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Guidelines for Integrating Gender into

AgShare May, 2015

Prepared by Nathalie M. Me-Nsope (PhD)

For AgShare Project

For questions or comments, please send an email to mensopen@msu.edu

Flickr by: WorldFish / CC-BY-NC-ND-2.0

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Table of Contents

Guidelines for Integrating Gender into AgShare

Purpose

About AgShare

Rational for Gender integration into AgShare

What is Gender?

Gender and Agriculture

Gender as a Development Issue

AgShare and Gender

Guidelines for integrating gender into AgShare methodology

AgShare Partner Institutions/Universities

Gender in the Research Process (Faculty and Students)

Networking and capacity building for gender integration

Gender in Agricultural Curriculum Development (OER Modules & Courses)

Example—AgShare OER Modules on Household Food Security

Conclusion

Selected Gender and Agriculture Resources

References

Glossary of Gender-related Terms and Concepts

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Purpose This document provides guidelines for integrating a gender perspective into the different components of the AgShare methodology. The need for this document arises because of recognition of existing gender disparities in agriculture and their corresponding implications for the achievement of national agricultural development goals. To achieve greater development impact, there is dire need to start thinking about gender early on in development process—at the research or needs assessment stage. Through its emphasis on high quality field-based research, the AgShare approach provides a very suitable platform through which gender can be integrated in Africa’s agricultural research and development curriculum. The document is intended for use by Agshare management, researchers (faculty and graduate students), and all others involved in the implementation of the AgShare methodology.

About AgShare AgShare is a project funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, and led by Michigan State University and Open Educational Resource (OER) Africa of the South African Institute for Distance Education (Saide). The aim of the AgShare project is to create a scalable and sustainable method of filling critical resource gaps in African MSc agriculture curriculum through a redesigned MSc process. To accomplish its aim, AgShare uses a collaborative approach that engages African agricultural universities, faculty staff, graduate students, researchers, NGO Leaders, extension staff, farmers and other organizations involved in building capacity for agricultural research in Africa. The scalable process uses a collaboration of organizations that provide guidelines for action research, how to produce OERs, how to disseminate materials for research and community stakeholders. The AgShare model is based on field-based research carried out by staff and students within partner institutions, which serves the dual purpose of underpinning research-based teaching and being fed back to the farming community to improve practices there. The initial phase of the AgShare project was piloted during 2010-2012 at four African universities in three countries: Makerere University, Uganda; Haramaya University, Ethiopia; Moi University, Kenya and United States International University, Kenya. During the initial phase, with appropriate support provided by project management, partner universities constructed their individual pilots in line with regional needs as well as institutional ethos, priorities, strengths and constraints. See Table 1 for the institutional foci for the pilot phase of the project. Under the AgShare project, graduate students, supervised by research faculty members, are engaged in action and participatory research which connects them to communities and smallholders, and enables them to acquire contextually relevant specialized knowledge. The students produce high quality peer reviewed research, case studies and extension materials, and the faculties use the research to produce OER modules in authentic contexts, which are modified and used for other downstream uses, such as in the teaching of other masters’ students. Overall, the AgShare model provides strategies for a coherent institutional approach to teaching, research and community development. A graphical representation of the AgShare methodology is shown in Figure 1.

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Table 1: Institutional Foci in the Initial Phase of the AgShare Project INSTITUTION VALUE

CHAIN FOCUS OF AGSHARE MODULES

Haramaya AE1 Agricultural Economics

● Agricultural Marketing and Price Analysis ● Institutional and Behavioral Economics ● Research Methods in Agribusiness and Value

Chains Haramaya AICM2

Agricultural Information and Communication Management

● Fundamentals of Agricultural Information and Communication Management

● Agricultural Knowledge Management ● Farming Systems and Rural Livelihoods

Mekelle Water & Soil Management

● Integrated Water Resources Management ● Irrigation Agronomy ● Water Harvesting Systems

Makerere CoVAB3

Dairy Hygiene ● Dairy Hygiene Moodle courseware

Makerere CoCIS4

Indigenous Knowledge

● Not focusing on courses but on developing a database of agricultural indigenous knowledge

Figure 1: AgShare Methodology Framework

Source: AgShare

1 Agricultural Economics 2 Agricultural Information and Communication Management 3 College of Veterinary Sciences, Animal Resources and Biosecurity 4 College of Computing and Information Sciences

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Rational for Gender integration into AgShare

What is Gender? Gender refers to the social characteristics that groups associate with being a man or a woman (Rubin & Barrett, 2009). These include the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes, opportunities as well as the roles and responsibilities that are associated with being a man or a woman (Rubin & Barrett, 2009). Unlike sex, which is a biological category, and static across space and time, gender is a product of the social environment? Gender relations, the specific social relationships that exist between men and women in a given context, vary across time and space.

Gender and Agriculture Agricultural activities do not occur in a vacuum. Rather, the activities occur in a social context which clearly defines what roles are appropriate or should be performed by men and women in production, reproductive, and community development activities. These socially defined roles are commonly referred to as “gender roles”. For example, in most communities in Africa, the social division of roles and responsibilities confer to women the responsibility to cook food for the family. Also, in some communities planting of some crops is designated to women because of the cultural belief that the crops grow better if planted by women (Me-Nsope, 2015). Gender roles and responsibilities tend to vary across farming systems.

The social-cultural context also determines who owns or has access to what resources, thereby creating differential patterns of resource allocation on the basis of gender. Assets are critical determinants of participation in different types of agricultural activities. Assets could be physical, human, financial, social and networks and others. For example, access to land is required for any type of crop cultivation. Assets determine bargaining power within the household. For example, who makes decisions with respect to the adoption of a given technology, and who has control over resources (including income). Different types of assets have different implications for bargaining power or well-being within the household as measured by outcomes such as food security, nutrition, and education (Meinzen-Dick, et al., 2011).

Women play a fundamental role in the agricultural sector in Sub Sahara Africa. With respect to food production, women are involved in all the stages of the food production cycle, although their roles tend to differ by region (SOFA Team and Doss, 2011). Women are also heavily engaged in the livestock sector. For example, they play a prominent role in managing poultry (FAO 1998; Guèye 2000; Tung 2005) and dairy animals (Okali and Mims 1998; Tangka, Jabbar and Shapiro, 2000) and in caring for other animals that are housed and fed within the homestead. Women farmers also constitute the larger fraction of the livestock smallholders and processors (World Bank, 2009).

Regardless of women’s invaluable contributions to the agricultural sector, women face important challenges that curtail their productivity and their ability to improve their welfare and that of their households through their engagement in agriculture. Compared to men, women face many challenges in accessing and securing productive resources such as land, improved breeding stock, feed, animal vaccines; in obtaining support services including credit, insurance, education, and advisory services; as well as acquiring market access and information, albeit differences across countries (World Bank, 2009).

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In addition to the challenges women face as actors in agricultural systems, women are also underrepresented in agricultural research institutions or as agricultural researchers. In Sub Saharan Africa, only one out of four agricultural researchers is female (Beintema and Di Marcantanio, 2010). Even fewer women work in agricultural research institutions.

Gender as a Development Issue Gender differences matter in agriculture because in various farming systems all over the world ownership and management of natural resources by men and women are defined by culturally specific gender roles (Meinzen Dick, et al, 2011b). Though the term “gender” does not connote women, and gender is not also the only socially relevant category5, empirical evidence supports that gender disparities in agriculture have much more severe consequences for agricultural development indicators. Few illustrative examples include:

➢ Alderman, Haddad and Udry (1996) —reducing inequality in human capital, physical capital and inputs between male and female farmers in SS Africa has the potential to increase agricultural productivity by 10-20%.

➢ Quisumbing et al, (1996) — agricultural productivity increases dramatically when women get the same amount of inputs men get.

➢ Quisumbing et al, (1999)—a person’s gender affects their property rights–women’s ability to own or cultivate land over the long term affects the management of natural resources.

➢ Goldstein & Udry (2008) —insecure land tenure in Ghana was associated with greatly reduced investment in land fertility.

➢ Ragassa et al., (2012) — women had less access to agricultural extension than men, and even after controlling for other variables, gender was a significant determinant of extension access.

➢ Njuki (2013) --A focus on gender can increase productivity of agriculture and livestock systems, and improve food security and nutrition

➢ FAO (2010) Increasing the access of women to productive resources, to be on a par with men, would increase yields by 20-30%. This in turn would raise agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5-4%, reducing the number of hungry people by 12-17%, roughly 100-150 million people.

➢ Quisumbing (2003) – Improvements in women’s status and their control over resources are associated with increased investment in children’s education, health and nutrition, and the ability of women to accumulate assets.

Given the important role women play in agriculture, it makes sense to address the challenges that women face. Recognizing women’s critical role in agriculture sets the stage for identifying ways that agricultural research systems can redress the challenges women face. The agricultural development outcomes of increases in agricultural productivity, agricultural sustainability, poverty reduction and better food and nutritional security, can only be achieved if women’s roles are recognized and gender disparities in agriculture addressed. Understanding

5 Youth, marital status, etc.

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gender specific roles in specific farming communities also helps to better target, design and implement research and development activities.

AgShare and Gender The specific elements of the AgShare methodology provide one of the most suitable platforms for integrating gender into agricultural research and development activities in Africa, thereby speeding up the achievement of Africa’s agricultural development objectives.

First, the AgShare methodology relies on partner institutions/universities, which are not only important vehicles of change (great entry points), but also provide a good structure for the integration of gender in agricultural research and development.

Second, an essential component of the AgShare methodology is field-based participatory research. The importance of good research in the agricultural development process cannot be overstated. A key feature of participatory research is to involve farmers in the identification of solutions to the challenges that they face in order to speed up the uptake of potential solutions. As stated earlier, farming systems exist in a social context with clearly defined roles, responsibilities and relationships for men and women farmers. Participatory research therefore calls for the participation of men or women farmers. Further, the diversity across cultural contexts and farming systems indicates a need to gather context specific data in understanding issues in agriculture. Gender-sensitive research is a fundamental requirement for gender-sensitive policies and investments, and gender-sensitive policies/interventions are more likely to generate development outcomes that benefit all agricultural systems actors, thereby spurring up agricultural development.

Third, by involving students, the AgShare methodology is offering to the next generation of agricultural development experts, an opportunity for field-based research experience, which has the potential to make significant contributions not only to the students’ skills/career, but also to the agricultural development process. Achieving gender balance in the development of such action research skills is a critical aspect of social development.

Fourth, by creating and disseminating OER modules based on gender-inclusive research evidence, AgShare could greatly contribute to expanding existing evidence of gender issues in agricultural systems, and also provide critical input for the design of innovative solutions to deal with food systems challenges of food security, malnutrition, and health, and poverty in ways that empower women. Through gender integration the contribution of AgShare research to agricultural development will be strengthened.

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Guidelines for integrating gender into AgShare methodology

AgShare Partner Institutions/Universities Institutions communicate their commitment to gender through institutional policies designed to mainstream gender in all operations of the institutions. Critical to effective gender integration in AgShare model is an institutional structure that supports and facilitates gender mainstreaming in all aspects of its work, particularly in recruitment/staffing, as well as in research, education and development. There is therefore a need to examine each partner institution/university for institutional factors that can support or weaken the process of gender integration in the AgShare methodology.

➢ Understand the institution’s framework, policy, capacity, and commitment to gender. o Does the institution have a gender policy?

o Who are those responsible for the implementation of the gender policy? How is the policy being implemented? Is the institution’s commitment to gender actually reflected in implementation?

o What resources are currently available at the level of the institution to support gender integration?

o Is the administrative structure (departmental and upper administrative levels) of the institution adapted for gender integration?

o Does the institution provide incentives and motivation to faculty/researchers and students for including gender in research and agricultural curricula?

➢ Assess/understand the human capacity available for gender integration within the institution.

o Is there a gender working group or unit within the institution? And what activities do they undertake, for example, gender capacity development, management of gender issues existing in their current institutional framework and gender in research?

➢ Assess/understand the extent to which institutional policies and practices work to eliminate gender stereotypes that discourage research by female students and faculty. Institutional policies that support a gender balance in researchers can help achieve gender equity goals in agriculture. Could AgShare play a role in building up the pool of qualified women scientists and agricultural researchers in Africa by supporting a greater representation of women in agricultural research? Specifically, for each AgShare institution, there is need to:

o Examine female participation in agricultural research programs ( as research faculty or students)

o Identify factors that work to increase or decrease/discourage female participation in research

o Identify strategies that will help increase the involvement of female researchers and female students in AgShare.

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➢ Promote the institutionalization of gender as a concept in the partner institutions and formalize the creation of Inter-institutional gender thematic groups in each structure. For example, gender and livestock group, gender and food security group.

Gender in the Research Process (Faculty and Students) For research to produce meaningful changes in the lives of men and women agricultural systems actors, the differential needs, preferences and constraints of each group must be identified. Gender in research, simply means addressing the realities of men and women all the way in the research process (research planning, implementation, and assessment). Gender integration in agricultural research requires: 1) an environment that recognizes the importance of gender as a development topic and supports gender integration in research and development; 2) researchers (faculty and students) that are attuned to gender issues as relevant to their specific areas of inquires; and 3) incorporating (as appropriate) evidence of the gender analysis in a specific context into research design and implementation.

A gender perspective in the research process, improves the quality of the assessment of issues in agricultural systems, thereby providing a good basis for policies and other interventions to deal with issues in agriculture. An accurate diagnosis of the challenges in agriculture also increases the likelihood of success of policies, and the applicability/adoptability of interventions or innovations, thereby speeding up the agricultural development process. Gender sensitive research is essential for developing outputs that can be fed back into the farming communities to satisfy the needs of men and women in agriculture. Furthermore, by understanding the needs of men and women in the communities, we improve the relevance of the curricula or modules that are designed.

Networking and capacity building for gender integration To strengthen the effectiveness of agricultural development interventions, researchers (faculty and students) must build capacity in the area of gender integration in the research process. Though few trained gender capacity exists within institutions, the process of building capacity for gender integration can really be sped up by facilitating collaborative linkages and learning within and across institutions. Specifically, there is need:

I. To assess the available capacity for gender integration within the institution, and identify ways of involving them in the implementation of the AgShare model (for example in building AgShare faculty capacity for gender integration)

II. To identify existing opportunities or create opportunities to build capacity in the area of gender integration within and across the institution.

III. For researchers/faculty to build upon the institution’s stand point with respect to gender and development to solicit support from other relevant programs.

IV. For researchers/faculty to work with the Women/Gender and Development programs within their institutions to identify leadership and core faculty members within the institution who can provide support to the effort to integrate gender into the Agshare. The Core gender faculty will also provide material on gender analysis and other relevant content to help support gender integration in the AgShare program

V. To develop collaborative linkages and network with gender experts or researchers/faculty in other academic departments (e.g. Sociology/Anthropology,

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Agricultural extension, Women’s studies) working on gender and agriculture topics across universities implementing the AgShare model/methodology. These faculty members can serve as leaders to support gender integration in AgShare research, for example by supervising the work of students; or providing material on gender analysis.

VI. To identify other funding opportunities to support gender integration in agricultural research.

Research Process

Researchers (faculty and students) should:

I. Recognize that agricultural activities and decision making are taking place in a social context and plan/act to incorporating knowledge of the wider social context in the research process. In particular, there is need to acknowledge gender as an aspect of diversity amongst actors in agricultural systems

II. Determine the relevance of gender to the agricultural topic under investigation. Is gender relevant to this topic? Yes or No. Gender will always be relevant to most research that involve humans. The Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook published by the World Bank (World Bank, 2009) gives a quick overview of gender as it relates to several agricultural topics. Examples of other useful resources are provided in Section VI.

III. Researchers must consider ‘gender’ as an analytical approach and NOT a synonym for ‘women’ and incorporate gender analysis as an analytical tool when conducting research, in order to improve understanding and diagnosis of issues in agricultural development.

Gender analysis is a socio-economic methodology that identifies and interprets the consequences of gender differences and relations for achieving development objectives as well as the implications of development interventions for changing relations of power between women and men (Rubin & Barrett, 2009). It describes the process of collecting data on gender issues and analyzing that data. An examination of gender differences and relations cannot be isolated from the broader social context. (Rubin & Barrett, 2009)

Gender analysis allows us to look at the society in its totality to ensure that the interest of all its members—men, women and children—are addressed (Meinzen-Dick, et al. 2011b). Gender analysis begins with the collection and analysis of sex disaggregated data. The data can be collected using quantitative and qualitative methods.

A rapid gender analysis of a study context enables us to identify the unique gender questions that are relevant to the topic. Some classic gender analysis questions include:

➢ Who does what? How? Where? When? Why? (labor)

➢ Who uses what? How? Where? When? Why? (access)

➢ Who controls what? How? Where? When? Why? (Decision making and control=power)

➢ Who knows what? How? Where? When? Why? (information=power)

➢ Who benefits what? How? Where? When? Why? (Benefit-sharing).

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➢ Who is included in what? How? Where? When? Why? (participation)

Answers to these questions are sometimes available from secondary data (review of literature on topic and on context); or could require collecting some primary data or stakeholder consultations. It is very important to avoid making assumptions about answers to these questions but rather get responses to them inductively.

IV. Integrate knowledge of existing gender roles and relations obtained from gender analysis findings into your research process– research design and implementation.

➢ Construct gender sensitive research hypotheses ➢ Select gender sensitive research methods

o Qualitative or quantitative methods or both?

➢ Data collection—Type of information/data to collect and approach o Sex disaggregated versus aggregated data (household or community)? Sex-

disaggregated data collection requires going beyond the household to collect data to understand men’s and women’s role, ownership of assets, participation, etc. For example, in measuring food security, would you collect data at the household level if you find out from gender analysis that men and women within a household do not pool resources together? How will sex-disaggregating increase the accuracy (quality) of the data? Are there any implications for costs (e.g. increase interview time)? Data quality is essential for good research.

➢ Who to interview? Who to invite to meetings, training or demonstration? Women? Men? Both? What does the gender division of roles/responsibilities (identified during gender analysis) say about who is involved in the activity or has accurate information on a topic? How does the interviewees’ social position influence his/her responses?

➢ Type of tool —mixed groups versus separate groups of men and women? For example, how does the fact that women do not speak in public or express themselves freely in the presence of men influence how you collect your data?

➢ Timing and location of interviews/discussions, demonstrations, trainings – ensure gender sensitivity in content of training and in the delivery of training. You do not want to reinforce existing gender stereotypes

V. Data Analysis/Dissemination of Research Findings ➢ Analyze data to show gender differentiated participation and gender differentiated

impact—e.g. training on milk quality and production

➢ Show gender relevance in your research reports. How did taking gender into consideration improve the quality of your research?

➢ Create and implement a platform for knowledge sharing across AgShare institutions. May include avenues (seminars, workshops) for sharing of research

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results, particularly those that highlight the importance of considering gender issues in research or the gender dimensions of your research.

Gender in Agricultural Curriculum Development (OER Modules & Courses) A gender-sensitive approach in the development of agricultural curricula or learning tools such as OER modules is an important step towards raising awareness of the gender inequalities that exist in the broader society (particularly in agriculture), thereby creating an opportunity for actions to address them. It involves: 1) Developing learning contents that are gender-sensitive in a science-based manner, wherever relevant; and 2) ensuring that the needs of all students, men and women, are addressed in the development of the curriculum, and they all benefit equally from the curriculum content. Failure to integrate gender in the curriculum development process will result in learning content that are either gender blind or work to reinforce existing stereotypes in the societies.

To develop learning contents and teaching materials that are gender sensitive:

I. Form/create a gender working group on specific thematic areas based on the institution’s foci or interests. The gender thematic working group could involve researchers/faculty within and across institutions, depending on similarities in the foci areas.

II. Involve the gender thematic working group in the development/design of agricultural curriculum or OER Modules. Specifically, the gender thematic working group will help:

a. Establish/determine the relevance of gender to the agricultural topics to be covered in curricula—what do we know about existing gender relations in the context of study and how do these interact with the topic of study?

b. Ensure that module or course description clearly express considerations for gender-related teaching content.

c. Identify relevant gender literature/materials as it relates to the institution’s interests/foci and include in the curriculum (reading lists, case studies, research papers), in the OER modules. This will increase students’ knowledge and appreciation of gender issues in agriculture, thereby empowering them to consider the gender dimensions of their research.

d. Develop OER modules on Gender and Agriculture, “special topics” e.g. gender and livestock; gender and food security, and include in the Agriculture OER space.

e. Ensure that OER modules are developed from gender sensitive research.

f. Review/evaluate OER modules for gender-sensitive content before OER modules are disseminated or used in teaching other students. This will ensure that content of OER modules do not reinforce existing gender stereotypes or are not gender blind. For example in the use of language — by generalizing as “farmers” when it is more appropriate to use women farmers or men farmers.

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III. Develop and include in curriculum module(s) on “Gender analysis in agriculture” as a methodological tool for understanding gender issues in agriculture, and taking the issues into account in the design and implementation of research.

IV. Train students and faculty/researchers on how to conduct gender analysis in their research. A workshop can be organized prior to field-work to accomplish this.

V. Invite guest lectures on special gender topics as it relates to institutional foci for the AgShare program.

VI. Overall, at the end of each module or coursework, students/researchers must be able to identify/diagnose and record gender issues relevant to different agriculture topics, and to appreciate the implications of the gender issues for the study topic, and also for agricultural systems outcomes.

Example—AgShare OER Modules on Household Food Security The World Bank’s e-learning website has developed an online module on Gender and Food security. The module can help build researchers capacity for gender integration into food security teaching and research. The module is free and available online and contains several examples that can also help students understand the gender dimensions of food security.

Module Objective—characterize and measure food Security in a specific context:

• What is food security?

Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life. (FAO)

• Four main elements in the definition of food security:

– Food availability: Relates to the “supply side” of food security and is determined by the level of food production, stock levels, net trade, distribution and exchange.

– Food access (physical and economic): Refers to the affordability and allocation of food, as well as the preferences of individuals and households. Could be affected by incomes, markets and prices.

– Food stability: Refers to the ability to obtain food over time. Could be affected by adverse weather conditions, political instability, or economic factors (unemployment, rising food prices) may have an impact on your food security status.

– Food Utilization: Refers to the way the body makes the most of various nutrients in the food. Sufficient energy and nutrient intake by individuals is the result of good care and feeding practices, food preparation, and diversity of the diet and intra-household distribution of food. Combined with good biological utilization of food consumed, this determines the nutritional status of individuals.

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Is gender relevant to discussions about food security? ➢ What does existing literature say on the interactions between gender and

food security? – Consultation with gender thematic group to identify relevant supporting

documentations

– Search World Wide Web for appropriate gender and food security resources (data, publication, etc.).

– Gender in Agricultural Sourcebook (World Bank, 2009), Module on Gender and Food Security, a good place to start.

➢ Some basic gender analysis questions to answer include – Who has access to or control over what productive assets to use (including

time) within the household?

– What are the roles and responsibilities for men and women within farm households—on the farm, within the household and in the community?

– Who makes decisions—production decisions, income allocation, etc.?

– Who has more information on healthy/nutritious food and who is more involved in household feed practices within the household

➢ What do the findings from gender analysis imply about the conceptualization of the problem in the specific context? How research is conducted? What variables to measure? For example:

– What do the gender disparities in access to assets (e.g. land, and other inputs) imply about women farmers’ ability to produce enough food, and what are the implications for food availability as a dimension of food security.

– What do gender disparities in access to physical assets (e.g. transportation) imply about women’s ability to participate in markets? Implications for women’s direct access to crop income? Implication for their monetary (economic) access to food?

– How do gender disparities in access to and ownership of production assets affect production activities, the overall food production capacity and hence food availability as a dimension of food security?

– What do gender roles imply for women or men’s ability to attend training, farm demonstrations, etc.?

– How does knowledge that households do not necessarily pool resources together or operate under the same budget constraint (gender disparities in access to and control over income) influence how you measure monetary or access to sufficient food?

– How does the understanding of gender roles and responsibilities (who does what or who is responsible for what) and gender differences in food knowledge

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influence who you interview in the household for the most accurate data on household food security practices?

– How does knowledge that cultural beliefs underlie food distribution practices within the household influence how we understand and measure food utilization—access to safe and nutritious food that meet dietary needs within the household – as a dimension of food security.

– How do gender in time and space (e.g. cultural restrictions on mobility) within the household influence the type of data you will need to understand physical assess to food?

Conclusion Gender is a development issue. There is currently a widespread recognition of the importance of integrating gender considerations in agricultural research and development processes. Most donors in the international development field now require gender integration, as it is increasingly being acknowledged that gender equity and agricultural development are mutually supportive goals. Funding is an important resource requirement for any research project. Not only is gender integration in the agricultural research good practice, but also, by integrating gender in research, AgShare researchers and students will be contributing solutions to an important development challenge of our time, thereby increasing their ability to attract more funding for their work.

The purpose of this document was to provide some guidelines to ensure gender sensitivity in the implementation of the AgShare methodology. Gender issues in agriculture severely hinder agricultural development. Good research practice requires that challenges faced by men and women in agriculture are properly understood, and that men and women actors in the agricultural systems equally benefit from research—their lives are improved as an outcome of research. In addition to research serving the needs of men and women in agriculture, it is also important that men and women are properly represented in the research process. Engaging men and women in agricultural research and development would undoubtedly result in better agricultural development policies and innovations. An institutional environment that supports gender mainstreaming, building AgShare researchers’ capacity for gender integration in agricultural research, and developing gender-sensitive agricultural curricula or OER modules are central to strengthening AgShare’s potential to contribute to agricultural development in Africa.

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Selected Gender and Agriculture Resources General Gender Resources

• FAO State of Food & Agriculture 2010-2011

• The World Bank, 2009. Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. Washington DC., USA: The World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, and International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). (Module 12 is Crop Agriculture, Module 14 is Livestock)

• Gender in Agriculture Gender in Agriculture 17-Module E-Learning Course. Available at : http://www.genderinag.org/content/e-learning-course

• FAO, IFAD and WFP, 2014. The State of Food Insecurity in the World 2014 -Strengthening the enabling environment for food security and nutrition, Rome, Italy: FAO.

• Tools and guidelines on gender in agricultural development. IFAD. http://www.ifad.org/gender/tools/index.htm

• Toolkit on Gender in Agriculture. World Bank. Available at: http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64193027&piPK=64187937&theSitePK=523679&menuPK=64187510&searchMenuPK=64187283&siteName=WDS&entityID=000094946_99031910562625

• USAID ADS 205: Integrating Gender Equality & Female Empowerment into USAID’s Program Cycle

• USAID Gender 101

• Gender in Agriculture Checklist. African Development Bank

• Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)of the United Nations. 2010. Integrating gender issues in food security, agriculture and rural development. Rome, 2010. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/i1914e/i1914e00.pdf

• FAO "The State of Food and Agriculture" focused on "Women in Agriculture". The publication was released at the occasion of the International Women's Day, 3/8/2011. The full document is available at www.fao.org/docrep/013/i2050e/i2050e00.htm

• Seebens, H. (2011). Intra-household bargaining, gender roles in agriculture and how to promote welfare enhancing changes. (Working Paper No. 11-10). Frankfurt: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

• Doss, C. (2010). If women hold up half the sky, how much of the world’s food do they produce? Background paper prepared for The State of Food and Agriculture 2010–11. Rome, FAO.

• Doss, C. & Morris, M . (2001). How does gender affect the adoption of agricultural innovations? The case of improved maize technology in Ghana. Agricultural Economics, 25 (1), 27–39.

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Gender and Livestock

• FAO. 2013. Understanding Gender Issues in Livestock Projects and Programmes. Available at: http://www.fao.org/docrep/018/i3216e/i3216e.pdf

• Njuki,J.; Poole, J.; Johnson, J.; Baltenweck, I.; Pali, P.N.; Lokman, Z.; and S. Mburu. 2011. Gender, livestock and livelihood indicators. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI. Available at: https://cgspace.cgiar.org/handle/10568/3036

• Njuki, J., Waithanji, E., Bagalwa, N. and Kariuki, J. 2013. Guidelines on integrating gender in livestock projects and programs. Nairobi, Kenya: ILRI.

• Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations, 2013. Understanding and integrating gender issues into livestock projects and programmes: a checklist for practitioners, Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of United Nations.

• The World Bank, 2009. Gender in Agriculture Sourcebook. Washington DC., USA: The World Bank, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, and International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). (Module 14 is on Livestock)

Gender and Value Chains

• Promoting Gender Equitable Opportunities in Agricultural Value Chains: A Handbook http://www.culturalpractice.com/resources/promoting-gender-equitable-opportunities-in-agricultural-value-chains-a-handbook/

• ACDI/VOCA:http://www.acdivoca.org/site/ID/ourwork_valuechainspublications

• Gates Foundation : Improving opportunities for women in small-holder based supply chains

• FAO: Gender and agricultural value chains A review of current knowledge and practice and their policy implications

• Gender related resources from the USAID sponsored Collaborative Research Support programs: http://crsps.net/key-topics/gender/

• Nichols Barrett, Kara, Cristina Manfre and Deborah Rubin. 2009. Promoting Gender Equitable Opportunities: Why It Matters for Agricultural Value Chains. Publication prepared for the Greater Access To Trade Expansion (Gate) Project under The Women In Development IQC Contract No. GEW-I-00-02-00018-00, Task Order No. 02. Washington, DC: United States Agency for International Development. www.usaid.gov/our_work/crosscutting_programs/wid/pubs/GATE_Promoting_Gender_Equitable_Opportunities_Why_Matters_11-09.pdf

• Rubin, Deborah, Cristina Manfre, and Kara Nichols Barrett. 2009. Promoting Gender Equitable Opportunities in Agricultural Value Chains: A Handbook. Publication prepared for the Greater Access To Trade Expansion (Gate) Project under The Women In Development IQC Contract No. GEW-I-00-02-00018-00, Task Order No. 02. Washington, DC: United States Agency for International Development. www.usaid.gov/our_work/crosscutting_programs/wid/pubs/GATE_Gender_Ag_Value_Chain_Handbook_11-09.pdf

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• Rubin, Deborah and Cristina Manfre. 2010. A Guide to Integrating Gender into Agricultural Value Chains. Publication prepared for Juarez and Associates under prime contract #GEW-I-00-02-00020-00, Task Order No. 06. Washington, DC: United States Agency for International Development.

Women & ICT http://www.ictinagriculture.org/content/ict-agriculture-sourcebook

– www.ictinagriculture.org

– GSMA Development Fund's Women programme

Engaging women in project activities

• MEAS Technical Note on Applying Gender-responsive Value-chain Analysis in EAS

• Technoserve: Supporting Women Farmers: Strategies for Engaging Women in Agricultural Development

• World Bank: Gender & Development/Techniques – see education, extension, research links http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTGENDER/0,,contentMDK:20206510~pagePK:210058~piPK:210062~theSitePK:336868,00.html

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References

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of The United Nations. 1996 Report - Sub-regional training course on women in wood energy development RWEDP Report No. 24. Regional Wood Energy Development Programme in Asia GCP/RAS/154/NET. Bangkok, April 1996

FAO. 1998. Village Chicken Production Systems in Rural Africa. Household Food Security and Gender Issues, by A.J. Kitalyi. The Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.

Guèye, E.F.2000. The Role of Family Poultry in Poverty Alleviation, Food Security and the Promotion of Gender Equality in Rural Africa. Outlook on Agriculture, Vol. 29(2): 129-136

Meinzen-Dick, R., Johnson, N., Quisumbing, A., Njuki, J., Behrman, J., Rubin, D., Peterman, A., and Waithanji, E. (2011a). Gender, assets, and agricultural development programs: A conceptual framework. CAPRI Working Paper No. 99.

Meinzen-Dick, Ruth, Quisumbing, Agnes, Behrman, Julia, Biermayr-Jenzano, Patricia, Wilde, Vicki, Noordeloos, Marco, Ragasa, Catherine, Beintema, Nienke. (2011b). Engendering Agricultural Research, Development, and Extension. Washington: International Food Policy Research Institute. www.ifpri.org/publication/engendering-agricultural-research-development-and-extension

Me-Nsope, N. 2015. Gender Analysis of Cotton and Rotational Crops Value Chain: Chad Report. Report prepared in collaboration with Cultural Practice LLC for IFDC’s C4CP Cotton Partnership Project.

Okali, C. and J. Mims. 1998. ‘Gender and Smallholder Diary Production in Tanzania.’ Report to the Livestock Production Programme of the Department for International Development (DFID): Appendix 1 and 2 pp. 37-38.

Rubin, D. and Barrett, N. K. (2009) Gate Workshop Materials: Integrating Gender in Agricultural Value Chains (INGIA-VC) in Tanzania. Report prepared for Development and Training Services, Inc. (dTS).

SOFA (State of Food and Agriculture) and Doss, C. 2011. The Role of Women in Agriculture ESA Working Paper No. 11-02 March 2011 Agricultural Development Economics Division The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations www.fao.org/economic/esa

Tung, D.X. 2005. “Smallholder Poultry Production in Vietnam: Marketing Characteristics and Strategies.” Paper presented at the workshop Does Poultry Reduce Poverty? A Need for Rethinking the Approaches, 30-31 August. Copenhagen, Network for Smallholder Poultry Development.

UNESCO. 2003. UNESCO’s Gender Mainstreaming Implementation Framework Baseline definitions of key concepts and terms http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/BSP/GENDER/PDF/1.%20Baseline%20Definitions%20of%20key%20gender-related%20concepts.pdf

United Nations (UN) (nd) United Nations International Research and Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW): http://www.un-instraw.org

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World Bank. 2008. Gender in agriculture sourcebook. Agriculture and Rural Development. Washington, DC: World Bank. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2008/10/9953789/gender-agriculture-sourcebook

World Bank (nd) Gender and Development. Trainers’ Manual: Glossary of Gender Terms. http://info.worldbank.org/etools/docs/library/192862/introductorymaterials/Glossary.html

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Glossary of Gender-related Terms and Concepts Sex refers to the biological characteristics which define humans as female or male. These sets of biological characteristics are not mutually exclusive as there are individuals who possess both, but these characteristics tend to differentiate humans as males and females. (UN, nd)

Gender refers to the array of socially constructed roles and relationships, personality traits, attitudes, behaviors, values, relative power and influence that society ascribes to the two sexes on a differential basis. Whereas biological sex is determined by genetic and anatomical characteristics, gender is an acquired identity that is learned, changes over time, and varies widely within and across cultures. Gender is relational and refers not simply to women or men but to the relationship between them (UN, nd)

Gender Relations refers to social relations between men and women. Major issues are power and hierarchy. How these relations are formed and supported by family, culture, state and market is an important consideration (FAO, 1996).

Gender Division of Labor is the result of how each society divides work among men and among women according to what is considered suitable or appropriate to each gender (UNESCO, 2003).

Gender Roles and Responsibilities are extensions of the division of labor, the key issue is the concept of "gender" (the social, not biological concept) and how different roles and responsibilities are assigned to men and women. The intersection of these gender roles and responsibilities with a development project's goals and activities is the focal point of a gender analysis (FAO, 1996).

Gender Analysis refers to the methodology for collecting and processing information about gender. It provides disaggregated data by sex, and an understanding of the social construction of gender roles, how labor is divided and valued. Gender Analysis is the process of analyzing information in order to ensure development benefits and resources are effectively and equitably targeted to both women and men, and to successfully anticipate and avoid any negative impacts development interventions may have on women or on gender relations. Gender analysis is conducted through a variety of tools and frameworks, including those listed below (World Bank, nd).

Sex-disaggregated data. For a gender analysis, all data should be separated by sex in order to allow differential impacts on men and women to be measured.

Gender-blind refers to a failure to recognize that gender is an essential determinant of social outcomes impacting on projects and policies. A gender-blind approach assumes gender is not an influencing factor in projects, programs or policy.

Gender Awareness refers an understanding that there are socially determined differences between women and men based on learned behavior, which affects access to and control resources. This awareness needs to be applied through gender analysis into projects, programs and policies.

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Gender Sensitivity Encompasses the ability to acknowledge and highlight existing gender differences, issues and inequalities and incorporate these into strategies and actions.

Gender Equality entails the concept that all human beings, both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and make choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles, or prejudices. Gender equality means that the different behaviors, aspirations and needs of women and men are considered, valued and favored equally. It does not mean that women and men have to become the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or female (UN, nd)

Gender Equity means fairness of treatment for women and men, according to their respective needs. This may include equal treatment or treatment that is different but considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities. In the development context, a gender equity goal often requires built-in measures to compensate for the historical and social disadvantages of women (UN, nd).

Gender Mainstreaming is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension in the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and social spheres, such that inequality between men and women is not perpetuated (UN, nd)