gustave lebon - the crowd

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The Crowd: A Study of the Popular MindLe Bon, Gustave

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About the print version

The Crowd: A Study of the Popular Mind Gustave Le Bon The 1acmillan Co.

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The Criminolo!y 4eries

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Checked a!ainst University of ir!inia library copy: 51 23* ",$ *3+%

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6ustave le 7on: 8b. 1ay 9' *3 * -- d. ;ec *$' *+$*< /note from Charles Keller0

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Published: 1896

En!lish nonfiction= prose T5E C>?@;

A STUDY OF THE POPULAR MIND

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T5E 1AC1I""A C?.*3+%

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T5E follo)in! )ork is devoted to an account of the characteristics of cro)ds.

The )hole of the common characteristics )ith )hich heredity endo)s the individuals of a raceconstitute the !enius of the race. @hen' ho)ever' a certain number of these individuals are !atheredto!ether in a cro)d for purposes of action' observation proves that' from the mere fact of their bein!assembled' there result certain ne) psycholo!ical characteristics' )hich are added to the racialcharacteristics and differ from them at times to a very considerable de!ree.

?r!anised cro)ds have al)ays played an important part in the life of peoples' but this part hasnever been of such moment as at present. The substitution of the unconscious action of cro)ds forthe conscious activity of individuals is one of the principal characteristics of the present a!e.

I have endeavoured to e#amine the difficult problem presented by cro)ds in a purely scientificmanner -- that is' by makin! an effort to proceed )ith method' and )ithout bein! influenced by

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opinions' theories' and doctrines. This' I believe' is the only mode of arrivin! at the discovery ofsome fe) particles of truth' especially )hen dealin!' as is the case here' )ith a Buestion that is thesub ect of impassioned controversy. A man of science bent on verifyin! a phenomenon is not calledupon to concern himself )ith the interests his verifications may hurt. In a recent publication aneminent thinker' 1. 6oblet dDAlviela' made the remark that' belon!in! to none of the contemporaryschools' I am occasionally found in opposition of sundry of the conclusions of all of them. I hopethis ne) )ork )ill merit a similar observation. To belon! to a school is necessarily to espouse its

pre udices and preconceived opinions.

4till I should e#plain to the reader )hy he )ill find me dra) conclusions from my investi!ations)hich it mi!ht be thou!ht at first si!ht they do not bear= )hy' for instance' after notin! the e#trememental inferiority of cro)ds' picked assemblies included' I yet affirm it )ould be dan!erous tomeddle )ith their or!anisation' not)ithstandin! this inferiority.

The reason is' that the most attentive observation of the facts of history has invariablydemonstrated to me that social or!anisms bein! every )hit as complicated as those of all bein!s' itis in no )ise in our po)er to force them to under!o on a sudden far-reachin! transformations.

ature has

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recourse at times to radical measures' but never after our fashion' )hich e#plains ho) it is that


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nothin! is more fatal to a people than the mania for !reat reforms' ho)ever e#cellent these reformsmay appear theoretically. They )ould only be useful )ere it possible to chan!e instantaneously the!enius of nations. This po)er' ho)ever' is only possessed by time. 1en are ruled by ideas'sentiments' and customs -- matters )hich are of the essence of ourselves. Institutions and la)s arethe out)ard manifestation of our character' the e#pression of its needs. 7ein! its outcome'institutions and la)s cannot chan!e this character.

The study of social phenomena cannot be separated from that of the peoples amon! )hom theyhave come into e#istence. rom the philosophic point of vie) these phenomena may have anabsolute value= in practice they have only a relative value.

It is necessary' in conseBuence' )hen studyin! a social phenomenon' to consider it successivelyunder t)o very different aspects. It )ill then be seen that the teachin!s of pure reason are very oftencontrary to those of practical reason. There are scarcely any data' even physical' to )hich thisdistinction is not applicable. rom the point of vie) of absolute truth a cube or a circle areinvariable !eometrical fi!ures' ri!orously defined by certain formulas. rom the point of vie) of theimpression

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they make on our eye these !eometrical fi!ures may assume very varied shapes. 7y perspective thecube may be transformed into a pyramid or a sBuare' the circle into an ellipse or a strai!ht line.1oreover' the consideration of these fictitious shapes is far more important than that of the realshapes' for it is they and they alone that )e see and that can be reproduced by photo!raphy or in

pictures. In certain cases there is more truth in the unreal than in the real. To present ob ects )iththeir e#act !eometrical forms )ould be to distort nature and render it unreco!nisable. If )e ima!inea )orld )hose inhabitants could only copy or photo!raph ob ects' but )ere unable to touch them' it)ould be very difficult for such persons to attain to an e#act idea of their form. 1oreover' thekno)led!e of this form' accessible only to a small number of learned men' )ould present but a veryminor interest.

The philosopher )ho studies social phenomena should bear in mind that side by side )ith theirtheoretical value they possess a practical value' and that this latter' so far as the evolution ofcivilisation is concerned' is alone of importance. The reco!nition of this fact should render him verycircumspect )ith re!ard to the conclusions that lo!ic )ould seem at first to enforce upon him.

There are other motives that dictate to him a like reserve. The comple#ity of social facts is

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such' that it is impossible to !rasp them as a )hole and to foresee the effects of their reciprocalinfluence. It seems' too' that behind the visible facts are hidden at times thousands of invisiblecauses. isible social phenomena appear to be the result of an immense' unconscious )orkin!' thatas a rule is beyond the reach of our analysis. erceptible phenomena may be compared to the)aves' )hich are the e#pression on the surface of the ocean of deep-lyin! disturbances of )hich )e

kno) nothin!. 4o far as the ma ority of their acts are considered' cro)ds display a sin!ularlyinferior mentality= yet there are other acts in )hich they appear to be !uided by those mysteriousforces )hich the ancients denominated destiny' nature' or providence' )hich )e call the voices of


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the dead' and )hose po)er it is impossible to overlook' althou!h )e i!nore their essence. It )ouldseem' at times' as if there )ere latent forces in the inner bein! of nations )hich serve to !uide them.@hat' for instance' can be more complicated' more lo!ical' more marvellous than a lan!ua!eF et)hence can this admirably or!anised production have arisen' e#cept it be the outcome of theunconscious !enius of cro)dsF The most learned academics' the most esteemed !rammarians cando no more than note do)n the la)s that !overn lan!ua!es= they )ould be utterly incapable of

creatin! them. Even )ith respect to the ideas of !reat men

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are )e certain that they are e#clusively the offsprin! of their brainsF o doubt such ideas areal)ays created by solitary minds' but is it not the !enius of cro)ds that has furnished the thousandsof !rains of dust formin! the soil in )hich they have sprun! upF

Cro)ds' doubtless' are al)ays unconscious' but this very unconsciousness is perhaps one of thesecrets of their stren!th. In the natural )orld bein!s e#clusively !overned by instinct accomplishacts )hose marvellous comple#ity astounds us. >eason is an attribute of humanity of too recent dateand still too imperfect to reveal to us the la)s of the unconscious' and still more to take its place.The part played by the unconscious in all our acts is immense' and that played by reason very small.The unconscious acts like a force still unkno)n.

If )e )ish' then' to remain )ithin the narro) but safe limits )ithin )hich science can attain tokno)led!e' and not to )ander in the domain of va!ue con ecture and vain hypothesis' all )e mustdo is simply to take note of such phenomena as are accessible to us' and confine ourselves to theirconsideration. Every conclusion dra)n from our observation is' as a rule' premature' for behind the

phenomena )hich )e see clearly are other phenomena that )e see indistinctly' and perhaps behindthese latter' yet others )hich )e do not see at all.

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CONTENTS.

I T>?;UCTI? .

THE ERA OF CRO DS!

7??K I.

THE MIND OF CRO DS!

C5A TE> I. A6E

6E E>A" C5A>ACTE>I4TIC4 ? C>?@;4 -- 4 C5?"?6ICA"


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"A@ ? T5EI> 1E TA" U IT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *

C5A TE> II.

T5E 4E TI1E T4 A ; 1?>A"IT ? C>?@;4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .*%

C5A TE> III.

T5E I;EA4' >EA4? I 6 ?@E>' A ; I1A6I ATI?

? C>?@;4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

C5A TE> I .

A >E"I6I?U4 45A E A44U1E; 7 A"" T5E C? ICTI? 4

? C>?@;4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .%2

-- --

7??K II.

THE OPINIONS AND "ELIEFS OF CRO DS!

C5A TE> I.

>E1?TE ACT?>4 ? T5E ? I I? 4 A ; 7E"IE 4

? C>?@;4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9&

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C5A TE> II. A6E

T5E I11E;IATE ACT?>4 ? T5E ? I I? 4 ?

C>?@;4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .+3

C5A TE> III.

T5E "EA;E>4 ? C>?@;4 A ; T5EI> 1EA 4 ?

E>4UA4I? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . **9

C5A TE> I .

"I1ITATI? 4 ? T5E A>IA7I"IT ? T5E 7E"IE 4


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A ; ? I I? 4 ? C>?@;4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * 9

-- --

7??K III.

THE CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF THE

DIFFERENT #INDS OF CRO DS!

C5A TE> I.

T5E C"A44I ICATI? ? C>?@;4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *%

C5A TE> II.

C>?@;4 TE>1E; C>I1I A" C>?@;4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *9*

C5A TE> III.

C>I1I A" GU>IE4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *93

C5A TE> I .

E"ECT?>A" C>?@;4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *3+

C5A TE> .

A>"IA1E TA> A44E17"IE4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2&$

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!NT"O#$CT!ON.THE ERA OF CROWDS.

The evolution of the present a!e -- The !reat chan!es in civilisation are the conseBuence ofchan!es in ational thou!ht -- 1odern belief in the po)er of cro)ds -- It transforms the traditional

policy of the European states -- 5o) the rise of the popular classes comes about' and the manner in)hich they e#ercise their po)er -- The necessary conseBuences of the po)er of the cro)d --Cro)ds unable to play a part other than destructive -- The dissolution of )orn-out civilisations isthe )ork of the cro)d -- 6eneral i!norance of the psycholo!y of cro)ds -- Importance of the studyof cro)ds for le!islators and statesmen.

T5E !reat upheavals )hich precede chan!es of civilisations such as the fall of the >oman Empireand the foundation of the Arabian Empire' seem at first si!ht determined more especially by

political transformations' forei!n invasion' or the overthro) of dynasties. 7ut a more attentive study


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of these events sho)s that behind their apparent causes the real cause is !enerally seen to be a

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profound modification in the ideas of the peoples. The true historical upheavals are not those )hichastonish us by their !randeur and violence. The only important chan!es )hence the rene)al ofcivilisations results' affect ideas' conceptions' and beliefs. The memorable events of history are thevisible effects of the invisible chan!es of human thou!ht. The reason these !reat events are so rareis that there is nothin! so stable in a race as the inherited !round)ork of its thou!hts.

The present epoch is one of these critical moments in )hich the thou!ht of mankind is under!oin!a process of transformation.

T)o fundamental factors are at the base of this transformation. The first is the destruction of thosereli!ious' political' and social beliefs in )hich all the elements of our civilisation are rooted. The

second is the creation of entirely ne) conditions of e#istence and thou!ht as the result of modernscientific and industrial discoveries.

The ideas of the past' althou!h half destroyed' bein! still very po)erful' and the ideas )hich areto replace them bein! still in process of formation' the modern a!e represents a period of transitionand anarchy.

It is not easy to say as yet )hat )ill one day be evolved from this necessarily some)hat chaotic period. @hat )ill be the fundamental ideas on

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)hich the societies that are to succeed our o)n )ill be built upF @e do not at present kno). 4till itis already clear that on )hatever lines the societies of the future are or!anised' they )ill have tocount )ith a ne) po)er' )ith the last survivin! soverei!n force of modern times' the po)er ofcro)ds. ?n the ruins of so many ideas formerly considered beyond discussion' and to-day decayedor decayin!' of so many sources of authority that successive revolutions have destroyed' this po)er')hich alone has arisen in their stead' seems soon destined to absorb the others. @hile all ourancient beliefs are totterin! and disappearin!' )hile the old pillars of society are !ivin! )ay one byone' the po)er of the cro)d is the only force that nothin! menaces' and of )hich the presti!e iscontinually on the increase. The a!e )e are about to enter )ill in truth be the E>A ? C>?@;4.

4carcely a century a!o the traditional policy of European states and the rivalries of soverei!ns)ere the principal factors that shaped events. The opinion of the masses scarcely counted' and mostfreBuently indeed did not count at all. To-day it is the traditions )hich used to obtain in politics' andthe individual tendencies and rivalries of rulers )hich do not count= )hile' on the contrary' the voiceof the masses has become preponderant. It is this voice that dictates their conduct to kin!s'

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)hose endeavour is to take note of its utterances. The destinies of nations are elaborated at present


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in the heart of the masses' and no lon!er in the councils of princes.

The entry of the popular classes into political life -- that is to say' in reality' their pro!ressivetransformation into !overnin! classes -- is one of the most strikin! characteristics of our epoch oftransition. The introduction of universal suffra!e' )hich e#ercised for a lon! time but littleinfluence' is not' as mi!ht be thou!ht' the distin!uishin! feature of this transference of political

po)er. The pro!ressive !ro)th of the po)er of the masses took place at first by the propa!ation ofcertain ideas' )hich have slo)ly implanted themselves in menDs minds' and after)ards by the!radual association of individuals bent on brin!in! about the realisation of theoretical conceptions.It is by association that cro)ds have come to procure ideas )ith respect to their interests )hich arevery clearly defined if not particularly ust' and have arrived at a consciousness of their stren!th.The masses are foundin! syndicates before )hich the authorities capitulate one after the other= theyare also foundin! labour unions' )hich in spite of all economic la)s tend to re!ulate the conditionsof labour and )a!es. They return to assemblies in )hich the 6overnment is vested' representativesutterly lackin! initiative and independence' and reduced most often to nothin! else

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than the spokesmen of the committees that have chosen them.

To-day the claims of the masses are becomin! more and more sharply defined' and amount tonothin! less than a determination to utterly destroy society as it no) e#ists' )ith a vie) to makin! ithark back to that primitive communism )hich )as the normal condition of all human !roups beforethe da)n of civilisation. "imitations of the hours of labour' the nationalisation of mines' rail)ays'factories' and the soil' the eBual distribution of all products' the elimination of all the upper classesfor the benefit of the popular classes' Hc.' such are these claims.

"ittle adapted to reasonin!' cro)ds' on the contrary' are Buick to act. As the result of their presentor!anisation their stren!th has become immense. The do!mas )hose birth )e are )itnessin! )illsoon have the force of the old do!mas= that is to say' the tyrannical and soverei!n force of bein!above discussion. The divine ri!ht of the masses is about to replace the divine ri!ht of kin!s.

The )riters )ho en oy the favour of our middle classes' those )ho best represent their rathernarro) ideas' their some)hat prescribed vie)s' their rather superficial scepticism' and their at timessome)hat e#cessive e!oism' display profound alarm at this ne) po)er )hich they see !ro)in!=and to combat

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the disorder in menDs minds they are addressin! despairin! appeals to those moral forces of theChurch for )hich they formerly professed so much disdain. They talk to us of the bankruptcy ofscience' !o back in penitence to >ome' and remind us of the teachin!s of revealed truth. These ne)converts for!et that it is too late. 5ad they been really touched by !race' a like operation could nothave the same influence on minds less concerned )ith the preoccupations )hich beset these recentadherents to reli!ion. The masses repudiate to-day the !ods )hich their admonishers repudiated

yesterday and helped to destroy. There is no po)er' ;ivine or human' that can obli!e a stream toflo) back to its source.

There has been no bankruptcy of science' and science has had no share in the present intellectual


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anarchy' nor in the makin! of the ne) po)er )hich is sprin!in! up in the midst of this anarchy.4cience promised us truth' or at least a kno)led!e of such relations as our intelli!ence can sei e: itnever promised us peace or happiness. 4overei!nly indifferent to our feelin!s' it is deaf to ourlamentations. It is for us to endeavour to live )ith science' since nothin! can brin! back theillusions it has destroyed.

Universal symptoms' visible in all nations' sho) us the rapid !ro)th of the po)er of cro)ds' anddo not admit of our supposin! that it is

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destined to cease !ro)in! at an early date. @hatever fate it may reserve for us' )e shall have tosubmit to it. All reasonin! a!ainst it is a mere vain )ar of )ords. Certainly it is possible that theadvent to po)er of the masses marks one of the last sta!es of @estern civilisation' a complete return

to those periods of confused anarchy )hich seem al)ays destined to precede the birth of every ne)society. 7ut may this result be preventedF

Up to no) these thorou!h!oin! destructions of a )orn-out civilisation have constituted the mostobvious task of the masses. It is not indeed to-day merely that this can be traced. 5istory tells us'that from the moment )hen the moral forces on )hich a civilisation rested have lost their stren!th'its final dissolution is brou!ht about by those unconscious and brutal cro)ds kno)n' ustifiablyenou!h' as barbarians. Civilisations as yet have only been created and directed by a smallintellectual aristocracy' never by cro)ds. Cro)ds are only po)erful for destruction. Their rule isal)ays tantamount to a barbarian phase. A civilisation involves fi#ed rules' discipline' a passin!from the instinctive to the rational state' forethou!ht for the future' an elevated de!ree of culture --all of them conditions that cro)ds' left to themselves' have invariably sho)n themselves incapableof realisin!. In conseBuence of the purely destructive nature of their po)er cro)ds act like thosemicrobes )hich

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hasten the dissolution of enfeebled or dead bodies. @hen the structure of a civilisation is rotten' it isal)ays the masses that brin! about its do)nfall. It is at such a uncture that their chief mission is

plainly visible' and that for a )hile the philosophy of number seems the only philosophy of history.

Is the same fate in store for our civilisationF There is !round to fear that this is the case' but )eare not as yet in a position to be certain of it.

5o)ever this may be' )e are bound to resi!n ourselves to the rei!n of the masses' since )ant offoresi!ht has in succession overthro)n all the barriers that mi!ht have kept the cro)d in check.

@e have a very sli!ht kno)led!e of these cro)ds )hich are be!innin! to be the ob ect of so muchdiscussion. rofessional students of psycholo!y' havin! lived far from them' have al)ays i!noredthem' and )hen' as of late' they have turned their attention in this direction it has only been toconsider the crimes cro)ds are capable of committin!. @ithout a doubt criminal cro)ds e#ist' butvirtuous and heroic cro)ds' and cro)ds of many other kinds' are also to be met )ith. The crimes ofcro)ds only constitute a particular phase of their psycholo!y. The mental constitution of cro)ds isnot to be learnt merely by a study of their crimes' any more than that of an individual by a meredescription of his vices.


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5o)ever' in point of fact' all the )orldDs masters' all the founders of reli!ions or empires' the

apostles of all beliefs' eminent statesmen' and' in a more modest sphere' the mere chiefs of small!roups of men have al)ays been unconscious psycholo!ists' possessed of an instinctive and oftenvery sure kno)led!e of the character of cro)ds' and it is their accurate kno)led!e of this characterthat has enabled them to so easily establish their mastery. apoleon had a marvellous insi!ht intothe psycholo!y of the masses of the country over )hich he rei!ned' but he' at times' completelymisunderstood the psycholo!y of cro)ds belon!in! to other races=

ote: J* and it is because he thus misunderstood it that he en!a!ed in 4pain' and notably in >ussia'in conflicts in )hich his po)er received blo)s )hich )ere destined )ithin a brief space of time toruin it. A kno)led!e of the psycholo!y of cro)ds is to-day the last resource of the statesman )ho)ishes not to !overn them -- that is becomin! a very difficult matter -- but at any rate not to be toomuch !overned by them.

J*

5is most subtle advisers' moreover' did not understand this psycholo!y any better. Talleyrand)rote him that L4pain )ould receive his soldiers as liberators.L It received them as beasts of prey. A

psycholo!ist acBuainted )ith the hereditary instincts of the 4panish race )ould have easily foreseenthis reception.

It is only by obtainin! some sort of insi!ht into the psycholo!y of cro)ds that it can beunderstood

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ho) sli!ht is the action upon them of la)s and institutions' ho) po)erless they are to hold anyopinions other than those )hich are imposed upon them' and that it is not )ith rules based ontheories of pure eBuity that they are to be led' but by seekin! )hat produces an impression on themand )hat seduces them. or instance' should a le!islator' )ishin! to impose a ne) ta#' choose that)hich )ould be theoretically the most ustF 7y no means. In practice the most un ust may be the

best for the masses. 4hould it at the same time be the least obvious' and apparently the least burdensome' it )ill be the most easily tolerated. It is for this reason that an indirect ta#' ho)ever

e#orbitant it be' )ill al)ays be accepted by the cro)d' because' bein! paid daily in fractions of afarthin! on ob ects of consumption' it )ill not interfere )ith the habits of the cro)d' and )ill passunperceived. >eplace it by a proportional ta# on )a!es or income of any other kind' to be paid in alump sum' and )ere this ne) imposition theoretically ten times less burdensome than the other' it)ould !ive rise to unanimous protest. This arises from the fact that a sum relatively hi!h' )hich)ill appear immense' and )ill in conseBuence strike the ima!ination' has been substituted for theunperceived fractions of a farthin!. The ne) ta# )ould only appear li!ht had it been saved farthin!

by farthin!' but this economic proceedin!

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involves an amount of foresi!ht of )hich the masses are incapable.

The e#ample )hich precedes is of the simplest. Its appositeness )ill be easily perceived. It did notescape the attention of such a psycholo!ist as apoleon' but our modern le!islators' i!norant asthey are of the characteristics of a cro)d' are unable to appreciate it. E#perience has not tau!htthem as yet to a sufficient de!ree that men never shape their conduct upon the teachin! of purereason.

1any other practical applications mi!ht be made of the psycholo!y of cro)ds. A kno)led!e ofthis science thro)s the most vivid li!ht on a !reat number of historical and economic phenomenatotally incomprehensible )ithout it. I shall have occasion to sho) that the reason )hy the mostremarkable of modern historians' Taine' has at times so imperfectly understood the events of the!reat rench >evolution is' that it never occurred to him to study the !enius of cro)ds. 5e took ashis !uide in the study of this complicated period the descriptive method resorted to by naturalists=

but the moral forces are almost absent in the case of the phenomena )hich naturalists have to study.et it is precisely these forces that constitute the true mainsprin!s of history.

In conseBuence' merely looked at from its practical side' the study of the psycholo!y of cro)ds

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deserved to be attempted. @ere its interest that resultin! from pure curiosity only' it )ould stillmerit attention. It is as interestin! to decipher the motives of the actions of men as to determine thecharacteristics of a mineral or a plant. ?ur study of the !enius of cro)ds can merely be a briefsynthesis' a simple summary of our investi!ations. othin! more must be demanded of it than a fe)su!!estive vie)s. ?thers )ill )ork the !round more thorou!hly. To-day )e only touch the surface

of a still almost vir!in soil.

-$-

BOO% !.THE M !D OF CROWDS.

C&'PTE" !."E!ERA# CHARACTER ST CS OF CROWDS. $$ P%SCHO#O" CA#

#AW OF THE R ME!TA# &! T%. @hat constitutes a cro)d from the psycholo!ical point of vie) -- A numerically stron!

a!!lomeration of individuals does not suffice to form a cro)d -- 4pecial characteristics of psycholo!ical cro)ds -- The turnin! in a fi#ed direction of the ideas and sentiments of individualscomposin! such a cro)d' and the disappearance of their personality -- The cro)d is al)aysdominated by considerations of )hich it is unconscious -- The disappearance of brain activity and


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the predominance of medullar activity -- The lo)erin! of the intelli!ence and the completetransformation of the sentiments -- The transformed sentiments may be better or )orse than those ofthe individuals of )hich the cro)d is composed -- A cro)d is as easily heroic as criminal.

I its ordinary sense the )ord Lcro)dL means a !atherin! of individuals of )hatever nationality' profession' or se#' and )hatever be the chances that have brou!ht them to!ether. rom the psycholo!ical point of vie) the e#pression

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Lcro)dL assumes Buite a different si!nification. Under certain !iven circumstances' and only underthose circumstances' an a!!lomeration of men presents ne) characteristics very different fromthose of the individuals composin! it. The sentiments and ideas of all the persons in the !atherin!take one and the same direction' and their conscious personality vanishes. A collective mind is

formed' doubtless transitory' but presentin! very clearly defined characteristics. The !atherin! hasthus become )hat' in the absence of a better e#pression' I )ill call an or!anised cro)d' or' if theterm is considered preferable' a psycholo!ical cro)d. It forms a sin!le bein!' and is sub ected to the&'( o) the *ent'& unit+ o) ,ro(-s .

It is evident that it is not by the mere fact of a number of individuals findin! themselvesaccidentally side by side that they acBuire the character of an or!anised cro)d. A thousandindividuals accidentally !athered in a public place )ithout any determined ob ect in no )ayconstitute a cro)d from the psycholo!ical point of vie). To acBuire the special characteristics ofsuch a cro)d' the influence is necessary of certain predisposin! causes of )hich )e shall have todetermine the nature.

The disappearance of conscious personality and the turnin! of feelin!s and thou!hts in a definite

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direction' )hich are the primary characteristics of a cro)d about to become or!anised' do notal)ays involve the simultaneous presence of a number of individuals on one spot. Thousands ofisolated individuals may acBuire at certain moments' and under the influence of certain violentemotions -- such' for e#ample' as a !reat national event -- the characteristics of a psycholo!ical

cro)d. It )ill be sufficient in that case that a mere chance should brin! them to!ether for their actsto at once assume the characteristics peculiar to the acts of a cro)d. At certain moments half ado en men mi!ht constitute a psycholo!ical cro)d' )hich may not happen in the case of hundredsof men !athered to!ether by accident. ?n the other hand' an entire nation' thou!h there may be novisible a!!lomeration' may become a cro)d under the action of certain influences.

A psycholo!ical cro)d once constituted' it acBuires certain provisional but determinable !eneralcharacteristics. To these !eneral characteristics there are ad oined particular characteristics )hichvary accordin! to the elements of )hich the cro)d is composed' and may modify its mentalconstitution. sycholo!ical cro)ds' then' are susceptible of classification= and )hen )e come tooccupy ourselves )ith this matter' )e shall see that a hetero!eneous cro)d -- that is' a cro)d

composed of dissimilar elements -- presents certain characteristics


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in common )ith homo!eneous cro)ds -- that is' )ith cro)ds composed of elements more or lessakin /sects' castes' and classes0 -- and side by side )ith these common characteristics particularities

)hich permit of the t)o kinds of cro)ds bein! differentiated.7ut before occupyin! ourselves )ith the different cate!ories of cro)ds' )e must first of all

e#amine the characteristics common to them all. @e shall set to )ork like the naturalist' )ho be!ins by describin! the !eneral characteristics common to all the members of a family before concernin!himself )ith the particular characteristics )hich allo) the differentiation of the !enera and speciesthat the family includes.

It is not easy to describe the mind of cro)ds )ith e#actness' because its or!anisation varies notonly accordin! to race and composition' but also accordin! to the nature and intensity of thee#citin! causes to )hich cro)ds are sub ected. The same difficulty' ho)ever' presents itself in the

psycholo!ical study of an individual. It is only in novels that individuals are found to traverse their

)hole life )ith an unvaryin! character. It is only the uniformity of the environment that creates theapparent uniformity of characters. I have sho)n else)here that all mental constitutions contain

possibilities of character )hich may be manifested in conseBuence of a sudden chan!e of

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environment. This e#plains ho) it )as that amon! the most sava!e members of the renchConvention )ere to be found inoffensive citi ens )ho' under ordinary circumstances' )ould have

been peaceable notaries or virtuous ma!istrates. The storm past' they resumed their normalcharacter of Buiet' la)-abidin! citi ens. apoleon found amon!st them his most docile servants.

It bein! impossible to study here all the successive de!rees of or!anisation of cro)ds' )e shallconcern ourselves more especially )ith such cro)ds as have attained to the phase of completeor!anisation. In this )ay )e shall see )hat cro)ds may become' but not )hat they invariably are. Itis only in this advanced phase of or!anisation that certain ne) and special characteristics aresuperposed on the unvaryin! and dominant character of the race= then takes place that turnin!already alluded to of all the feelin!s and thou!hts of the collectivity in an identical direction. It isonly under such circumstances' too' that )hat I have called above the ps+,ho&o1i,'& &'( o) the*ent'& unit+ o) ,ro(-s comes into play.

Amon! the psycholo!ical characteristics of cro)ds there are some that they may present incommon )ith isolated individuals' and others' on the contrary' )hich are absolutely peculiar tothem and are only to be met )ith in collectivities. It is

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these special characteristics that )e shall study' first of all' in order to sho) their importance.

The most strikin! peculiarity presented by a psycholo!ical cro)d is the follo)in!: @hoever bethe individuals that compose it' ho)ever like or unlike be their mode of life' their occupations' theircharacter' or their intelli!ence' the fact that they have been transformed into a cro)d puts them in


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possession of a sort of collective mind )hich makes them feel' think' and act in a manner Buitedifferent from that in )hich each individual of them )ould feel' think' and act )ere he in a state ofisolation. There are certain ideas and feelin!s )hich do not come into bein!' or do not transformthemselves into acts e#cept in the case of individuals formin! a cro)d. The psycholo!ical cro)d isa provisional bein! formed of hetero!eneous elements' )hich for a moment are combined' e#actlyas the cells )hich constitute a livin! body form by their reunion a ne) bein! )hich displays

characteristics very different from those possessed by each of the cells sin!ly.Contrary to an opinion )hich one is astonished to find comin! from the pen of so acute a

philosopher as 5erbert 4pencer' in the a!!re!ate )hich constitutes a cro)d there is in no sort asummin!-up of or an avera!e struck bet)een its elements. @hat really takes place is a combinationfollo)ed by the creation of ne) characteristics' ust as in

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chemistry certain elements' )hen brou!ht into contact -- bases and acids' for e#ample -- combine toform a ne) body possessin! properties Buite different from those of the bodies that have served toform it.

It is easy to prove ho) much the individual formin! part of a cro)d differs from the isolatedindividual' but it is less easy to discover the causes of this difference.

To obtain at any rate a !limpse of them it is necessary in the first place to call to mind the truthestablished by modern psycholo!y' that unconscious phenomena play an alto!ether preponderatin!

part not only in or!anic life' but also in the operations of the intelli!ence. The conscious life of themind is of small importance in comparison )ith its unconscious life. The most subtle analyst' the

most acute observer' is scarcely successful in discoverin! more than a very small number of theunconscious motives that determine his conduct. ?ur conscious acts are the outcome of anunconscious substratum created in the mind in the main by hereditary influences. This substratumconsists of the innumerable common characteristics handed do)n from !eneration to !eneration')hich constitute the !enius of a race. 7ehind the avo)ed causes of our acts there undoubtedly liesecret causes that )e do not avo)' but behind these secret causes there are many

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others more secret still )hich )e ourselves i!nore. The !reater part of our daily actions are theresult of hidden motives )hich escape our observation.

It is more especially )ith respect to those unconscious elements )hich constitute the !enius of arace that all the individuals belon!in! to it resemble each other' )hile it is principally in respect tothe conscious elements of their character -- the fruit of education' and yet more of e#ceptionalhereditary conditions -- that they differ from each other. 1en the most unlike in the matter of theirintelli!ence possess instincts' passions' and feelin!s that are very similar. In the case of every thin!that belon!s to the realm of sentiment -- reli!ion' politics' morality' the affections and antipathies'Hc. -- the most eminent men seldom surpass the standard of the most ordinary individuals. rom the

intellectual point of vie) an abyss may e#ist bet)een a !reat mathematician and his boot maker' butfrom the point of vie) of character the difference is most often sli!ht or non-e#istent.

It is precisely these !eneral Bualities of character' !overned by forces of )hich )e are


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unconscious' and possessed by the ma ority of the normal individuals of a race in much the samede!ree -- it is precisely these Bualities' I say' that in cro)ds become common property. In thecollective mind the intellectual aptitudes of the individuals' and in conseBuence their individuality'are )eakened. The

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hetero!eneous is s)amped by the homo!eneous' and the unconscious Bualities obtain the upperhand.

This very fact that cro)ds possess in common ordinary Bualities e#plains )hy they can neveraccomplish acts demandin! a hi!h de!ree of intelli!ence. The decisions affectin! matters of !eneralinterest come to by an assembly of men of distinction' but specialists in different )alks of life' arenot sensibly superior to the decisions that )ould be adopted by a !atherin! of imbeciles. The truth

is' they can only brin! to bear in common on the )ork in hand those mediocre Bualities )hich arethe birthri!ht of every avera!e individual. In cro)ds it is stupidity and not mother-)it that isaccumulated. It is not all the )orld' as is so often repeated' that has more )it than oltaire' butassuredly oltaire that has more )it than all the )orld' if by Lall the )orldL cro)ds are to beunderstood.

If the individuals of a cro)d confined themselves to puttin! in common the ordinary Bualities of)hich each of them has his share' there )ould merely result the strikin! of an avera!e' and not' as)e have said is actually the case' the creation of ne) characteristics. 5o) is it that these ne)characteristics are createdF This is )hat )e are no) to investi!ate.

;ifferent causes determine the appearance of

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these characteristics peculiar to cro)ds' and not possessed by isolated individuals. The first is thatthe individual formin! part of a cro)d acBuires' solely from numerical considerations' a sentimentof invincible po)er )hich allo)s him to yield to instincts )hich' had he been alone' he )ould

perforce have kept under restraint. 5e )ill be the less disposed to check himself from theconsideration that' a cro)d bein! anonymous' and in conseBuence irresponsible' the sentiment of

responsibility )hich al)ays controls individuals disappears entirely.The second cause' )hich is conta!ion' also intervenes to determine the manifestation in cro)ds of

their special characteristics' and at the same time the trend they are to take. Conta!ion is a phenomenon of )hich it is easy to establish the presence' but that it is not easy to e#plain. It must be classed amon! those phenomena of a hypnotic order' )hich )e shall shortly study. In a cro)devery sentiment and act is conta!ious' and conta!ious to such a de!ree that an individual readilysacrifices his personal interest to the collective interest. This is an aptitude very contrary to hisnature' and of )hich a man is scarcely capable' e#cept )hen he makes part of a cro)d.

A third cause' and by far the most important' determines in the individuals of a cro)d specialcharacteristics )hich are Buite contrary at times


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to those presented by the isolated individual. I allude to that su!!estibility of )hich' moreover' theconta!ion mentioned above is neither more nor less than an effect.

To understand this phenomenon it is necessary to bear in mind certain recent physiolo!icaldiscoveries. @e kno) to-day that by various processes an individual may be brou!ht into such acondition that' havin! entirely lost his conscious personality' he obeys all the su!!estions of theoperator )ho has deprived him of it' and commits acts in utter contradiction )ith his character andhabits. The most careful observations seem to prove that an individual immer!ed for some len!th oftime in a cro)d in action soon finds himself -- either in conseBuence of the ma!netic influence!iven out by the cro)d' or from some other cause of )hich )e are i!norant -- in a special state')hich much resembles the state of fascination in )hich the hypnotised individual finds himself inthe hands of the hypnotiser. The activity of the brain bein! paralysed in the case of the hypnotisedsub ect' the latter becomes the slave of all the unconscious activities of his spinal cord' )hich thehypnotiser directs at )ill. The conscious personality has entirely vanished= )ill and discernment are

lost. All feelin!s and thou!hts are bent in the direction determined by the hypnotiser.4uch also is appro#imately the state of the

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individual formin! part of a psycholo!ical cro)d. 5e is no lon!er conscious of his acts. In his case'as in the case of the hypnotised sub ect' at the same time that certain faculties are destroyed' othersmay be brou!ht to a hi!h de!ree of e#altation. Under the influence of a su!!estion' he )illundertake the accomplishment of certain acts )ith irresistible impetuosity. This impetuosity is themore irresistible in the case of cro)ds than in that of the hypnotised sub ect' from the fact that' thesu!!estion bein! the same for all the individuals of the cro)d' it !ains in stren!th by reciprocity.The individualities in the cro)d )ho mi!ht possess a personality sufficiently stron! to resist thesu!!estion are too fe) in number to stru!!le a!ainst the current. At the utmost' they may be able toattempt a diversion by means of different su!!estions. It is in this )ay' for instance' that a happye#pression' an ima!e opportunely evoked' have occasionally deterred cro)ds from the most

bloodthirsty acts.

@e see' then' that the disappearance of the conscious personality' the predominance of theunconscious personality' the turnin! by means of su!!estion and conta!ion of feelin!s and ideas in

an identical direction' the tendency to immediately transform the su!!ested ideas into acts= these')e see' are the principal characteristics of the individual formin! part of a cro)d. 5e is no lon!erhimself' but

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has become an automaton )ho has ceased to be !uided by his )ill.

1oreover' by the mere fact that he forms part of an or!anised cro)d' a man descends severalrun!s in the ladder of civilisation. Isolated' he may be a cultivated individual= in a cro)d' he is a barbarian -- that is' a creature actin! by instinct. 5e possesses the spontaneity' the violence' the


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ferocity' and also the enthusiasm and heroism of primitive bein!s' )hom he further tends toresemble by the facility )ith )hich he allo)s himself to be impressed by )ords and ima!es --)hich )ould be entirely )ithout action on each of the isolated individuals composin! the cro)d --and to be induced to commit acts contrary to his most obvious interests and his best-kno)n habits.An individual in a cro)d is a !rain of sand amid other !rains of sand' )hich the )ind stirs up at)ill.

It is for these reasons that uries are seen to deliver verdicts of )hich each individual uror )oulddisapprove' that parliamentary assemblies adopt la)s and measures of )hich each of their members)ould disapprove in his o)n person. Taken separately' the men of the Convention )ere enli!htenedciti ens of peaceful habits. United in a cro)d' they did not hesitate to !ive their adhesion to themost sava!e proposals' to !uillotine individuals most clearly innocent' and' contrary to theirinterests' to renounce their inviolability and to decimate themselves.

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It is not only by his acts that the individual in a cro)d differs essentially from himself. Even before he has entirely lost his independence' his ideas and feelin!s have under!one atransformation' and the transformation is so profound as to chan!e the miser into a spendthrift' thesceptic into a believer' the honest man into a criminal' and the co)ard into a hero. The renunciationof all its privile!es )hich the nobility voted in a moment of enthusiasm durin! the celebrated ni!htof Au!ust ' *93+' )ould certainly never have been consented to by any of its members takensin!ly.

The conclusion to be dra)n from )hat precedes is' that the cro)d is al)ays intellectually inferiorto the isolated individual' but that' from the point of vie) of feelin!s and of the acts these feelin!s

provoke' the cro)d may' accordin! to circumstances' he better or )orse than the individual. Alldepends on the nature of the su!!estion to )hich the cro)d is e#posed. This is the point that has been completely misunderstood by )riters )ho have only studied cro)ds from the criminal point ofvie). ;oubtless a cro)d is often criminal' but also it is often heroic. It is cro)ds rather than isolatedindividuals that may be induced to run the risk of death to secure the triumph of a creed or an idea'that may be fired )ith enthusiasm for !lory and honour' that are led on -- almost )ithout bread and)ithout arms' as in the

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a!e of the Crusades -- to deliver the tomb of Christ from the infidel' or' as in D+$' to defend thefatherland. 4uch heroism is )ithout doubt some)hat unconscious' but it is of such heroism thathistory is made. @ere peoples only to be credited )ith the !reat actions performed in cold blood'the annals of the )orld )ould re!ister but fe) of them.

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C&'PTE" !!.THE SE!T ME!TS A!D MORA# T% OF CROWDS.

M *. I*pu&siveness6 *obi&it+6 'n- irrit'bi&it+ o) ,ro(-s! The cro)d is at the mercy of all e#teriore#citin! causes' and reflects their incessant variations -- The impulses )hich the cro)d obeys are soimperious as to annihilate the feelin! of personal interest -- remeditation is absent from cro)ds --

>acial influence. M 2. Cro(-s 're ,re-u&ous 'n- re'-i&+ in)&uen,e- b+ su11estion! The obedience ofcro)ds to su!!estions -- The ima!es evoked in the mind of cro)ds are accepted by them as realities-- @hy these ima!es are identical for all the individuals composin! a cro)d -- The eBuality of theeducated and the i!norant man in a cro)d -- arious e#amples of the illusions to )hich theindividuals in a cro)d are sub ect -- The impossibility of accordin! belief to the testimony ofcro)ds -- The unanimity of numerous )itnesses is one of the )orst proofs that can be invoked toestablish a fact -- The sli!ht value of )orks of history. M $. The ex'11er'tion 'n- in1enuousness o)the senti*ents o) ,ro(-s! Cro)ds do not admit doubt or uncertainty' and al)ays !o to e#tremes --Their sentiments al)ays e#cessive. M . The into&er'n,e6 -i,t'tori'&ness6 'n- ,onserv'tis* o),ro(-s! The reasons of these sentiments -- The servility of cro)ds in the face of a stron! authority-- The

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momentary revolutionary instincts of cro)ds do not prevent them from bein! e#tremelyconservative -- Cro)ds instinctively hostile to chan!es and pro!ress. M ,. The *or'&it+ o) ,ro(-s!The morality of cro)ds' accordin! to the su!!estions under )hich they act' may be much lo)er ormuch hi!her than that of the individuals composin! them -- E#planation and e#amples -- Cro)dsrarely !uided by those considerations of interest )hich are most often the e#clusive motives of theisolated individual -- The moralisin! r7&e of cro)ds.

5A I 6 indicated in a !eneral )ay the principal characteristics of cro)ds' it remains to studythese characteristics in detail.

It )ill be remarked that amon! the special characteristics of cro)ds there are several -- such asimpulsiveness' irritability' incapacity to reason' the absence of ud!ment and of the critical spirit'the e#a!!eration of the sentiments' and others besides -- )hich are almost al)ays observed in

bein!s belon!in! to inferior forms of evolution -- in )omen' sava!es' and children' for instance.5o)ever' I merely indicate this analo!y in passin!= its demonstration is outside the scope of this)ork. It )ould' moreover' be useless for persons acBuainted )ith the psycholo!y of primitive

bein!s' and )ould scarcely carry conviction to those in i!norance of this matter.

I no) proceed to the successive consideration of the different characteristics that may be observedin the ma ority of cro)ds.

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( 1. !)P$LS!*ENESS, )OB!L!T+, 'N# !""!T'B!L!T+ O C"O-#S. @hen studyin! the fundamental characteristics of a cro)d )e stated that it is !uided almost


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e#clusively by unconscious motives. Its acts are far more under the influence of the spinal cord thanof the brain. In this respect a cro)d is closely akin to Buite primitive bein!s. The acts performedmay be perfect so far as their e#ecution is concerned' but as they are not directed by the brain' theindividual conducts himself accordin! as the e#citin! causes to )hich he is submitted may happento decide. A cro)d is at the mercy of all e#ternal e#citin! causes' and reflects their incessantvariations. It is the slave of the impulses )hich it receives. The isolated individual may be

submitted to the same e#citin! causes as the man in a cro)d' but as his brain sho)s him theinadvisability of yieldin! to them' he refrains from yieldin!. This truth may be physiolo!icallye#pressed by sayin! that the isolated individual possesses the capacity of dominatin! his refle#actions' )hile a cro)d is devoid of this capacity.

The varyin! impulses to )hich cro)ds obey may be' accordin! to their e#citin! causes' !enerousor cruel' heroic or co)ardly' but they )ill al)ays be so imperious that the interest of the individual'even the interest of self-preservation'

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)ill not dominate them. The e#citin! causes that may act on cro)ds bein! so varied' and cro)dsal)ays obeyin! them' cro)ds are in conseBuence e#tremely mobile. This e#plains ho) it is that )esee them pass in a moment from the most bloodthirsty ferocity to the most e#treme !enerosity andheroism. A cro)d may easily enact the part of an e#ecutioner' but not less easily that of a martyr. Itis cro)ds that have furnished the torrents of blood reBuisite for the triumph of every belief. It is notnecessary to !o back to the heroic a!es to see )hat cro)ds are capable of in this latter direction.They are never sparin! of their life in an insurrection' and not lon! since a !eneral'

ote: J2 becomin! suddenly popular' mi!ht easily have found a hundred thousand men ready to

sacrifice their lives for his cause had he demanded it.Any display of premeditation by cro)ds is in conseBuence out of the Buestion. They may be

animated in succession by the most contrary sentiments' but they )ill al)ays be under the influenceof the e#citin! causes of the moment. They are like the leaves )hich a tempest )hirls up andscatters in every direction and then allo)s to fall. @hen studyin! later on certain revolutionarycro)ds )e shall !ive some e#amples of the variability of their sentiments.

J2

ote:

6eneral 7oulan!er.

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This mobility of cro)ds renders them very difficult to !overn' especially )hen a measure of public authority has fallen into their hands. ;id not the necessities of everyday life constitute a sortof invisible re!ulator of e#istence' it )ould scarcely be possible for democracies to last. 4till'

thou!h the )ishes of cro)ds are fren ied they are not durable. Cro)ds are as incapable of )illin! asof thinkin! for any len!th of time.

A cro)d is not merely impulsive and mobile. "ike a sava!e' it is not prepared to admit that


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anythin! can come bet)een its desire and the realisation of its desire. It is the less capable ofunderstandin! such an intervention' in conseBuence of the feelin! of irresistible po)er !iven it byits numerical stren!th. The notion of impossibility disappears for the individual in a cro)d. Anisolated individual kno)s )ell enou!h that alone he cannot set fire to a palace or loot a shop' andshould he be tempted to do so' he )ill easily resist the temptation. 1akin! part of a cro)d' he isconscious of the po)er !iven him by number' and it is sufficient to su!!est to him ideas of murder

or pilla!e for him to yield immediately to temptation. An une#pected obstacle )ill be destroyed)ith fren ied ra!e. ;id the human or!anism allo) of the perpetuity of furious passion' it mi!ht besaid that the normal condition of a cro)d baulked in its )ishes is ust such a state of furious

passion.

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The fundamental characteristics of the race' )hich constitute the unvaryin! source from )hich all

our sentiments sprin!' al)ays e#ert an influence on the irritability of cro)ds' their impulsivenessand their mobility' as on all the popular sentiments )e shall have to study. All cro)ds are doubtlessal)ays irritable and impulsive' but )ith !reat variations of de!ree. or instance' the difference

bet)een a "atin and an An!lo-4a#on cro)d is strikin!. The most recent facts in rench historythro) a vivid li!ht on this point. The mere publication' t)enty-five years a!o' of a tele!ram'relatin! an insult supposed to have been offered an ambassador' )as sufficient to determine ane#plosion of fury' )hence follo)ed immediately a terrible )ar. 4ome years later the tele!raphicannouncement of an insi!nificant reverse at "an!son provoked a fresh e#plosion )hich brou!htabout the instantaneous overthro) of the !overnment. At the same moment a much more seriousreverse under!one by the En!lish e#pedition to Khartoum produced only a sli!ht emotion inEn!land' and no ministry )as overturned. Cro)ds are every)here distin!uished by feminine

characteristics' but "atin cro)ds are the most feminine of all. @hoever trusts in them may rapidlyattain a lofty destiny' but to do so is to be perpetually skirtin! the brink of a Tarpeian rock' )ith thecertainty of one day bein! precipitated from it.

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( . T&E S$GGEST!B!L!T+ 'N# C"E#$L!T+ O C"O-#S. @hen definin! cro)ds' )e said that one of their !eneral characteristics )as an e#cessivesu!!estibility' and )e have sho)n to )hat an e#tent su!!estions are conta!ious in every humana!!lomeration= a fact )hich e#plains the rapid turnin! of the sentiments of a cro)d in a definitedirection. 5o)ever indifferent it may be supposed' a cro)d' as a rule' is in a state of e#pectantattention' )hich renders su!!estion easy. The first su!!estion formulated )hich arises implantsitself immediately by a process of conta!ion in the brains of all assembled' and the identical bent ofthe sentiments of the cro)d is immediately an accomplished fact.

As is the case )ith all persons under the influence of su!!estion' the idea )hich has entered the brain tends to transform itself into an act. @hether the act is that of settin! fire to a palace' orinvolves self-sacrifice' a cro)d lends itself to it )ith eBual facility. All )ill depend on the nature ofthe e#citin! cause' and no lon!er' as in the case of the isolated individual' on the relations e#istin!


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bet)een the act su!!ested and the sum total of the reasons )hich may be ur!ed a!ainst itsrealisation.

In conseBuence' a cro)d perpetually hoverin! on the borderland of unconsciousness' readilyyieldin! to all su!!estions' havin! all the violence

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of feelin! peculiar to bein!s )ho cannot appeal to the influence of reason' deprived of all criticalfaculty' cannot be other)ise than e#cessively credulous. The improbable does not e#ist for a cro)d'and it is necessary to bear this circumstance )ell in mind to understand the facility )ith )hich arecreated and propa!ated the most improbable le!ends and stories.

ote: J$

J$

ote:

ersons )ho )ent throu!h the sie!e of aris sa) numerous e#amples of this credulity of cro)ds.A candle ali!ht in an upper story )as immediately looked upon as a si!nal !iven the besie!ers'althou!h it )as evident' after a moment of reflection' that it )as utterly impossible to catch si!ht ofthe li!ht of the candle at a distance of several miles.

The creation of the le!ends )hich so easily obtain circulation in cro)ds is not solely theconseBuence of their e#treme credulity. It is also the result of the prodi!ious perversions that eventsunder!o in the ima!ination of a thron!. The simplest event that comes under the observation of a

cro)d is soon totally transformed. A cro)d thinks in ima!es' and the ima!e itself immediately callsup a series of other ima!es' havin! no lo!ical connection )ith the first. @e can easily conceive thisstate by thinkin! of the fantastic succession of ideas to )hich )e are sometimes led by callin! up inour minds any fact. ?ur reason sho)s us the incoherence there is in these ima!es' but a cro)d isalmost blind

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to this truth' and confuses )ith the real event )hat the deformin! action of its ima!ination hassuperimposed thereon. A cro)d scarcely distin!uishes bet)een the sub ective and the ob ective. Itaccepts as real the ima!es evoked in its mind' thou!h they most often have only a very distantrelation )ith the observed fact.

The )ays in )hich a cro)d perverts any event of )hich it is a )itness ou!ht' it )ould seem' to beinnumerable and unlike each other' since the individuals composin! the !atherin! are of verydifferent temperaments. 7ut this is not the case. As the result of conta!ion the perversions are of thesame kind' and take the same shape in the case of all the assembled individuals.

The first perversion of the truth effected by one of the individuals of the !atherin! is the startin!- point of the conta!ious su!!estion. 7efore 4t. 6eor!e appeared on the )alls of Gerusalem to all the

Crusaders he )as certainly perceived in the first instance by one of those present. 7y dint ofsu!!estion and conta!ion the miracle si!nalised by a sin!le person )as immediately accepted byall.


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4uch is al)ays the mechanism of the collective hallucinations so freBuent in history --hallucinations )hich seem to have all the reco!nised characteristics of authenticity' since they are

phenomena observed by thousands of persons.

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To combat )hat precedes' the mental Buality of the individuals composin! a cro)d must not be brou!ht into consideration. This Buality is )ithout importance. rom the moment that they form part of a cro)d the learned man and the i!noramus are eBually incapable of observation.

This thesis may seem parado#ical. To demonstrate it beyond doubt it )ould be necessary toinvesti!ate a !reat number of historical facts' and several volumes )ould be insufficient for the

purpose.

4till' as I do not )ish to leave the reader under the impression of unproved assertions' I shall !ivehim some e#amples taken at ha ard from the immense number of those that mi!ht be Buoted.

The follo)in! fact is one of the most typical' because chosen from amon! collectivehallucinations of )hich a cro)d is the victim' in )hich are to be found individuals of every kind'from the most i!norant to the most hi!hly educated. It is related incidentally by Gulian eli#' a navallieutenant' in his book on L4ea Currents'L and has been previously cited by the Revue S,ienti9ue!

The fri!ate' the "e&&e Pou&e' )as cruisin! in the open sea for the purpose of findin! the cruiser Le "er,e'u ' from )hich she had been separated by a violent storm. It )as broad dayli!ht and in fullsunshine. 4uddenly the )atch si!nalled a disabled

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vessel= the cre) looked in the direction si!nalled' and every one' officers and sailors' clearly perceived a raft covered )ith men to)ed by boats )hich )ere displayin! si!nals of distress. et this)as nothin! more than a collective hallucination. Admiral ;esfosses lo)ered a boat to !o to therescue of the )recked sailors. ?n nearin! the ob ect si!hted' the sailors and officers on board the

boat sa) Lmasses of men in motion' stretchin! out their hands' and heard the dull and confusednoise of a !reat number of voices.L @hen the ob ect )as reached those in the boat found themselvessimply and solely in the presence of a fe) branches of trees covered )ith leaves that had been

s)ept out from the nei!hbourin! coast. 7efore evidence so palpable the hallucination vanished.The mechanism of a collective hallucination of the kind )e have e#plained is clearly seen at )ork

in this e#ample. ?n the one hand )e have a cro)d in a state of e#pectant attention' on the other asu!!estion made by the )atch si!nallin! a disabled vessel at sea' a su!!estion )hich' by a processof conta!ion' )as accepted by all those present' both officers and sailors.

It is not necessary that a cro)d should be numerous for the faculty of seein! )hat is takin! place before its eyes to be destroyed and for the real facts to be replaced by hallucinations unre

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lated to them. As soon as a fe) individuals are !athered to!ether they constitute a cro)d' and'thou!h they should be distin!uished men of learnin!' they assume all the characteristics of cro)ds)ith re!ard to matters outside their speciality. The faculty of observation and the critical spirit

possessed by each of them individually at once disappears. An in!enious psycholo!ist' 1r. ;avey'supplies us )ith a very curious e#ample in point' recently cited in the Ann'&es -es S,ien,es

Ps+,hi9ues ' and deservin! of relation here. 1r. ;avey' havin! convoked a !atherin! of

distin!uished observers' amon! them one of the most prominent of En!lish scientific men' 1r.@allace' e#ecuted in their presence' and after havin! allo)ed them to e#amine the ob ects and to

place seals )here they )ished' all the re!ulation spiritualistic phenomena' the materialisation ofspirits' )ritin! on slates' Hc. 5avin! subseBuently obtained from these distin!uished observers)ritten reports admittin! that the phenomena observed could only have been obtained bysupernatural means' he revealed to them that they )ere the result of very simple tricks. LThe mostastonishin! feature of 1onsieur ;aveyDs investi!ation'L )rites the author of this account' Lis not themarvellousness of the tricks themselves' but the e#treme )eakness of the reports made )ith respectto them by the non

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initiated )itnesses. It is clear' then'L he says' Lthat )itnesses even in number may !ivecircumstantial relations )hich are completely erroneous' but )hose result is th't6 i) their-es,riptions 're ',,epte- 's ex',t ' the phenomena they describe are ine#plicable by trickery. Themethods invented by 1r. ;avey )ere so simple that one is astonished that he should have had the

boldness to employ them= but he had such a po)er over the mind of the cro)d that he could persuade it that it sa) )hat it did not see.L 5ere' as al)ays' )e have the po)er of the hypnotiserover the hypnotised. 1oreover' )hen this po)er is seen in action on minds of a superior order and

previously invited to be suspicious' it is understandable ho) easy it is to deceive ordinary cro)ds.

Analo!ous e#amples are innumerable. As I )rite these lines the papers are full of the story of t)olittle !irls found dro)ned in the 4eine. These children' to be!in )ith' )ere reco!nised in the mostunmistakable manner by half a do en )itnesses. All the affirmations )ere in such entireconcordance that no doubt remained in the mind of the :u1e -;instru,tion! 5e had the certificate ofdeath dra)n up' but ust as the burial of the children )as to have been proceeded )ith' a merechance brou!ht about the discovery that the supposed victims )ere alive' and had' moreover' but aremote resemblance to the dro)ned

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!irls. As in several of the e#amples previously cited' the affirmation of the first )itness' himself avictim of illusion' had sufficed to influence the other )itnesses.

In parallel cases the startin!-point of the su!!estion is al)ays the illusion produced in anindividual by more or less va!ue reminiscences' conta!ion follo)in! as the result of the affirmationof this initial illusion. If the first observer be very impressionable' it )ill often be sufficient that thecorpse he believes he reco!nises should present -- apart from all real resemblance -- some

peculiarity' a scar' or some detail of toilet )hich may evoke the idea of another person. The ideaevoked may then become the nucleus of a sort of crystallisation )hich invades the understandin!and paralyses all critical faculty. @hat the observer then sees is no lon!er the ob ect itself' but the


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ima!e-evoked in his mind. In this )ay are to be e#plained erroneous reco!nitions of the dead bodiesof children by their o)n mother' as occurred in the follo)in! case' already old' but )hich has beenrecently recalled by the ne)spapers. In it are to be traced precisely the t)o kinds of su!!estion of)hich I have ust pointed out the mechanism.

LThe child )as reco!nised by another child' )ho )as mistaken. The series of un)arrantedreco!nitions then be!an.

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LAn e#traordinary thin! occurred. The day after a schoolboy had reco!nised the corpse a )omane#claimed' N6ood 5eavens' it is my childOD

L4he )as taken up to the corpse= she e#amined the clothin!' and noted a scar on the forehead. NItis certainly'D she said' Nmy son )ho disappeared last Guly. 5e has been stolen from me andmurdered.D

LThe )oman )as ,on,ier1e in the >ue du our= her name )as Chavandret. 5er brother-in-la))as summoned' and )hen Buestioned he said' NThat is the little ilibert.D 4everal persons livin! inthe street reco!nised the child found at "a illette as ilibert Chavandret' amon! them bein! the

boyDs schoolmaster' )ho based his opinion on a medal )orn by the lad.

L evertheless' the nei!hbours' the brother-in-la)' the schoolmaster' and the mother )eremistaken. 4i# )eeks later the identity of the child )as established. The boy' belon!in! to 7ordeau#'had been murdered there and brou!ht by a carryin! company to aris.L

ote: J

J

ote:

L;E,&'ir ' April 2*' *3+,.

It )ill be remarked that these reco!nitions are most often made by )omen and children -- that isto say' by precisely the most impressionable persons. They sho) us at the same time )hat is the

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)orth in la) courts of such )itnesses. As far as children' more especially' are concerned' theirstatements ou!ht never to be invoked. 1a!istrates are in the habit of repeatin! that children do notlie. ;id they possess a psycholo!ical culture a little less rudimentary than is the case they )ouldkno) that' on the contrary' children invariably lie= the lie is doubtless innocent' but it is none theless a lie. It )ould be better to decide the fate of an accused person by the toss of a coin than' as has

been so often done' by the evidence of a child.

To return to the faculty of observation possessed by cro)ds' our conclusion is that their collectiveobservations are as erroneous as possible' and that most often they merely represent the illusion ofan individual )ho' by a process of conta!ion' has su!!estioned his fello)s. acts provin! that themost utter mistrust of the evidence of cro)ds is advisable mi!ht be multiplied to any e#tent.Thousands of men )ere present t)enty-five years a!o at the celebrated cavalry char!e durin! the

battle of 4edan' and yet it is impossible' in the face of the most contradictory ocular testimony' to


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decide by )hom it )as commanded. The En!lish !eneral' "ord @olseley' has proved in a recent book that up to no) the !ravest errors of fact have been committed )ith re!ard to the mostimportant incidents of the battle of @aterloo --

-.%-

facts that hundreds of )itnesses had nevertheless attested. ote: J,

J,

ote:

;o )e kno) in the case of one sin!le battle e#actly ho) it took placeF I am very doubtful on the point. @e kno) )ho )ere the conBuerors and the conBuered' but this is probably all. @hat 1.;D5arcourt has said )ith respect to the battle of 4olferino' )hich he )itnessed and in )hich he )as

personally en!a!ed' may be applied to all battles -- LThe !enerals /informed' of course' by theevidence of hundreds of )itnesses0 for)ard their official reports= the orderly officers modify thesedocuments and dra) up a definite narrative= the chief of the staff raises ob ections and re )rites the )hole on a fresh basis. It is carried to the 1arshal' )ho e#claims' N ou are entirely in error'D andhe substitutes a fresh edition. 4carcely anythin! remains of the ori!inal report.L 1. ;D5arcourtrelates this fact as proof of the impossibility of establishin! the truth in connection )ith the moststrikin!' the best observed events.

4uch facts sho) us )hat is the value of the testimony of cro)ds. Treatises on lo!ic include theunanimity of numerous )itnesses in the cate!ory of the stron!est proofs that can be invoked insupport of the e#actness of a fact. et )hat )e kno) of the psycholo!y of cro)ds sho)s thattreatises on lo!ic need on this point to be re)ritten. The events )ith re!ard to )hich there e#ists themost doubt are certainly those )hich have been observed by the !reatest number of persons. To saythat a fact has been simultaneously verified by thousands of )itnesses is to say' as a rule' that thereal fact is very different from the accepted account of it.

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It clearly results from )hat precedes that )orks of history must be considered as )orks of pureima!ination. They are fanciful accounts of ill-observed facts' accompanied by e#planations theresult of reflection. To )rite such books is the most absolute )aste of time. 5ad not the past left usits literary' artistic' and monumental )orks' )e should kno) absolutely nothin! in reality )ithre!ard to by!one times. Are )e in possession of a sin!le )ord of truth concernin! the lives of the!reat men )ho have played preponderatin! parts in the history of humanity -- men such as5ercules' 7uddha' or 1ahometF In all probability )e are not. In point of fact' moreover' their reallives are of sli!ht importance to us. ?ur interest is to kno) )hat our !reat men )ere as they are

presented by popular le!end. It is le!endary heroes' and not for a moment real heroes' )ho haveimpressed the minds of cro)ds.

Unfortunately' le!ends -- even althou!h they have been definitely put on record by books -- havein themselves no stability. The ima!ination of the cro)d continually transforms them as the result ofthe lapse of time and especially in conseBuence of racial causes. There is a !reat !ulf fi#ed bet)eenthe san!uinary Gehovah of the ?ld Testament and the 6od of "ove of 4ainte ThPrQse' and the


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7uddha )orshipped in China has no traits in common )ith that venerated in India.

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It is not even necessary that heroes should be separated from us by centuries for their le!end to betransformed by the ima!ination of the cro)d. The transformation occasionally takes place )ithin afe) years. In our o)n day )e have seen the le!end of one of the !reatest heroes of history modifiedseveral times in less than fifty years. Under the 7ourbons apoleon became a sort of idyllic andliberal philanthropist' a friend of the humble )ho' accordin! to the poets' )as destined to be lon!remembered in the cotta!e. Thirty years after)ards this easy-!oin! hero had become a san!uinarydespot' )ho' after havin! usurped po)er and destroyed liberty' caused the slau!hter of three millionmen solely to satisfy his ambition. At present )e are )itnessin! a fresh transformation of thele!end. @hen it has under!one the influence of some do ens of centuries the learned men of thefuture' face to face )ith these contradictory accounts' )ill perhaps doubt the very e#istence of the

hero' as some of them no) doubt that of 7uddha' and )ill see in him nothin! more than a solarmyth or a development of the le!end of 5ercules. They )ill doubtless console themselves easily forthis uncertainty' for' better initiated than )e are to-day in the characteristics and psycholo!y ofcro)ds' they )ill kno) that history is scarcely capable of preservin! the memory of anythin!e#cept myths.

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( /. T&E E0'GGE"'T!ON 'N# !NGEN$O$SNESSO T&E SENT!)ENTS O C"O-#S.

@hether the feelin!s e#hibited by a cro)d be !ood or bad' they present the double character of bein! very simple and very e#a!!erated. ?n this point' as on so many others' an individual in acro)d resembles primitive bein!s. Inaccessible to fine distinctions' he sees thin!s as a )hole' and is

blind to their intermediate phases. The e#a!!eration of the sentiments of a cro)d is hei!htened bythe fact that any feelin! )hen once it is e#hibited communicatin! itself very Buickly by a process of

su!!estion and conta!ion' the evident approbation of )hich it is the ob ect considerably increasesits force.

The simplicity and e#a!!eration of the sentiments of cro)ds have for result that a thron! kno)sneither doubt nor uncertainty. "ike )omen' it !oes at once to e#tremes. A suspicion transforms itselfas soon as announced into incontrovertible evidence. A commencement of antipathy ordisapprobation' )hich in the case of an isolated individual )ould not !ain stren!th' becomes at oncefurious hatred in the case of an individual in a cro)d.

The violence of the feelin!s of cro)ds is also increased' especially in hetero!eneous cro)ds' bythe absence of all sense of responsibility. The

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certainty of impunity' a certainty the stron!er as the cro)d is more numerous' and the notion of aconsiderable momentary force due to number' make possible in the case of cro)ds sentiments andacts impossible for the isolated individual. In cro)ds the foolish' i!norant' and envious persons arefreed from the sense of their insi!nificance and po)erlessness' and are possessed instead by the

notion of brutal and temporary but immense stren!th.Unfortunately' this tendency of cro)ds to)ards e#a!!eration is often brou!ht to bear upon bad

sentiments. These sentiments are atavistic residuum of the instincts of the primitive man' )hich thefear of punishment obli!es the isolated and responsible individual to curb. Thus it is that cro)ds areso easily led into the )orst e#cesses.

4till this does not mean that cro)ds' skilfully influenced' are not capable of heroism and devotionand of evincin! the loftiest virtues= they are even more capable of sho)in! these Bualities than theisolated individual. @e shall soon have occasion to revert to this point )hen )e come to study themorality of cro)ds.

6iven to e#a!!eration in its feelin!s' a cro)d is only impressed by e#cessive sentiments. Anorator )ishin! to move a cro)d must make an abusive use of violent affirmations. To e#a!!erate' toaffirm' to resort to repetitions' and never to attempt to prove anythin! by reasonin! are methods of

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ar!ument )ell kno)n to speakers at public meetin!s.

1oreover' a cro)d e#acts a like e#a!!eration in the sentiments of its heroes. Their apparentBualities and virtues must al)ays be amplified. It has been ustly remarked that on the sta!e a cro)ddemands from the hero of the piece a de!ree of coura!e' morality' and virtue that is never to befound in real life.

Ruite ri!htly importance has been laid on the special standpoint from )hich matters are vie)ed inthe theatre. 4uch a standpoint e#ists no doubt' but its rules for the most part have nothin! to do )ithcommon sense and lo!ic. The art of appealin! to cro)ds is no doubt of an inferior order' but itdemands Buite special aptitudes. It is often impossible on readin! plays to e#plain their success.1ana!ers of theatres )hen acceptin! pieces are themselves' as a rule' very uncertain of theirsuccess' because to ud!e the matter it )ould be necessary that they should be able to transformthemselves into a cro)d.

ote: J%J%

ote:

It is understandable for this reason )hy it sometimes happens that pieces refused by all theatricalmana!ers obtain a prodi!ious success )hen by a stroke of chance they are put on the sta!e. Therecent success of rancois CoppPeDs play L our la CouronneL is )ell kno)n' and yet' in spite of thename of its author' it )as refused durin! ten years by the mana!ers of the principal arisiantheatres.

LCharleyDs Aunt'L refused at every theatre' and finally sta!ed at the e#pense of a stockbroker' hashad t)o hundred representations in rance' and more than a thousand in "ondon. @ithout thee#planation !iven above of the impossibility for theatrical mana!ers to mentally substitute


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themselves for a cro)d' such mistakes in ud!ment on the part of competent individuals' )ho aremost interested not to commit such !rave blunders' )ould be ine#plicable. This is a sub ect that Icannot deal )ith here' but it mi!ht )orthily tempt the pen of a )riter acBuainted )ith theatricalmatters' and at the same time a subtle psycholo!ist -- of such a )riter' for instance' as 1.rancisBue 4arcey.

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5ere' once more' )ere )e able to embark on more e#tensive e#planations' )e should sho) the preponderatin! influence of racial considerations. A play )hich provokes the enthusiasm of thecro)d in one country has sometimes no success in another' or has only a partial and conventionalsuccess' because it does not put in operation influences capable of )orkin! on an altered public.

I need not add that the tendency to e#a!!eration in cro)ds is only present in the case ofsentiments and not at all in the matter of intelli!ence. I have already sho)n that' by the mere factthat an individual forms part of a cro)d' his intellectual standard is immediately and considerablylo)ered. A learned ma!istrate' 1. Tarde' has also verified this fact in his researches on the crimes ofcro)ds. It is only' then' )ith respect to sentiment that cro)ds can rise to a very hi!h or' on thecontrary' descend to a very lo) level.

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( . T&E !NTOLE"'NCE, #!CT'TO"!'LNESS'N# CONSE"*'T!S) O C"O-#S.

Cro)ds are only co!nisant of simple and e#treme sentiments= the opinions' ideas' and beliefssu!!ested to them are accepted or re ected as a )hole' and considered as absolute truths or as notless absolute errors. This is al)ays the case )ith beliefs induced by a process of su!!estion insteadof en!endered by reasonin!. Every one is a)are of the intolerance that accompanies reli!ious

beliefs' and of the despotic empire they e#ercise on menDs minds.

7ein! in doubt as to )hat constitutes truth or error' and havin!' on the other hand' a clear notionof its stren!th' a cro)d is as disposed to !ive authoritative effect to its inspirations as it is intolerant.An individual may accept contradiction and discussion= a cro)d )ill never do so. At publicmeetin!s the sli!htest contradiction on the part of an orator is immediately received )ith ho)ls offury and violent invective' soon follo)ed by blo)s' and e#pulsion should the orator stick to his

point. @ithout the restrainin! presence of the representatives of authority the contradictor' indeed')ould often be done to death.

;ictatorialness and intolerance are common to all cate!ories of cro)ds' but they are met )ith in avaryin! de!ree of intensity. 5ere' once more' reappears that fundamental notion of race )hich


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dominates all the feelin!s and all the thou!hts of men. It is more especially in "atin cro)ds thatauthoritativeness and intolerance are found developed in the hi!hest measure. In fact' theirdevelopment is such in cro)ds of "atin ori!in that they have entirely destroyed that sentiment of the

independence of the individual so po)erful in the An!lo-4a#on. "atin cro)ds are only concerned)ith the collective independence of the sect to )hich they belon!' and the characteristic feature oftheir conception of independence is the need they e#perience of brin!in! those )ho are indisa!reement )ith themselves into immediate and violent sub ection to their beliefs. Amon! the"atin races the Gacobins of every epoch' from those of the InBuisition do)n)ards' have never beenable to attain to a different conception of liberty.

Authoritativeness and intolerance are sentiments of )hich cro)ds have a very clear notion' )hichthey easily conceive and )hich they entertain as readily as they put them in practice )hen once theyare imposed upon them. Cro)ds e#hibit a docile respect for force' and are but sli!htly impressed bykindness' )hich for them is scarcely other than a form of )eakness. Their sympathies have never

been besto)ed on easy-!oin! masters' but on tyrants )ho vi!orously oppressed them. It is to theselatter that they al)ays erect the loftiest statues.

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It is true that they )illin!ly trample on the despot )hom they have stripped of his po)er' but it is because' havin! lost his stren!th' he has resumed his place amon! the feeble' )ho are to be despised because they are not to be feared. The type of hero dear to cro)ds )ill al)ays have the semblance

of a Caesar. 5is insi!nia attracts them' his authority overa)es them' and his s)ord instils them )ithfear.

A cro)d is al)ays ready to revolt a!ainst a feeble' and to bo) do)n servilely before a stron!authority. 4hould the stren!th of an authority be intermittent' the cro)d' al)ays obedient to itse#treme sentiments' passes alternately from anarchy to servitude' and from servitude to anarchy.

5o)ever' to believe in the predominance amon! cro)ds of revolutionary instincts )ould be toentirely misconstrue their psycholo!y. It is merely their tendency to violence that deceives us onthis point. Their rebellious and destructive outbursts are al)ays very transitory. Cro)ds are toomuch !overned by unconscious considerations' and too much sub ect in conseBuence to secularhereditary influences not to be e#tremely conservative. Abandoned to themselves' they soon )eary

of disorder' and instinctively turn to servitude. It )as the proudest and most untractable of theGacobins )ho acclaimed 7onaparte )ith

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!reatest ener!y )hen he suppressed all liberty and made his hand of iron severely felt.

It is difficult to understand history' and popular revolutions in particular' if one does not take

sufficiently into account the profoundly conservative instincts of cro)ds. They may be desirous' itis true' of chan!in! the names of their institutions' and to obtain these chan!es they accomplish attimes even violent revolutions' but the essence of these institutions is too much the e#pression of


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the hereditary needs of the race for them not invariably to abide by it. Their incessant mobility onlye#erts its influence on Buite superficial matters. In fact they possess conservative instincts asindestructible as those of all primitive bein!s. Their fetish like respect for all traditions is absolute=their unconscious horror of all novelty capable of chan!in! the essential conditions of theire#istence is very deeply rooted. 5ad democracies possessed the po)er they )ield to-day at the timeof the invention of mechanical looms or of the introduction of steam-po)er and of rail)ays' the

realisation of these inventions )ould have been impossible' or )ould have been achieved at the costof revolutions and repeated massacres. It is fortunate for the pro!ress of civilisation that the po)erof cro)ds only be!an to e#ist )hen the !reat discoveries of science and industry had already beeneffected.

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( 2. T&E )O"'L!T+ O C"O-#S. Takin! the )ord LmoralityL to mean constant respect for certain social conventions' and the

permanent repression of selfish impulses' it is Buite evident that cro)ds are too impulsive and toomobile to be moral. If' ho)ever' )e include in the term morality the transitory display of certainBualities such as abne!ation' self-sacrifice' disinterestedness' devotion' and the need of eBuity' )emay say' on the contrary' that cro)ds may e#hibit at times a very lofty morality.

The fe) psycholo!ists )ho have studied cro)ds have only considered them from the point ofvie) of their criminal acts' and noticin! ho) freBuent these acts are' they have come to theconclusion that the moral standard of cro)ds is very lo).

;oubtless this is often the case= but )hyF 4imply because our sava!e' destructive instincts are theinheritance left dormant in all of us from the primitive a!es. In the life of the isolated individual it)ould be dan!erous for him to !ratify these instincts' )hile his absorption in an irresponsiblecro)d' in )hich in conseBuence he is assured of impunity' !ives him entire liberty to follo) them.7ein! unable' in the ordinary course of events' to e#ercise these destructive instincts on our fello)-men' )e confine ourselves to e#ercisin! them on animals. The passion' so )idespread' for the chaseand the acts of ferocity

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of cro)ds proceed from one and the same source. A cro)d )hich slo)ly slau!hters a defencelessvictim displays a very co)ardly ferocity= but for the philosopher this ferocity is very closely relatedto that of the huntsmen )ho !ather in do ens for the pleasure of takin! part in the pursuit andkillin! of a luckless sta! by their hounds.

A cro)d may be !uilty of murder' incendiarism' and every kind of crime' but it is also capable ofvery lofty acts of devotion' sacrifice' and disinterestedness' of acts much loftier indeed than those of

)hich the isolated individual is capable. Appeals to sentiments of !lory' honour' and patriotism are particularly likely to influence the individual formin! part of a cro)d' and often to the e#tent ofobtainin! from him the sacrifice of his life. 5istory is rich in e#amples analo!ous to those furnished

by the Crusaders and the volunteers of *9+$. Collectivities alone are capable of !reat


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disinterestedness and !reat devotion. 5o) numerous are the cro)ds that have heroically faced deathfor beliefs' ideas' and phrases that they scarcely understoodO The cro)ds that !o on strike do so farmore in obedience to an order than to obtain an increase of the slender salary )ith )hich they makeshift. ersonal interest is very rarely a po)erful motive force )ith cro)ds' )hile it is almost thee#clusive motive of the conduct

gustave lebon - the crowd

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