforlocalpoliciesaddressingprofitabilityof

recycledgoods.ThegroupequatestheirpolicysolutionswithExecutiveOrder12873issuedbyPresident

Clintonin1993,where“theFederalGovernment,thelargestsinglebuyerofpaperintheworld,estab-

lishedrecycled-contentstandardsforpurchasedpaper.Thismoverequiredthepulpandpaperindustry

todeveloprecyclingfacilitiestomeetthisnewdemand.Thisincreaseduseofrecycledpaperreverberated

throughouttheeconomyasotherlargeentitiesfollowedtheFederalGovernment’sleadandinsisted

uponrecycledpaperintheirpurchasing(9).”Whileexploringnationalpolicyinitiativesisbeyondthe

scopeofthisresearch,useofgovernmentpurchasingpowertoincreasethevalueofrecycledgoodsisap-

plicableonthelocalscale.

Current C&D Recycling Policy Efforts

City Level: Local Law 86LocalLaw86waspassedin2005asmeanstoachievePlaNYC’smissiontobuilda“greener,great-

erNewYork.”Thelawprovidesenergyandwaterusebenchmarkingrequirementsforbuildingsaswell

asguidelinesforcityconstructionprojects.AProjectManageratDDCdescribedtherequirementsofLocal

Law86asensuringthateachcityprojectmeetthestandardsrequiredtoachieveLEEDSilvercertification.

1 ExcessivefeesforpermitstooperateaC&Dfacility

Over-regulationofproceduresusedatrecyclingfacilities

AttemptstolimitcollectionareasforC&Dmaterials

ToostrictregulationsgoverningtheuseofmobileC&Drecyclingplants

LimitedopportunitiesinstatepurchasingproceduresforthereuseofC&Drecycledmaterial

UnrealisticC&Drecyclinggoalstiedtoregionalorstate-widemandates

1

2

3

4

5

6

4

5

6

ReasonablepermittingfeesforfacilitieswiththerevenuegeneratedusedtopromoteC&Drecycling

NationalinspectionstandardsforC&Drecyclingfacilities

NationalguidelinesfordealingwiththemovementofC&Dmaterial

Reasonableregulationsformobileandstationaryrecyclingfacilities

PromotionofrecycledC&Dmaterialsinthemarketplace

Standardsformaterialquality,therebyincreasingcommoditymarketability

PROBLEMS SOLUTIONS

3

2

Exhibit 27: Elements of the National Demolition Contractors Association proposed C&D waste policy, 2010.

40

However,thecityhadtoarticulatethesestipulationsviaaLocalLawasagovernmentcannotdirectly

endorsetheuseoftheLEEDratingsystem.Underthelaw,constructionprojectsmustdivertatleast50%

oftheirtotalwastestream.

State Level: Executive Order 4ExecutiveOrder13423promulgatedbyPresidentBushin2007directsfederalagenciesto“iden-

tifylocalrecyclingandsalvageoperationsthatcouldprocesssiterelatedwaste”andsetsadiversiongoal

of50%forconstruction,demolitionandlandclearingwaste(ExecutiveOrder13423,2007).Thisdecreein-

centivizedthestateofNewYorktoissueExecutiveOrder4in2008,whichdictatesthatallstateagencies

mustdivert50%ofallwastematerialsfromlandfillingandreporttheirprogressannuallytotheofficeof

theGovernor(ExecutiveOrder4,2008).Thisdecreeappliestothewasteproducedinallactivitiesofstate

agencies,meaningeverythingfromcoffeecupstoprinterpaper.IndirectresponsetoExecutiveOrder4,

NewYorkCityTransit(NYCT)requiredallconstructionprojectsundertheirpurviewtoalsodivert50%

ofthewastegeneratedontheirconstructionsitesandsubmitawastemanagementplantoinformthe

agencyhowtheyintendtoachievestatedtargets.

Industry Level: LEED Certification TheU.S.GreenBuildingCouncil(USGBC)LeadershipinEnergyandEnvironmentalDesign

(LEED)programisapoint-basedsystemthatratesbuildingsontheiroverallimpactonenvironmental

health.Differentratingsystemsexistaccordingtothetypeofconstructionactivity.Forexample,thereisa

LEEDcertificationforNewConstruction,CommercialInteriors,Schools,Retailandothercommercialand

residentialbuildings.Theratingsystemisbasedonninecategoriesthateachaddressadifferentcom-

ponentofthesustainabilityofabuilding,rangingfromenergyusetoenvironmentalairquality.Each

categorylistsseveralcriteriaforwhichabuildingcanreceiveapointifimplemented.Themorecriteria

implemented,thehighertheLEEDrankingofthebuilding.TheserankingsrangefromBronze,awarded

tobuildingsthatachievedtheminimumamountofcriteria,toPlatinum,awardedtobuildingsthatfol-

lowedallthesustainabledesignandmethodscriteriacontainedintheLEEDprogram.

Wastemanagementandgreenprocurementcriteriaareincludedinthe“Materials&Resources”

categoryoftheLEEDprogram.TheUSGBCdefinesthiscategoryas“encouragingtheselectionofsustain-

abilitygrown,harvested,producedandtransportedproductsandmaterials.Itpromoteswastereduction

aswellasreuseandrecycling,anditparticularlyrewardsthereductionofwasteataproduct’ssource

(USGBC,2011).”NewConstructionprojectscanearn1pointif50%ofwasteisdiverted,and2fora75%

41

diversionrate.Theseinclude50%diversionrateearning1point,and75%diversionawarding2points.

GeneralcontractorshireLEED-certifiedspecialiststocreatewastemanagementplansthatensureprojects

willmeetthesetargets.LEEDreportingstandardsdividethewastestreamintotwooverarchingcatego-

ries;residualwaste,ormaterialssenttolandfill,anddivertedmaterials.Thedivertedcategorycontains

thesevencommonmaterialsfoundonconstructionsites.Thisincludesdrywallalongwithconcrete,

metal,wood,paperandcardboard,plasticandglass.ThesediversionratesareachievedbyhiringLEED-

certifiedwastehaulers,whoreporttotaltonnagesrecycledofthespecifiedmaterialsbacktothegeneral

contractoroneitheraweeklyoramonthlybasis.Additionally,1pointisawardedif10%ofthematerials

usedinthebuildingcontainrecycledcontent,and2pointsfor20%ofmaterialsareofrecycledcontent.

Importantly,alloftheninecategorieshaveadifferentnumberofcriteriaforwhichpointscanbeearned.

TheMaterials&Resourcescategoryhas14pointsoutof110potentialpoints,whiletheEnergyEfficiency

categoryhasamuchhigheramountof37points(USGBC,2009).Thisratingsystemisweightedtoward

energy-savinginitiativesratherthanrecyclingorrecycledcontentpurchasing.Assuch,buildersmay

choosetospendmoreonenergyefficiencyequipmentratherthanonrecycledmaterialsortheextralabor

andtransportationcoststhatcomewithsourceseparationandcartingtoaprocessor.

LEEDwasidentifiedbyallintervieweesasthemainimpetusfortheconstructionindustryto

embraceC&Dwasterecyclingmorebroadly.Thedemandforsustainablebuildingpracticesisincreas-

ingwiththegrowingpublicawarenessofclimatechange.TheLEEDprogramallowsforbusinessesand

developerstoprovetoconsumersthattheirstructuresareenergyefficientandwerebuiltinasustainable

manner.Assuch,theLEEDprogramhelpedtocreatethedemandforrecycledconstructionmaterials

andotherelementsofgreenconstructionpractices.Inthewordsofonegeneralcontractor,“economic

argumentsaretheTrojanHorseforgettingpeopletodotherightthingenvironmentally.”However,one

LEEDcertifiedconsultantstatedherbeliefthatLEEDreportingstandardsaddeda“slewofunnecessary

andrepetitivepaperwork,”forthoseontheadministrativesideofconstructionprojects.Indeed,LEEDre-

portingissimilartothedatacollectionwhichwasalreadyrequiredbystateandlocalregulationsregard-

ingwastetonnagesandfinaldisposalsites.

Civil Society Level: Urban Green Council UrbanGreen,theNYCchapteroftheUSGBC,publishedtheGreenCodesTaskForcereportin

2010.Thereportwasdevelopedbygovernment,businessandnonprofitstakeholdersandprovides141

recommendationstoNYCCityCounciltoachievethegreenbuildinggoalsinPlaNYC.Oneofthefive

goalsundertheResourceConservationsectionofthereportspecificallyaddressesrecoverabilityofclean

42

gypsumscrap.Goal1:RecycleConstructionWastesuggestsanewsectionbeaddedtotheNYCBuilding

Codewhichwouldrequireon-siteseparationofcleangypsumscrapfor“anyconstruction,alteration,

partialdemolitionordemolitionofabuildinggreaterthan20,000squarefeet(UrbanGreen,RC1-4).”

Whilethisrecommendationhasnotbeenwrittenintothebuildingcode,itdidprompttheMay-

or’sOfficeofLongTermPlanningandSustainabilitytoincludeInitiative5inthe2011updatetoPlaNYC.

43

CHAPTER 4

CURRENT GOVERNMENT EFFORTS FOR C&D RECYCLING

Contract StructureDavidHarvey(1985:169)theorizesthattheconstructionindustryengages“inaparticularkindof

commodityproductionunderratherpeculiarconditions.Muchofwhathappensinthewayofconstruc-

tionactivityhastobeunderstoodintermsofthetechnical,economicandpoliticalorganizationofthe

constructioninterests.”Onewayofunderstandingthesepeculiarconditionsisthroughanalysisofatypi-

calcontractstructureforconstructionprojects.

Contractualrelationshipsdeterminehowwasteisgeneratedanddisposedandwhoisrespon-

sibleforbothoftheseactivities.AccordingtoVrijhoef&Koskelaintheirpieceonsupply-chainmanage-

mentinconstruction(2000:175),“muchofthewasteandproblemsarecausedinanotherstageofthe

constructionsupplychainthanwherethewastesurfaced.Therootcausesofthewastewererarelyfound

intheactivitywherethewasteandproblemswereencountered,butratherinapreviousactivitywitha

prioractor.”Theauthors’useoftheword“waste”herediffersfromthetraditionaluse;theyarereferenc-

ingthedeadweightlossesandinefficientuseandallocationofmaterialsaswaste.Theauthorsattribute

thiswasteproblemasadirectresultofthefragmentationofserviceprovidersintheconstructionindus-

try.Thesestakeholdersareconnectedtooneanotherthroughcontractualobligations,whichtheninflu-

encestheactualamountofphysicalwastegeneratedontheconstructionsite.

Innewconstructionprojects,forexample,thearchitectspecifiestheamountofdrywallneeded

inthedesignofthebuilding,whichthegeneralcontractorthenordersaccordingtothedesigner’s

specifications.Thedrywallarrivesindimensionssetbythemanufacturerandtypicallymustbecutto

fittheuniquedesignofthebuilding.Contractedlaborerstheninstallthedrywall,aprocessthattypi-

callyrequiresrevisionoftheoriginalplansandtheorderingofmorematerials.Assuch,the“wasteand

problems”alludedtobyVrijhoef&Koskelaarealsodirectlyresponsibleforthevoluminousamountsof

materialsdiscardedaswasteonconstructionsites,orthetypicaldefinitionofwaste.Followingthemore

nuancedontologyofthewordwaste,Harveyexplainsthisdilemmainabroaderandmoretheoretical

manner:“Sincethebuiltenvironmentistobeconceivedofasacompositecommodity,theindividual

elementshavestrong‘externality’effectsonotherelements,continuingthatthenatureofthebuiltenvi-

ronmentnecessitatesitbeingownedbydiverseinterests,“makingmanagementoftheassetswithinthe

44

environmentdifficulttocoordinate(171,173).”

Thedesign-bid-buildservicedeliverymethodologyisthetraditionalservicedeliverymethod-

ologyand,assuch,itisacommonmethodologyinconstruction.Privatesectorconstructionisableto

usemoremodernservicedeliverymethodologies,toolandtechniques,whilepublicsectorconstruction

tendstobeconstrainedlegislativelytothedesign-bid-buildmethodology.InNewYorkState,mostpub-

licownersarerequiredtousedesign-bid-build,withawardsforconstructiongoingtothelowestrespon-

siblebidder.Thefinalpartoftheprocess,theactualconstructionactivities,istheresponsibilityofthe

generalcontractor.Thoughthebidgoestoasinglefirm,generalcontractorsusuallysubcontractoutthe

individualaspectsofaproject.Theseincludebothdrywallinstallationandwastehaulingamongstmany

others.Exhibit28displaysatypicalcontractualstructureforaprivateprojectundertheDesign-Bid-Build

process.

Exhibit 28: Basic contract structure for private and Project Labor Agreement construction jobs.

Thisprocessistypicalforbothpublicandprivateconstructionjobsbecauseitminimizesthecon-

tractualobligationsforwhichthepropertyownerhasoversight.Assuch,theprocessalsoallowsproperty

ownerstotransfermostofthefinancialriskpresentedbytheprojecttothegeneralcontractor.

Prime Contract

Property OwnerArchitect

General Contractor

Interior

Waste Hauler

Abatement

Electrical

Plumbing

...(etc)...Subcontract

Prime Contract

DESIGN

BID

BUILD

45

Forpubliclyfundedprojects,thismeansthatthebidprocesstransfersriskfromthetaxpayerto

theprivatesector.Mostpublicprojects,however,aresubjecttotheWicksLaw.Thislawrequireseach

projecttohavefourprimarycontractsdirectlyoverseenbythepropertyowner,whichforpublicproj-

ectsareagencieslikeDDCorNYCT.Thesecontractsincludeageneral,electrical,plumbingandaHVAC

contractor.TheWicksLawwaspassedtoprovidetransparencyinthebidprocessandensurethatpublic

fundsareusedappropriately.Thetraditionalstructurecouldallowthegeneralcontractortosubcontract

jobsthroughnepotismratherthanthelowestbid.SomeprojectscanbypasstheWicksLawviaaProject

LaborManagementagreement,yetthiscontractstructureisnotascommonandthuswillnotbedis-

cussedatlength.ThetypicalcontractstructureforpublicprojectsisshowninExhibit29.

Exhibit 29: Basic contract structure for public construction jobs under the Wicks Law.

TheCityrequiresallconstructionagenciestouseastandardconstructioncontract,withalim-

itedabilitytochangestandardprovisionssubjecttoapprovalbytheCity’sLawDepartment.Thegen-

eralconditionsprovisionsforanindividualprojectarecontainedinaseparateappendixtitled“General

Conditions”thatisattachedandmadepartofthestandardconstructioncontract.TheGeneralCondition

provisionsaretailoredtomeettheneedsofeachproject.SpecificsdetailedintheGeneralConditions

includeelementslikescaffolding,worklightsandwastemanagementandhauling.Whilethetermsare

Property Owner

Plumbing

DESIGN

Electrical

HVAC

GeneralContractor

Architect

BID

BUILD

BUILD

BUILD

BUILD

Interior

Waste Hauler...(etc)...

Prime Contract

Prime Contract

Prime Contract

Prime Contract

Prime ContractSubcontract

46

site-specific,manyGeneralConditionsfollowprecedentexamplesfrompreviouscontracts.OneDDC

officialdescribedtheprocessofwritingthisappendixasa“copyandpasteoperation.”Forexample,after

LocalLaw86waspassed,theGeneralConditionswereamendedtostipulatethatpublicprojectsmet

LEEDapprovalstandards.Typically,thegeneralcontractoractsasaprojectmanager,makingthesefirms

responsibleforensuringthatthegeneralconditionsofthecontractaremet.Privateprojectsalsocontain

thesegeneralconditions,howevertheyareusuallyreferredtogeneralrequirements.Publicorprivate

propertyownerscanrequirethatdrywallbesource-separatedinthisGeneralConditionsappendix.

Bothdiagramsillustratehowtheinteriorcontractor,ordrywallinstaller,isoftennotresponsible

forthedisposalofthecleanscraptheygenerate.Itislikelynotapriorityfortheinteriorcontractorto

shoulderadditionallaborcostsrequiredtopracticethe“centerpiling”methodthatensurestherecover-

abilityofdrywallcuttingsunlesssucharequirementisincludedintheGeneralConditions.Ascontract

bidsusuallyamounttomillionsofdollars,theextracostsassociatedwithrecyclinggypsumwould

benegligibleifthegeneralcontractorincludedthemintheinitiallump-sumbid.Yetthelow-valueof

gypsumscrapandthescarcityofend-marketsfortherecycledproductaretwomajordisincentivesforthe

firmstodoso.Assuch,thepracticeofusingMixedC&Dcontainersandcartingtoonetransferstationis

thewastemanagementmethodwithboththelowestcostsandmostefficientuseofspace.

New York City TransitNewYorkCityTransit(NYCT)isoneagencyofmanythatcomprisetheMetropolitanTransit

Authority(MTA).OtheragencieswithintheMTAincludeMetroNorthRailRoad,LongIslandRailRoad,

BridgesandTunnels,MTABus,LongIslandBus,CapitalConstructionandMTAHeadquarters.MTAagen-

ciesareresponsiblefortheconstructionandmaintenanceofpublictransportationsystemsthroughout

theNYCmetropolitanarea.

NYCTisspecificallyresponsibleforthemaintenanceofsubwaytunnels,stationsandbusstops.

Constructionofnewtransitinfrastructure,likenewthe2ndAvenuesubwayline,fallsunderthepurview

oftheCapitalProjectsdivision.However,maintenanceoftheexistingsubwayandbussystemgenerates

muchC&Dwastegiventheageandtheextensivereachofthesystem.Additionally,muchoftheinfra-

structureNYCTmaintainsisundergroundandthuscontainsmoreconcrete,steelandstonethandrywall.

However,muchdrywallisusedfortheMTAofficesandlockerroomsfortrainoperatorsthatarehoused

insomesubwaystations.ThomasAbdullah,aPrincipalEngineeratNYCT,describedtheWest4thStreet

stationas“anundergroundcity”duetoalltheworkeramenitiesconnectedtothisstation.

PursuanttoExecutiveOrder4,allMTAagenciesmustproducedetailedrecordsontheirwaste

47

generationandboostdiversionratesto50%orhigher.ReportsarethensubmittedtotheMTAforagency-

widetabulation.Importantly,ExecutiveOrder4aimedtoreducetheamountoftrashgeneratedindaily

officeoperationsratherthanC&Dwastefromconstructionprojects.Accordingtoanemployeeofthe

MTA,“This{ExecutiveOrder}wasreallygearedmoretowardofficesettingswhenitwaswritten.Much

ofthenon-officewasteinformationincludedforreportingwasanafterthought.”The“afterthought”to

includediversiontargetsandrecordkeepingforC&DwastefromNYCTprojectswasdescribedbyMr.

AbdullahastheresultofaculturechangewithinMTAagenciesandtheconstructionindustryatlarge.

Inadditiontowastereductiontargets,NYCThasincorporatedsustainabledesignelementsintomanyof

theirrenovationprojects.Forexample,theagencypursuedLEEDcertificationforthenewCoronaYard

MaintenanceShopinQueens,andinstalledsolarpanelsonthenewGunHillsBusDepotintheBronx.

Additionally,TherenovationoftheConeyIslandStillwellAvenuesubwaystopwhichwasdesignedto

capturesunlightasitsprimarysourceoflightinginthedaytime.

Additionally,whenNYCTbeganresearchonthefeasibilityofapplyingthe50%diversiongoal

ofExecutiveOrder4totheirconstructionprojects,theyrealizedthatover50%ofwastegeneratedonsite

wasalreadybeingrecycled.Thisisoftenduetothehighvolumeofconcreteontheseconstructionproj-

ects,amaterialthathashighrecyclingratesnationwide.Assuch,theyarecurrentlyconsideringraising

thediversiontarget.Contractorsareoftenabletomeetthe50%diversionrequirementwhilesendingall

gypsumboardtolandfillduetothehighvolumeofconcreteontheirjobsites.Mr.Abdullahestimatesa

99%complianceratewithExecutiveOrder4.HedescribedthehighcompliancerateasbothNYCTand

theircontractorsas“wantingtodotherightthing,”yetalsoacknowledgesthatthehighresalevalueof

mostC&Dwastehasmadetherecyclingofthesematerialsstandardpracticeforyears.Moreover,the

2011“GreeningMassTransit&MetroRegions”aBlueRibbonCommissionReportonhowtheMTAcan

improvetheirsustainabilityinitiativesincludesmanyrecommendationsonhowtheagenciesshould

improvetheirwastemanagementandgreenprocurementpractices,includingtheinstitutionofalife-

cycleanalysisformaterialsmanagement,influencingrecycledmaterialsmarketsandflexingitsmarket

powertopromotegreengoods(MTA,2011:11).

Importantly,thesegoalsneatlyalignwiththoseinPlaNYCaswellastherecommendationspro-

videdbytheGreenCodesTaskForceandtheNationalAssociationofDemolitionContractors.

Eachofthesethreerecommendationswouldhavefavorableoutcomesfordrywallrecycling.Ofcourse,

theseoutcomeswouldonlycometofruitioniftranslatedintoactionthroughpolicylikethediversion

targetsandrecordkeepingpracticesspurredbyExecutiveOrder4.

ThewastemanagementplanssubmittedbysubcontractorsforreviewbyNYCTprovideade-

taileddescriptionofthesortingmethod,haulingandprocessingfacilities,anticipateddiversionrate

48

aswellasfinaldisposaldestinationsforallwastegeneratedonthejobsite.Theparametersoftheplan

areincludedinthe12WsectionoftheGeneralConditionscontractstructureforNYCTprojects.Inother

words,theseplansaddresshowthewastesubcontractorwillmeettheircontractualobligationstodivert

atleast50%ofwastegeneratedonsite.The12Wasksforcontractorstotakephotographsofthejobsiteto

documentwastecollectionpracticesaswellasgiveasenseofthetonnagesgeneratedofeachmaterial.If

NYCTdecidedtomandatetheon-sitesortingofwasteordiversionofallcleandrywallscrap,thisrequire-

mentwouldbewrittenintothissectionoftheGeneralConditionscontract.

Additionally,wastesubcontractorsmustbelicensedbytheBusinessIntegrityCommission(BIC)

tobeawardedacontractforapublicjob.BICcertifieshaulersandtransferstationsasmeansofensuring

wasteisrecycledordisposedatregisteredfacilitiesandlandfills,respectively.Assuch,subcontractors

arealsorequiredtoprovidetheBIClicensenumberofthetransferstationwherewasteishauled.These

plansaresubmittedinpaperformandarenotfileddigitally.

Subcontractorsarealsorequiredunder12Wtoreportthetotaltonnagesofwastedivertedand

senttolandfill.2010wasthefirstyearforallMTAagenciestocomprehensivelyreportwastetonnage

totalsaswellasthepercentageofdivertedmaterials.AstheinclusionofC&Dwasteintothediversionre-

quirementsofExecutiveOrder4was,inthewordsofanMTArepresentative,“anafterthought,”thedata

collectionmethodsarestillbeingrefined.

MTAreportingislessdetailedforC&Dwaste;allMTAagenciessubmitasinglenumberforC&D

tonnagesdivertedratherthanbreakingthisfigureouttoindividualmaterialcategories.Assuch,itis

impossibletotellhowmuchgypsumwallboardwasdivertedfromallMTAprojects.OntheNYCTlevel,

however,thesetonnagesarebrokeninto16differentmaterialcategories,includingoneforgypsumwall-

boardandMixedC&D.AllMixedC&Dtonnagesarerecordedasbeingsenttolandfill.Recordedtonnages

comefromthetransferstationweighticketsandreceiptsfrommaterialsprocessorsorsalvageshops.Out

of106activeprojects,4projectsrecycledcleangypsumscrapgeneratedonsite,totaling128.929tons.33of

theseprojectshauledMixedC&D,someofwhichlikelycontainedcleanordirtygypsumscrapthatwas

notdivertedfromthelandfill.Impressively,57oftheseprojectswereabletodivert100%ofC&Dwaste

fromlandfill.Moreover,90ofthe106projectsrecycled90%ormoreofallwastegenerated.Contrastingthe

highoveralldiversionratesachievedbyNYCTprojectsandthepoorrecyclingratesforgypsumscrapun-

derscoreshowrecyclingdrywallrequiresextraplanningoutsideofthetraditionalC&Dhandingmethods

tobeachieved.

49

Department of Design and Construction TheNewYorkCityDepartmentofDesignandConstruction(DDC)isthecityagencyresponsible

fortheconstructionofinstitutionalbuildingslikelibraries,courthousesandselecteducationalfacilities.

AkeydifferencebetweenDDCandNYCTisthattheformerisacitydepartmentandthelatterastateau-

thority.Assuch,DDCisnotsubjecttoExecutiveOrder4.However,LocalLaw86servesasimilarpurpose

asitrequiresallcity-financedconstructionprojectstofollowthestandardsforLEEDSilvercertification

whilenotdirectlyendorsingtheprogramitself.However,DDChaspursuedLEEDstandardsformostof

theirprojectssince2001,substantialityearlierthanthepassageofLocalLaw86.Thisfactindicatesthe

agency’scommitmenttosustainablebuildingpractices.

Moreover,DDCestablishedanOfficeofSustainabilitywhichhaspublishednumerousgreen

buildingguidessincetheearly2000s,includingthe“ConstructionandDemolitionWasteManual”in

2003.ThemanualservesasaguideforboththereductionanddiversionofC&Dwaste,providescasestud-

iesofeffortsfromothercitiesonthetopicanddetailsimplementationstrategiesandresources.Whilethe

documentdoesnotaddresstheproblemsassociatedwithgypsumrecycling,itdoesacknowledgethatthe

material“couldberecovered”butcurrentlyisnotduetothelackoflocalend-markets(GruzenSamton&

CityGreenInc,2003:16).However,thedocumentdoesidentifyseveralbarrierstoC&DrecyclinginNYC,

allofwhicharerelevanttotheproblemsassociatedwithgypsumrecycling.Theseincludecircumstan-

tialbarriers,likethelackofspaceatconstructionsiteandhighlaborcostsinNYC.Pathdependencyis

alsocitedasabarrier.Theagencyacknowledgesthatthereluctanceofmanyintheconstructionindustry

tochangebehaviorpatternshindersrecycling,continuingthat“manyconstructioncompanieshave

long-standingallianceswithhaulersandprocessors/transferstations,whichmaynotbetheonesthat

canrecycleagivenproject’sdebris(5).”Thispointisofparticularrelevancetogypsum.Thoughthemate-

rialcannotberecycledifitissenttothetransferstation,itiscontinuouslysenttherebycontractorsasthis

isthewaythematerialhasalwaysbeentreated.Here,theagencyisindirectlyacknowledginghowthe

statusquohindersgypsumrecycling.

Additionally,theDDCrecognizesthat“thereislittlesolid,industry-wide,informationonre-

cyclingratesintheNYCareatouseindevelopingareasonablerecyclingrequirement(5).”Oneofthe

implementationstrategiesmentionedinthemanual,therequirementofawastemanagementplanfor

allDDCprojects,addressesthisbarrierdirectly.Accordingtotheagency,theseplanswill“encouragerecy-

clingandprovideDDCwithamechanismtotrackresults,documentsuccessstoriesandhighlightareas

wheremoreattentionisneeded(9).”TheplanrequirementsarealmostidenticaltoNYCT’sasstipulated

bySection12W,asistheintentoftheDDCtotabulatethisdataagencywideasameansofcorrectingthis

50

informationbarrier.

DDC’scommitmenttosustainablebuildingpracticesisevidentintheircurrentproject,thecon-

structionofanewPoliceAcademyfortheNYPDinCollegePoint,Queens.Theprojectoccupiesa35acre

lot,andthe850,000squarefootbuildingwillbeLEEDSilvercertifiedwhencompleted.Thelargelotsizeis

duetothefactthatCollegePointisaless-urbanizedsectionofthecity.Theamplespaceonsiteisatypical

forNYCconstructionprojects.Thelargelotsizeisalsobeneficialforgypsumrecyclingasitenableson-site

sorting.Drywallwasnotbeinginstalledatthetimeofthesitetour.However,theLEEDComplianceOf-

ficerfromTurner/STVConstruction,theprimarycontractorfortheproject,statedthattheinteriorcontrac-

torwillbeinstructedtousethe“centerpiling”wastecollectionmethod.

Astheprimecontractor,Turner/STVConstructiondevelopedthewastemanagementplanaccord-

ingtotheproject’sGeneralConditions.Theplanrequiresa75%diversionrate.Italsoliststhemateri-

alstargetedfordiversion,anddrywallisincludedalongwith20othermaterials.However,thewaste

managementmethoddetailedintheplanstatesthat“allwasteremovedfromthissitewillbeconsidered

commingledanditwillbetheresponsibilityoftheprojectsubcontractedhaulertobringwastetoanap-

provedsolidwastetransferfacilitytoconductoff-siteseparationofwastematerialspriortofinaltransport

torecycling/salvagefacilityorlandfill(Turner/STVConstruction,2011:6).

Despitethefactthatthisprojectpresentsthenear-perfectconditionsfordrywallrecycling,col-

lectingthematerialasMixedC&Dwillensurethatthescrapissenttoalandfill.TurnerConstructionis

oneofthelargestandmostinfluentialconstructioncompaniesinthefield.Turner’seffortstowardgreen

buildingpracticesareunparalleledintheindustry.Thiscommitmentextendstowastemanagement

Exhibit 30: Truck sprayer on the DDC Police Academy construction site.

51

practices.Forexample,thecompanyprovidesanonlinetrainingcourseatanominalcosttotrainindus-

tryprofessionalsonbestpracticesindevelopingwastemanagementplans.DDCalsodevelopedasample

wastemanagementplanfollowingthesameprinciplesavailableforfreeonline,yetitdoesnotmention

source-separationofdrywall.ThissamplewastemanagementplanisincludedinAppendixB.

Moreover,thePoliceAcademysitecontainedmanydifferentmeasurestomitigatenegative

environmentalimpactsproposedbytheproject.Forexample,Exhibit30depictsthesprayersalltrucksare

requiredtopassthroughbeforeleavingthesite.Thisdampensthemudandfinesthevehiclescollected

whileon-sitetominimizethepotentialpollutionthetruckscouldleaveontheoutsideroadnetworkand

surroundingair.Additionally,Turner/STVinstalledairmonitorsaroundthesitetoensurethatconstruc-

tionactivitieswerenotcompromisingthesurroundingairquality.Neitheroftheseinterventionsare

requiredinLEEDstandards.ItisclearthatbothDDCandTurner/STV“gotheextramile”toensureeach

projectutilizesthebestgreenbuildingandmanagementpractices.Ifneitherorganizationthoughtto

includethesourceseparationofgypsuminthePoliceAcademy’swastemanagementplan,thenitcanbe

assumedthatmanyintheconstructionindustryareunawareoftheconditionsnecessarytorecycleclean

gypsumscrap.Indeed,theLEEDComplianceOfficerfortheprojectwasunawarethatdrywallcould

notberecycledinthetransferstation.Shedescribedthedecisiontohavewasteseparatedoff-siteasone

madetosavethepropertyownermoney;byrelyingonthetransferstationtosortwaste,DDCwouldnot

havetopaythelaborandtransportationcostsrequiredforsource-separation.

Exhibit 31: Waste management documentation for the 95+ subcontractors on the Police Academy project.

52

AnotheroneofthebarrierstoincreasedC&DrecyclingidentifiedintheDDCWasteManage-

mentManualisthefragmentationinmanagementundertheWicksLaw,whichmakes“cooperation

andsharedresponsibilitydifficulttoorchestrate(GruzenSamton&CityGreenInc,2003:5).”Onegeneral

contractorinterviewedmentionedthathedoesnotbidonpublicprojectsbecauseofthislackofcoordina-

tion,stating“sincetheyhavenoprojectmanager,everybodyjustpassesthebucktothenextguy.”Argu-

ably,eveninprojectswherethegeneralcontractoristheprojectmanager,asisthecaseforthePolice

Academyandmostprivatejobs,thesheeramountofsubcontractorsmakesitdifficulttocoordinateand

enforceresponsibilityfortaskslikesourceseparationofdrywall.Thisisarelativelyminoraspectinthe

overallschemeofajobsite,makingiteasytoseewhythetaskdoesnotreceiveattentionbytheproject

manager.ThePoliceAcademysitehasalmost100differentsubcontractorsontheproject.Wasteman-

agementisjustoneofmanyLEEDcriteriathattheLEEDComplianceOfficerisresponsiblefortracking

throughoutthelifeoftheproject.Thedifferentsubcontractorsreporttotalwastegeneratedanddisposal

sitestoheronamonthlybasis,whichresultsinspreadsheetsandbindersatalmostcomicallylargepro-

portionsasshowninExhibit31.Again,itiseasytoseehowdrywallrecyclingcangetlostintheshuffleof

alltheothermanagementtasksrequiredtobuildthePoliceAcademyinasustainablemanner.

Analysis Oneproblemforgypsumrecyclingliesinhowthematerialisdefinedinlegislation.ThoughC&D

wasteisrecognizedasaseparatewastestreaminalllevelsoflegislationontheissue,thecomponentsof

thestream(drywall,steel,etc.)oftendifferintheirdefinitionbetweengovernmentalscales.Forexample,

the2008solidwastemasterplan“BeyondWaste”publishedbyNewYorkStatereportdefinesconcrete,

asphalt,rock,brickandsoilasasinglegroupwiththemoniker“CARBS.”The2003“WasteManagement

Manual”publishedbytheDDCgroupsconcrete,dirtbrickandasphaltinasinglecategorytitled“FillMa-

terials.”Additionally,theNewEnglandAssociationofWasteManagementOfficials(NEWMOA)identifies

asphalt,brickandconcrete“ABC”materialsintheir2009reportonC&Dwastevolumesandmanagement.

Thoughthesedifferingdefinitionsseemlikebenigninconsistencies,theyhaveahugeimpactonthedata

collectionnecessaryforunderstandingprioritiesinnationalandmorelocalizedwastemanagementand

recyclingagendas.Thenon-standardizationofthesedefinitionscreatesinformationasymmetriesthat

hindervariouseffortstostimulatemarketsforrecycledmaterials.RelevanttothisobservationisJoseph

Stiglitz’sassertionthat“imperfectinformationcancreateanimpedimenttomutuallyproductivebar-

gains(1998:13).”

AnotherexampleofthisissueisstateadoptionoftheUSGreenBuildingCouncil’sLEEDpro-

53

gramstandardsforachievingtargetedwastediversionrates.DDCconstructionprojectsadopttheLEED

standardsforwastediversionandrecycling.NeithertheLEEDstandardsnorNewYorkStatelegislation

allowsoilorfillmaterialtobeapartofthesetotals.However,cityregulationsallowthesematerialstobe

apartoftheirfinalreportingtotals.Assuch,thisisanotherdiscrepancycausedbycurrentnon-standard-

izeddefinitionofwastestreamsonthenationallevel.

ThisconflicthasmanyimplicationsforNYCinparticularasC&Dwastegeneratedinthecity

isoftenprocessedanddisposedoutsidethestate.Thisissuecanalsoobstructtheefficientflowofthese

materialsbetweenjurisdictions,whichcansubsequentlyhinderstateeffortsforstimulatingthemarkets

forrecycledgypsumscrap.Viola(2008:19)attributesthedatacaveatscreatedbyinconsistentdefinitionsof

theC&Dwastestreamas“oneofthekeybarrierstorecyclingingeneralistheinstabilityofmarketprices

andtheunreliabilityofthequantityofcertainmaterialsflowingthroughthosemarkets…inordertosell

ordisposeofrecycledmaterials,facilitiesneedtohaveaccesstogoodinformationaboutwherematerials

canbesentandwhatpricesandfeestheywillencounter…theNewYorkCitymetropolitanregionmay

lacksufficientsourcesofmarketinformation(19).”Additionally,NewYorkCitycurrentlydoeslittleto

helpwiththeinformationgapsassociatedwiththeuncertaintyprivateinstitutionsfeelaroundrecycled

gypsummarkets.

Thereluctanceofstateagenciesorgeneralcontractorstochangewastemanagementbehav-

iorcouldbedescribedbyCharlesBarnard’sconceptof“routines,”articulatedbyLevitt&Marchasthe

“forms,rule,procedures,conventions,roles,strategiesandtechnologiesaroundwhichorganizationsare

constructedandthroughwhichtheyoperate.Routinesalsoincludethestructureofbeliefs,frameworks,

paradigms,codes,culturesandknowledgethatbuttress,elaborateandcontracttheformalroutines,”

continuing,“eachroutineitselfisacollectionofroutines,learningtakesplaceinthenestedlevels(1995:

16-18).”Inotherwords,whenstateofficialsadheretothestatusquobywayofactingwithinthesepre-

scribedroutines,theyindirectlycreatedisincentivestotheirstatedgoals.

The Problem of Enforcement & Credible Commitment

TheproblemofconflictingdefinitionsofC&Dwasteseguesintoaproblemofhowtheseissuesad-

dressedinpoliciesonthedifferinglevelsofgovernment.Albrechts(2003)remindsusthat“policyforma-

tionandpolicyimplementationareinevitablytheresultofinteractionsamongapluralityofseparate

actorswithseparateinterests,goalsandstrategies(908).”Whentheseseparateinterestsexistinconflict

witheachother,ithinderstheeffectivenessofthepoliciestheyinform.Moresalienttoadiscussionof

intrastateconflictontheissueistheproblemofregulatorydiscretionofthesepolicies.Licari(2010:217)

54

definesdiscretionasthe“abilitytodecidehowpolicieswillbeimplemented,”continuingthatitis“akey

componentofbureaucraticpower.”

ThoughC&DWastemanagementissuesareaddressedbyalllevelsofgovernment,theylargely

existinanadvisorycapacitywithnodetailsofhowtoenforcerecommendationsmadebyeachagency.

Additionally,the2003WasteManagementManualpublishedbyDDCdetailstheagency’sintentto

requireallsubcontractorstosubmitwastemanagementplans.Thesewouldbecollectedandtabulated

tounderstanddiversionratesagency-wide.InapersonalemailwithasecondDDCofficialintheoffice

responsibleforoversightoftheconstructionactivities,shealludedtotheproblemofenforcingthisrule:

“AllDDCstructuresprojectsare“required”tooutlineC&Dwasteplans;however,constructionprojects

arehugeandcomplexaffairs,andI’mnotsuretheC&Dplanalwayshappens(PersonalCommunication,

12/7/11).”However,theagencyisabletoworkinthiscapacitytotrackthemonetizedenergysavingsof

LEEDprojectssince2001.Additionally,thoughNYCTleviesapenaltyfeeforcontractorswhodonotmeet

theirdiversionrequirements,aPrincipalEngineerinterviewedadmittedthatthesepenaltyfeesare“a

dropinthebucket”fortheconstructionindustrythatwhoserevenuestreamsoftenreachthebillions.

Thishighlightshowenforcementandcrediblecommitmentproblemseroderecyclingeffortsby

bothagencies.Thoughaplethoraofstate-issuedreportsandpolicydocumentsexistonthetopic,theydo

littletoinformthe“street-levelbureaucracies”suchastheDDCandNYCTofhowtheyaretoactuallyim-

plement,monitorandenforcetheordersfromhigherlevelsofgovernment(Lipsky,1980:3).Thisproblem

ofenforcementcanbeunderstoodintwoways,aseitheraPrincipal-Agentproblembetweenthepublic

andprivatesectororasanissueofcrediblecommitmentbythestate.ThepremiseofPrincipal-Agent

theoryliesinissuesofrisksharing,andarguablyriskshirking.AccordingtoEisenhart(2007),agency

problemsoccurwhen“cooperatingpartieshavedifferentgoalsanddivisionoflaborinwhichoneparty

(theprincipal)delegatesworktoanother(theagent),whoperformsthatwork(58).”Agencyproblemsof-

tenarisewhenthissaidworkisundercontractualobligation.InthecaseoftheDDC,thestateagencyde-

lineatestheworkoftheconstructionsectortotherealmoftheprivate,effectivelyshiftingthenumerous

monetaryrisksinvolvedwithconstructionworkfromthestatetotheprivatesector.Thisisdonethrough

contractualcommitments.Stiglitzremindsusthat“governmentistheprimaryenforcerofcontracts.It

usesitsmonopolyonthelegaluseofforcetocreatethepossibilityofprivatecommitment.Thereisno

one,however,whosejobitistoguardtheguardian(1998:10).”Additionally,Eisenhartspeaksdirectly

toenforcementissuesinherbeliefthatagencyproblemarisewhenthedesiresorgoalsoftheprincipal

andagentconflictanditisdifficultorexpensivefortheprincipaltoverifywhattheagentisactually

doing(59).ThispointisrelatedtoStiglitz’sconclusionthat“thegovernmentcannotmakecommitments

becauseitalwayshasthepossibilityofchangingitsmind,andearlier‘agreements’cannotbeenforced

55

(1998:10).”ThisinabilityofgovernmenttomakecommitmentsonC&Dwastemanagementissuescauses

“highcostsforcreatingnext-bestcredibility-enhancingmechanismswithinthegovernment,”suchas

expensiveandlengthyMasterPlanswithnomentionofimplementationmeasures(10).DouglassNorth

(n/d)assertsthatcrediblecommitmentsareanessentialrequirementto“permittheincreasinglycomplex

contractingessentialtocreatingandrealizingthepotentialofmoreproductivetechnologies(17),”suchas

thosenecessaryforincreasedrecyclingofC&Dwaste.Importantly,Stiglitznotesthatempiricalevidence,

atleastbeyondananecdoteortwo,andtheoreticalanalysisshouldhavebeenabletoshedlightonthe

meritofalternativepolicies(1998:5).”Thisspeakstohowthepersonalanecdotesofthecityagentsquoted

inthispaperhavethepowertocontesttheofficialdocumentsofthestateandchangethestatusquo.

Barenklau(2005:4)identifiestheseissuesasduetoa“lackofempiricalresearchthatincorporatessocial

interactionsintomoderndecision-theoreticbehavioralmodelsinordertomeasuretheimpactsofthese

interactionsontechnologyadoption.”

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CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

Key Findings Beforepresentingthekeyfindingsarerecommendations,itisworthwhiletorevisittheoriginal

goalsofthisthesisproject.ThisresearchwasinspiredbyInitiative5ofPlaNYC2030’sSolidWastesection,

specificallytheintentoftheMayor’sOfficeofLongTermPlanningandSustainabilitytosolvetheprob-

lemofthenearly0%recyclingrateofcleangypsumwallboardscrapinNYC.Drawingfromthisinspira-

tion,thisthesisprojectwasdesignedwithtwogoalsinmind.First,tofindthereasonsforthepoordrywall

recyclingrate.Secondly,torecommendhowthecitycancorrectthisproblemwiththedevelopmentof

newpolicy.

Thisresearchdiscoveredthattheenvironmentalbenefitsofrecyclinggypsumscrapmightnot

outweightheenvironmentalandeconomiccostsofdoingso.Thoughgypsumisanaturalresource,the

miningofthemineralisthroughaquarryprocessthatdoesnotposegreatenvironmentalthreatstothe

surroundingarea.Moreover,theUSistheleadingproducerofthemineral,whichisfoundinabundance

throughouttheworld.Additionally,sincegypsumscrapmustbetakenofftheconstructionsitebyasepa-

ratetrucktripandthentravelmanymilesupstatetotheonegypsumrecyclerinNewYork,theactivity

resultsinhighemissionscosts.Moreover,thepurityofrecycledgypsumpalesincomparisonwithsyn-

theticgypsum,aby-productofemissionscontrolsforcoal-firedpowerplants,whichwillforevercomprise

thevalueofrecycledscrap.Thoughgypsumproduceshydrogensulfideinthetransferstationandinthe

landfill,thisisjustanuisanceconditionandnotapublichealththreat.Thegasisproducedatsuchlow

levelsthatitsimplymakestheselandfillssmelllikerotteneggsonrainy,humidandwindydays.

Additionally,mandatingtherecyclingofthematerialwillposeeconomicburdensthroughout

thesupplychain.Generalcontractorswillhavetopayforadditionaltransportationandlaborcosts,while

transferstationoperatorswillhavetoinvestinnewandexpensivetechnologies.Aregulatorysolution

tothegypsumproblemthatsatisfiesallstakeholderswouldbedifficulttofind.Hamilton(2005)recog-

nizesthisasacommondilemmainpolicydevelopment,notingthat“theperceivedflawsinregulation

emergemorefrompoliticsthanfromlackofforesight(252).”Lee(1999)reinforcesthisnotion,stating“the

mostcommoncureforenvironmentalproblemsistorecommendplanning,”continuing,“whilesorting

outacomplexsituationusuallyopensupopportunitiesforcollaborationthatwereobscuredbyconflict,

57

planningilluminatesirreconcilabledifferencestoo(12).”Moreover,itisdifficultforrecyclingtobemade

cost-effectivewithoutencouragingthegrowthofendmarketswithintheNYCmetropolitanregion.

Whilethiswouldbeaworthyeffortitisperhapsnotthebestuseofgovernmentfundsgiventhattheuse

ofvirgingypsumpresentslessofanenvironmentalthreatthanmanyotherbuildingmaterials.

Moreover,barrierstogypsumrecyclingexistatallpointsofthesupplychain,NYCagencieshave

theabilitytodirectlyinfluenceonlyafewoftheseissues.Thisisduetoboththenatureoftheproblem

andtheenvironmentalandpoliticalconstraintsinNYC.Onemethodforgovernmentinterventionon

recycleddrywallmarketsisbybanninggypsumscrapfromC&Dlandfills.Analyzingtheapplicabilityof

thisprecedentforNYCnicelyillustratesthecomplexityofpolicycreationinthecity’suniquecontext.

ThestateofMassachusettsbanneddrywallfromtheirC&Dlandfillsin2009.Thisregulation

wassuccessfulinpartduetothefactthatstateregulationsrequireC&Dwastetopassthroughmaterials

processingfacilities.Thesortingmethodsofthesefacilitiesallowdrywalltoremainintactandbesent

toagypsumrecycler,meaningthatcontractorswerestillabletousetheMixedC&Dmethodandremain

incompliancewiththenewlegislation.SimilarlegislationinNYCwouldforcegeneralcontractorsto

changetheirbehaviorratherthanwastehandlers.Thiscouldbeperceivedbythesestakeholdersaspre-

sentingthemwithanunnecessaryfinancialburden.Tocircumventthisproblem,DSNYandDCPcould

establishnewgypsumrecyclingfacilitieswithinNYC.Thiswouldlowerthecostofsource-separationto

generalcontractorsbyreducingassociatedtransportationcosts.However,thisisnotaviableoptionbe-

causethelackofdevelopableareainthecitylimitsthepotentialfornewindustriallanduses.Secondly,

statelawrequiresthatallC&Dmaterialfirstpassthroughatransferstationwhichrendersthematerial

unrecoverable.Finally,sincetherearenoC&DlandfillsinNYC,thecitylackstheabilitytobandrywall

fromthelandfillinthefirstplace.

Thoughcityofficialscouldworkwithstateagenciestoinstituteadrywallbanfromupstate

landfillsorchangethelegaldefinitionofthematerial,manycityofficialsinterviewedcitedthisasa

“worthless”effortduetothepoliticaltensionbetweencityandstateagencies,orthe“upstate/downstate

divide.”Whileitisimportanttoacknowledgetheexistenceofthesepoliticaltensions,itisunproductive

toassumetheyrestrictanyconsensus.Additionally,NYCT,DECandESDarethreestateagenciesactively

workingontheissue,indicatingthatcollaborationonthisissuemorefeasiblethanothers.

Exhibit32locatestheseproblemsandrecommendationspresentedinthischapterattheirpar-

ticularpointsonthegypsumsupplychain.Thisvisuallydescribeshowthetwointeractwitheachother

andexistwithinasystemratherthanasisolatedissues.TerriMatthews,aSeniorPolicyAdvisoratDDC,

reiteratedthisidea,stating:“withoutanalysisoftheentiresystemofwhichagovernmentalactorisa

part,thereisnowaytoexpressissuesandsolvethemsystematically.”

58

Extraction

Manufacture

Consumption

Gypsum Recycler

Landfill

End Markets

Transfer Station

SourceSeparated

MixedC&D

Cement Drywall Agricultural input

Waste option 1

Waste option 2

1 Natural gypsum is abundant and cheap to extract

Gypsum cannot be recycled unless it is source-separated from other waste materials on the construction site

It is cheaper and more convienent for contractors to dispose of drywall as Mixed C&D rather than sort it on site

Given the fragmentation of the construction industry, it is sometimes difficult to coordinate all contractors in the pre-planning necessary to recycle gypsum

Gypsum is not recoverable if it passes through the transfer station

There is only one gypsum recycler in New York State. This requires the material be transported long distances to be recycled

The transfer station and the landfill environment causes gypsum to emit a hydrogen sulfide gas, the odor of which creates a public nuisance condition

Cement plants are the only industry of three primary end-markets for recycled gypsum that accept recycled “dirty scrap”

It is cheaper for drywall manufactures to use synthetic gypsum in the production of “recycled content” drywall that satisfies LEED requirements

As the private sector handles all commercial waste, it is difficult for DSNY to mandate that gypsum scrap be recycled

More data is needed to understand the cost mechanics of recycling gypsum

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

1 Implement Urban Greenʼs recommendation that source separation of gypsum be included in the NYC Building Code

Influence New York State to ban drywall or tax upstate landfills

Expand the use of mobile shredders in NYC

Require that all city buildings be designed to fit standard drywall dimensions

Encourage drywall producers to manufacture according to building designs

Refine data collection practices of city agencies on C&D waste

Re-examine if gypsum recycling should be included in PlaNYC

2

3

4

5

6

1

4

9

11

2 3

5

6

7 78

10

Government oversight

1

2

34

6 7

BARRIERS

PROPOSED SOLUTIONS

7

5

RECYCLING

SOURCE REDUCTION

MANAGEMENT

Exhibit 32: The gypsum supply chain in NYC, identifying barriers to gypsum recycling and potential government interventions.

59

Recommendations: How can NYC incentivize drywall recycling? Whilethisprojectinitiallyaimedtoanswerthequestion“howcanNYCincentivizegypsum

recycling,”overthecourseoftheresearchthequestionbecame“shouldNYCincentivizegypsumrecy-

cling?”Geiser(2001)pointsoutthat“whilerecyclingsurelyprovidesbothsocialandeconomicbenefits,

increasingthecurrentrecoveryrateswillrequireovercomingsignificantstructuralbarriers;developing

newinstitutionalinfrastructures;andredesigningproducts,processesandmaterials.Indeed,itisadaunt-

ingtasktorestructurelargesectorsofthematerialseconomythatareprimarilylinearandopenand

convertthemintocontainedeconomysystemsbasedonclosed-looprecycling(216).”Hecontinuestosay

thatwhilerecyclingdoespresentahostofbenefits,anevenbetterwaytoachievethesesamebenefitsis

tousefewermaterialsinthefirstplace(236).”GeiserevokesaquotebyMichaelMcDonoughtoreiterate

thepoint:“weshouldrecycle,butitisnotthefirstthingweshoulddo.Itisthelast.Redesignfirst,then

reduce,andfinallyrecycle,ifthereisnootheralternative(215).”

Asthisshiftinthoughtcamelateintheresearch,thefollowingrecommendationsforNYCagen-

ciesincludebothrecyclingandsource-reductionmethods.Itisimportanttonote,however,thatNYC

agencieshavelittlecapacityforthesourcereductionofdrywallwaste.Nevertheless,therecommenda-

tionsoffermanagement,recyclingandsource-reductionmethodsfordecreasingtheamountofdrywall

wasteproducedinNYC.

Recycling

Implement Urban Green’s recommendation that source separation be included in the NYC Building Code.TheGreenCodesTaskForcereportcoordinatedgovernment,industryandcivilsocietystake-

holdersinextensiveresearchonfeasibleoptionsforgreeningNYC’sbuiltenvironment.Thegroup’swork

ongypsumrecyclingapproachedthesubjectfromeconomic,environmentalandpoliticalanglesand

concludedthat“requiringsitesortingof{gypsum}willlikelypushdiversionratestotheirhighestpracti-

calpoint(UrbanGreen,2010:RC1,3).”Itisunclear,however,whythisissuewasincludedinPlaNYC

ratherthandirectlygoingthroughtheCityCouncil.Nevertheless,thisrecommendationisthebestway

forNYCtorequiredrywallrecyclingduetothelackofdirectcontroloftheC&Dwastestream.Theissu-

anceofbuildingpermitsisoneregulatorypathwaythatfallsexclusivelyunderthecity’spurview.

60

Influence New York State to ban drywall from upstate landfills or institute a landfill tax ManytransferstationoperatorsdisposeofresidualMixedC&Dinupstatelandfills.Assuch,

thismovewouldprovideanimpetusfortransferstationstoinvestintechnologytoseparategypsum

fromloadsheadingtothelandfill.

Insteadofadirectmaterialsban,thestatecouldimposeapertontaxforallMixedC&Dloadstakentothe

landfill.ThisprecedentcomesfromtheUKandmanyEuropeanstates.Thesetaxesdoublethetipping

costsofC&Dlandfills,soifitcostacontractor$90/tontodisposeofMixedC&Dinalandfill,thetaxwould

pushthesecostsupto$180/ton.InthewordsofPatrickManning,theCEOofGypsumRecyclingAmerica,

thisregulationcatalyzed“95%ofEuropeancontractorstobecomerecyclersovernightsincetheycould

nolongeraffordtolandfilltheirwastes.”

Beforeenactingabanortax,itisimportanttonotethatthisregulationaffectstransferstationop-

eratorsratherthangeneralcontractors.Operatorscouldbypasstheextracostsimposedbythislegislation

inthreedifferentways.First,theycouldutilizeoutofstateC&Dlandfills.Thisbecamecommonpractice

orbothputrescibleandnon-putrescibletransferstationoperatorsinNYCafterthe2001closureofFresh

Kills.Thisdecisionwouldcomefromweighingthecostoftechnologicalinvestmentrequiredtoseparate

gypsumversusthetransportationcoststootherlandfillsintheregion.Secondly,theycouldpushthe

burdenontogeneralcontractorsbybanningdrywallscrapfromMixedC&Dloads.Thismovewouldpush

thefinancialburdenofgypsumrecyclingontogeneralcontractors.However,itwouldincreasediversion

ratesasgeneralcontractorscannotsendtheirwastetoout-of-statetransferstationstobypasstheregula-

tion.

Expand the use of mobile shredders in NYC Mobilegypsumshredders,likethoseusedbyGypsumRecyclingAmericacouldsubstantially

increasediversionrateswithoutdramaticallyraisingcoststocontractors.Thetechnologyoccupiesless

spacethanstandardgypsumshredders,whichisidealforthespaceconstraintsinNYC.Additionally,

operatorscouldmovetheshredderstoareaswithhighconstructionactivitytoreducethetransportation

coststocontractors.NYCcouldpromotetheuseofthistechnologybyawardingpriorityforsuchbusiness

applyingforgrantprogramsand/ortaxsubsidiesthroughtheNewYorkCityEconomicDevelopment

Corporation.

Toconformtospaceconstraints,thesemobileunitscouldbesitedinthecity-operatedMarine

TransferStations.The2006SolidWasteManagementPlanindicatedDSNY’sintenttousetheMarine

TransferStationstohandlesomeC&Dwasteafterreducingtheprocessingcapacityofahandfulofpri-

vatetransferstations.AstheMarineTransferStationsprovidethespacerequiredforthemobileunitsto

operate,thecitycouldrentoutspacetooperatorstheshredders.Thissolutionwouldprovideadditional

revenueforDSNYwhilealsocorrectingthegypsumproblem.

2

3

61

Source Reduction

Require that all city buildings be designed to fit standard drywall dimensionsThisstrategyreducestheamountofdrywallwastegeneratedratherthandiversionrates.

WhilethisdoesnotinfluencetheinherentbarrierstogypsumrecyclinginNYC’swastemanagement

system,thisrecommendationdoesworktowardthegoalofkeepinggypsumwasteoutofthelandfill.Ad-

ditionally,the2003WasteManagementManualbyDDCrecommendsthatbuildingsbedesignedto“ma-

terialsizesasmuchaspractical,toavoidcut-offwasteinplywood,gypsumboard,etc(GruzmanSamton&

CityGreen,16).LocalLaw86couldbeupdatedwiththisrequirementtoachievethisgoal.Onedrawback

ofthislegislationisthatitwouldreducethecreativecapacityofthearchitect,whichwouldproduce

negativerepercussionsfortheaestheticofthecity.Consideringthisdrawback,itisnotrecommended

thattheBuildingCodeberevisedtorequirethatallstructuresaredesignedtofitdrywalldimensions.

Encourage drywall producers to manufacture according to building designs DDCcouldworkwithdrywallproducerstocustomorderdrywallsheetsaccordingtothe

buildingdimensionsforeachproject.GiventhelargescaleofmanyDDCprojects,custom-cuttingthese

orderswouldbeeconomicallyfeasiblefordrywallmanufacturers.Thissupply-sidestrategycouldbe

repeatedthroughoutothercityandstateagencies,suchastheDormitoryAuthorityoftheStateofNew

York(DASNY)andNYCT.Thiscouldalsoencouragetheprivatesectortodemandthesameservicefrom

producers.Currently,evenifbuildingsaredesignedaccordingstandarddrywallsizes,eachsheetmustbe

cuttoaccommodatedoors,windows,electricaloutletsandotherbuildingamenities.Giventhatdrywall

manufacturersrecyclenearly100%ofpre-consumerwaste,itwouldbebeneficialtokeepthesescrapson

theproductionfloorratherthanontheconstructionsite.

Importantly,implementingthisstrategywouldrequiresignificantnegotiationwithdrywall

producers.Castsareusedbymanufacturerstoshapedrywallsheetsinspecificsizes.Assuch,producers

wouldhavetoinvestintheproductionofnewcaststomeetthisdemand.Ifgovernmentagencieswere

willingtosubsidizethesecostsforproducers,thisstrategycouldbeveryeffectiveinreducingtheamount

ofdrywallwasteonconstructionsites.SincetherearenodrywallproducersinNYC,however,thisrecom-

mendationmightbebestimplementedonthestatelevel.

4

5

62

Management

Refine data collection practices of city agencies on C&D waste Lackofknowledgeontheamountofgeneratedandrecycleddrywallwastehinderstheability

ofindustrystakeholderstoanalyzethecostsandbenefitsoftheactivity.Usually,alackofinformation

resultsinresistancetochangebehaviororadoptanewtechnology.Thisisespeciallythecasefordrywall

recycling,generalcontractorsandtransferstationoperatorsinterviewedperceivedtheactivitytopresent

asignificantfinancialburden.

WhilelargecorporationslikeWasteManagementhavedataonthelevelonindividualmaterial

flows,thisisproprietaryinformationandnotpubliclyavailable.NYCTalreadycollectsthisinforma-

tiononanagency-widescale.DDCstatedtheirintenttodoso,yettheycurrentlylacktheinstitutional

capacitytoimplementthisprocedure.Thisisinpartduetothefactthatmanyofthewastemanagement

plansandfollow-updocumentssubmittedbycontractorsarepapercopies.Filingthisinformationinan

‘analog’ratherthandigitalmannerhindersit’saccessibility.Thus,whileitseemslikeasmalldetail,the

DDCshouldrequirethatalldiversionratesberecordeddigitally.AsLEEDreportingrequiresmaterial-

specificdiversionratesandmostDDCprojectsachieveLEEDstandards,thisinitiativecouldeasilybemet

bystreamliningLEEDdocumentationwithintra-agencyrecordkeeping.

Additionally,DSNYquarterlytransferstationreportsrecordtotaltonnagesdivertedandsent

tolandfillbyallC&Dtransferstationsinthecity.DSNYcouldrequirethesereportstobebrokenoutby

materialtypetogetabetterpictureofgypsumtonnageflows.SimilartotheDDCcase,transferstation

operatorsalreadyrecordthisinformationforLEEDreportingstandards.

Re-examine if gypsum recycling should be included in PlaNYC Thelastrecommendationisperhapsthemostimportant.Matthewswarnsthatgovernment

interventiononissueslikethegypsumproblemcaneithertaketheformofmanagementredesignsor

enactmentofnewlegislation.Shewarnsthat“bothmanagementtoolsandlegislationfunctionlike

hammersinthehandofsomeonewhoseeseverythingasanail.Thedefaultapproachesareparticularly

problematicforthebuiltenvironment:onecannotfixtheproblembecauseofitslimitednatureandthe

othercanmakematterswithinthesystemworse.“

Indeed,thereareseveralfactorsofthegypsumproblemthatcannotbecorrectedbygovernment

action.Forexample,whilerequiringthatgypsumbesource-separatedinthebuildingcodewouldno

doubtincreasethematerial’sdiversionrate,itwouldalsogeneratemanynewtrucktrips.Itisclearthat

foramaterialasseeminglybenignasgypsum,thecurrentpoliticalculturedoesnotpermit/requireafull

andhonestanalysisofwhathappenswhenweenactlawsaffectingthebuiltenvironment.Addition-

6

7

63

ally,legislatingtheuseofrecycledcontentdrywallmaynotimpactthegypsumrecyclingratesduetothe

manybenefitssyntheticgypsumhasoverrecycledscrapformanufacturers.Moreover,stringentpurity

standardsessentiallystipulatethatcleanscrapistheonlyviablecandidateforrecycling.Thismeansthat

despitetheH2Sproblemposedbylandfillingdrywall,acertainpercentageofthematerialwillalways

enterthisenvironment.Thismeansthattheprocessingcapacityforsendingscraptolandfillcannotbe

legislatedaway.

Thisresearchelicitedahostofthesetrade-offissues.Italsoreveledthatgypsumisoneofthemost

abundantmineralsontheplanet.Surfaceminingproducesnosevereenvironmentalthreats,saveforthe

extractionofanaturalresource.Theseinsightsbegthequestion:shouldcorrectingthegypsumproblem

beapriorityforNYCagencies?OneDSNYofficialopinedthattheMayor’sOfficeofLongTermPlanning

andSustainabilityoften“statesprioritieswithoutanyunderstandingofwhatisnecessarytoachieve

thesegoals.”NodoubttheinclusionofInitiative5intoPlaNYC2030wasdonewiththebestintentions.

TheultimategoalofthePlanis,afterall,tobuilda“Greener,GreaterNewYork.”Extensiveresearchon

thissingleaspectoftheplan,however,revealedthatthiseffortisperhapsnotnecessarytoachievethis

goal.

InthewordsofDavidHarvey,“politicalstrugglesandargumentsmay,undertheplanner’sinflu-

ence,bereducedtotechnicalargumentsforwhicha‘rational’solutioncaneasilybefound(1985:177).”

Harvey’snotionisratherpoignantforthisresearch.SavefortheproductionofH2Sinthelandfilland

transferstation,theissueofpoorgypsumrecyclingrateshavenostrong‘technical’argumentproviding

animpetusforcityagenciestocorrecttheproblemwithlegislation.Inotherwords,theissuedoesnot

presentacrisissituationwhichnecessitatesagovernmentresponse.Theissuedoes,however,havemany

politicalargumentspreventingthenecessarycoordinationtocorrecttheproblem.Theseconditionsmake

findingarationalregulatorysolutiontothegypsumproblemdifficult.Thisisnottosaythatgypsum

recyclingeffortsshouldbeabandoned,ratherthatgovernmentinterventionwillnotprovidetheoptimal

solutiontotheproblem.

Assuch,thisresearchhasimplicationsforplanningbeyondthescopeofthegypsumproblem.

Rittel&Webber(1973)arguethatsincetheinceptionofthediscipline,plannershaveoperatedwithideal-

izedmodelsthatobscurehowpolicydevelopmentactuallyoccurs.Whiletherehavebeenmanyitera-

tionsofthesemodels,nonehaveadequatelyaddressedthecomplexityandinherentlypoliticalnatureof

theprocessofimplementingplansintotangiblepolicymeasures.Accordingtotheauthors,“theprob-

lemsofgovernmentalplanning-andespeciallythoseofsocialorpolicyplanning-areilldefined,”con-

tinuing,“theinformationneededtounderstandtheproblemdependsuponone’sideaforsolvingit(161).”

Whilerecyclingisalwaysseenasapositivethingforgovernmentagenciestopromote,gypsumisnot

amaterialthatwarrantstheextensivegovernmenteffortstoovercomethemanybarriersthathinder

itsrecycling.Theplaceforplanninginthisscenarioistoweighthecaseofgypsumagainstthemany

64

otherproblemsvyingforgovernmentfundsandbrainpower.Rittel&Webbercontinue,“wehavecome

tothinkabouttheplanningtaskinverydifferentwaysinrecentyears.Wehavebeenlearningtoask

whetherwhatwearedoingistherightthingtodo.Thatistosay,wehavebeenlearningtoaskquestion

abouttheoutputsofactionsandtoposeproblemstatementsinvaluativeframeworks.”Despitethefact

thattheseexaminationsdotakeawhole-systemsapproachasadvocatedbySchnaibergandGeiser,Rittel

&Webberargue,paradoxically,that“ithasbecomelessapparentwhereproblemcenterslie,andlessap-

parentwhereandhowweshouldinterveneevenifwedohappentoknowwhataimsweseek(159).”

Buildingfromtheseobservations,theprimaryconclusionofthisresearchisthatgypsumrecycling

shouldnotbeincludedinPlaNYC.Ifanyeffortistakenatall,itshouldbesourcereductionratherthan

recycling.Additionally,thesefindingsshowthattheenvironmentalandeconomictrade-offsnecessary

forrecyclinggypsumoutweightheneedforconservingthematerial.Asecondaryconclusionisthat

plannersshouldpayrenewedattentionongoalsetting.Ifthegoalofgypsumrecyclingshouldnothave

beenincludedinPlaNYC,thenperhapsthereareothergoalssetforthinthePlanthataremisdirected.

AccordingtoRittel&Webber,“goal-findingisturningouttobeanextraordinaryobstinatetask.Because

goal-findingisoneofthecentralfunctionsofplanning,weshallshortlywanttoaskwhythatmustbeso

(157).”

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APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

(4November2011&23January2012)BR Fries Construction (General Contracting Company)Owner

(17November2011)New York City Department of Design & Construction SeniorPolicyAdvisor

(29November2011)New York City Transit AuthorityPrincipalEngineer

(6December2011)Group PMX (Construction Management)Owner

(13December2011)NYC Department of Design & ConstructionDirectorofSustainability

(7December2011)NYC Department of Sanitation DirectorofSpecialProjects:BureauofLongTermExport

(10January2012)Mayors Office of Long Term Planning & Sustainability UrbanFellow

(12January2012)Columbia Urban Planning Masters ‘08Author:ConstructionandDemolitionWasteinNewYorkCity:OvercomingtheBarrierstoIncreasedRecycling

(17January2012)Empire State Development CorporationEconomicDevelopmentSpecialist

(18January2012)NYC Department of City PlanningCityPlanner

(25January2012)Cooper Tank Recycling (C&D Transfer Station)GeneralManager

(26January2012)Gypsum Recycling USA CEO(30January2012)BR Fries Construction

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ProjectSuperintendent

(15February2012)Department of Sanitation (DSNY)DeputyDirector

(17February2012)NYC Department of Design & ConstructionProjectManager

(17February2012)Turner/STV ConstructionLEEDComplianceOfficer

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APPENDIX B: SAMPLE WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN (DDC)

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D D C – S A M P L E C & D W A S T E M A N A G E M E N T P L A N June 2003

SAMPLE WASTE MANAGEMENT PLAN

A sample C&D Waste Management Plan appears on the following pages. It indicates the topics to be covered and the type of information that would be appropriate. Dummy information has been included toillustrate the Plan.

S A M P L E W A S T E M A N A G E M E N T P L A N

This is a Sample Waste Management Plan. You may use this as a guide in developing your own.

Contractor: Very Best Construction Company Prepared May 1, 2003 / Revised July 3, 2003Project: Renovation/Addition to Big Building, Queens, N.Y.Designated Recycling Coordinator: Joe Doe

Waste Management Goals · This project will recycle, reuse or salvage at least 75%, by weight, of the waste generated on site.

Waste Prevention Measures · Five large rooms on the 1st Floor, near the service elevator, have been designated for storage of delivered

material and equipment until it is needed. These rooms are dry and lockable. Each Prime Contractor has been assigned one of these rooms.

· Reusable metal forms will be used for the concrete structural elements. · Each major vendor will be sent a letter requesting their cooperation in planning for minimal or take-back

packaging, and just-in-time delivery. The Recycling Coordinator will provide a draft letter to each PrimeContractor for their use.

· A mock-up of the ceiling, soffit, ductwork and lighting shown on detail xyz will be built for coordination and review before proceeding with this work.

Reuse and Salvage Items (Included on the chart below) · The paneled doors from the existing offices will be reused per the documents.· Excavation rock will be crushed and used as fill on site.· Shelving removed from the library will be donated to Dick and Jane School

Communication Plan · Waste prevention and recycling activities will be discussed at each job meeting.· The recycling coordinator will give each contractor and subcontractor a copy of the Waste Management Plan,

provide instruction in appropriate separation and handling procedures and show them the recycling areas. · Prime contractors will be expected to make sure that their workers comply with the Waste Management Plan.· All recycling containers will be labeled in English and Spanish, with acceptable / unacceptable materials posted.

Each sign will have a representative picture of the materials to be recycled.· If methods or container locations change during the course of the project, the Recycling Coordinator will notify

each contractor and subcontractor in writing.

Contamination Prevention Measures· Small roll-off containers convenient to work areas will be used; Very Best Contracting will periodically

consolidate the contents in the appropriate dumpsters. Garbage containers for non-recyclable materials will be located adjacent to recycling containers.

Sample Waste Management Plan1

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D D C – S A M P L E C & D W A S T E M A N A G E M E N T P L A N June 2003

If any containers are near the driveway, they will be securely covered when not supervised. An eating area has been designated on site, and workers will not be permitted to eat elsewhere in the building.

Documentation to be Provided

Recycling Reports; Weight tickets and receipts from companies listed below. Letter from Waste Corp., certifying the overall percentage of mixed C&D waste that they recycle.

EXPECTED PROJECT WASTE, DISPOSAL/RECYCLING/REUSE AND HANDLING Demolition Phase Percentage of material to be Recycled, Salvaged or Reused

Material Quantity %

Recycle/Salvage/Processing Company On-Site Handling Procedure

Concrete Recycle: XYZ Company Deposit in concrete bin. Rebar OK

Ceiling tile Recycle: Armstrong Industries Collect on pallets, each floor

Steel/Metals Recycle: NY Metals Deposit in metals container

Paneled Wood Doors Reuse per documents Collect in room A; Protect until reused

Library Shelving Salvage: Donate to Dick and Jane School

Remove in sections and store in room B for School pick-up

Mixed C&D waste 8 tons recycled 12 tons landfill

40% Sort/Disposal: Waste Corp. Deposit in general dumpster

Garbage/Other waste 0 Landfill Deposit in container X Construction Phase

Material Quantity %

Recycle/Salvage/Processing Company On-Site Handling Procedure

Excavated Rock Reuse on site as fill Collect for crushing by Inert Inc.

Cardboard packaging Recycle: Tri-State Paper Collect on each floor for bundling

Steel/Metals Recycle: NY Metals Deposit in metals container

Mixed C&D waste 4 tons recycled 6 tons landfill

40% Sort/Disposal: Waste Corp. Deposit in general dumpster

Garbage/Other waste 0 Landfill Deposit in container X

Summary – Expected C & D Waste and Diversion Rate Total C & D Waste x Tons Total waste expected to be generated in demo and construction

Total Recycled + y Tons Materials to be diverted from landfills, by salvage, reuse and recycling

Diversion Rate y/x % Percentage of project’s waste expected to be diverted from landfills

This Plan has been prepared with the knowledge and cooperation of the demolition subcontractor, DDD Demo, and the other Prime Contractors on the project: EEE Electrical Contracting; MMM Mechanical; and PPP Plumbing Ltd. Signed: _________________, Very Best Construction Company July 1, 2003

Sample Waste Management Plan 2