guide to navigating aircraft safely

8/3/2019 Guide to Navigating Aircraft Safely

1/13

GUIDE TO NavigatingAircraft Safely

Copyright: 2011

AOPA AND THE AIR SAFETY INSTITUTE

A Division of the

AOPA Foundation


2/13

I theres one thing that student pilots, fight

instructors, and high-time veterans all have in

common, its a susceptibility to takeo and

landing mishaps.

Why do pilots have so much trouble with these

two most undamental fying skills? Its simple:

Takeos and landings require us to operate ast,

relatively ragile machines in close proximity to

the ground. Theres not much room or error,

even under ideal circumstances. Throw in wind,obstructions, and short/sot elds, and things

just get worse.

Mastering takeos and landings requires attention

to detail and a healthy respect or the limitations

o airplane and pilot. Whats the eld elevation?

The temperature? How long is the runway, and

whats the wind speed/direction? Is the airplane

heavy? Will you really be able to squeeze book

perormance out o a tired, 30-year-old trainer?

THE 50/50 SOLUTION

The Air Saety Institute (ASI) recommends

adding 50 percent to the POH takeo or landing

distance or obstacle clearance. For example:

I the book species a minimum o 600 meters,

add 300 meters (50 percent) or a saety

distance o 900 meters.

The two checklists in this article are ull o tips

or mitigating the numerous risks associated

with takeos and landings. As you read them,

remember that the root cause o most accidents

is poor judgment. Know the aircrat, the airport,

and the environment but most importantly,

know when its time or you to divert, go around,

or stay on the ground.

SAFE PILOTS. SAFE SKIES. PG. 2 WWW.AOPA.ORG

ARTICLE ONE

Mastering

Takeoffs & Landings

The simple act of taking off or landing accounts for 50 percent

of all general aviation accidents.


3/13

TAKEOFF & CLIMB

The Impossible Turn: I the engine ails shortly

ater takeo, should you try to turn around and

land on the departure runway? The viability o

the so-called impossible turn depends on the

circumstances, but there are plenty o reasonsto be wary. The maneuver requires substantial

altitude and involves relatively aggressive

maneuvering. Taken by surprise, pilots oten ail

to maintain airspeed and end up having

stall/spin accidents. Unless youre close to

pattern altitude, or have already started a turn

when the engine ails, its saer to land straight

aheadi.e., within the area you can see out

the windshield.


FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT RISK FACTOR RISK MANAGEMENT

Runway Length Short runway. 50/50 solution (see pg. 2).

Use all available runway.

Density Altitude High density altitude. Fly in cooler temperatures. Decrease uel and/or cargo.

Use longer runways.

Avoid runways with obstacles.

Obstructions Increased climb angle.Obstructions may cause turbulence. MaintainVx until clear o obstacles. Then maintainVy.

Wind Loss o control.

Tailwind will increase runway length

needed.

Defect ailerons into the wind.

Too much wind? Use another runway. Use a higher rotation speed.

Avoid tailwinds unless you have no otheroption (example: one-way runway).

Runway Slope Taking o uphill. Usually best to takeo downhill.

Risks vary with wind, runway slope, terrain. Generally requires more runway.

Acceleration will be slower.

May be dicult to outclimb terrain.

Talk to local pilots or airport manager.

Soft or Contaminated Sot.

Slush or snow.

Perorm a sot-eld takeo.

Keep weight o the nosewheel. Transition rom taxi to takeo without

stopping.

Once airborne, accelerate in ground

eect beore climb out.

Heavy Aircraft Increased takeo roll and reduced climb. Use a longer runway, especially with highdensity altitude.

Night Decreased visibility.

Disorientation.

Stay night procient.

Avoid short runways at night.


4/13

APPROACH & LANDING

Going Around: I you have a problem during

approach or landing, theres almost always a

simple solution: Go around! Its ar better to

make another trip around the pattern than to

push ahead and risk a runway overshoot or losso control. Unortunately, a lot o pilots seem to

orget that its an option, and end up having

accidents they could easily have avoided. That

said, there are some risks involved with go-

arounds. Especially at low altitudes and

airspeeds, with faps down, going around

can be a touchy maneuver: I you dont

eel comortable, get some practice with a

fight instructor.


FLIGHT ENVIRONMENT RISK FACTOR RISK MANAGEMENT

Runway Length Short runway. 50/50 solution (see pg. 2). Congure the aircrat or a short-eld

landing.

Use aggressive braking.

Density Altitude High density altitude. Decreases perormance during a

go-around. Increases landing distance.

Obstructions Short runway. 50/50 solution (see pg. 2). Maintain target speed.

Use short-eld conguration.

Wind Loss o control.

Gusty conditions.

Tailwind.

Defect ailerons into the wind. Crab or slip on approach.

Too much wind? Use another runway.

Add 1/2 the gust actor to your approach

airspeed.

Avoid tailwinds unless you have no other

option (example: one-way runway).

Under some conditions, airport maybe unusable.

Runway Slope Landing downhill. Usually best to land uphill.

Risks vary with wind and runway slope. Generally requires more runway.

Under some conditions, airports may

be unusable.

Talk to local pilots or airport manager.

Soft or Contaminated Sot.

Slush or snow.

Keep weight o the nosewheel.

Keep moving until clear o the runway.

Heavy Aircraft Increased landing distance. Use a longer runway, especially withhigh density altitude.

Night Decreased visibility.Disorientation.

Optical illusions.

Stay night procient. Avoid short runways at night.

Use runways equipped with visual or

electronic glideslope indicators.


5/13SAFE PILOTS. SAFE SKIES. PG. 5 WWW.AOPA.ORG

3.4%

32.2%

13.0%

5.3%

46.1%

22.5%

25.9%

0.6%13.0%

37.9%

27.5%

49.4%

10.4%2.1%

10.8%

Other 10.1%

Fuel Management 7.6%

AircratConguration 11.1%

Attitude & AirpseedControl 16.2%

Loss o Control (notdue to wind) 13.9%

Wind 8.0%

Other Mechanical(gears, tires, controlsuraces, etc.) 4.2%

Powerplant(malunctions/ailures) 28.9%

Other 10.0%

Powerplant(malunctions/ailures) 8.7%

Other Mechanical(gear, brakes, controlsuraces, etc.) 6.7%

Improper IFRProcedures 2.4%

AircratConguration 4.5%

Fuel Management 6.5%

Loss o Control (notdue to wind) 17.2%

Wind 15.3%

Attitude & AirspeedControl 28.7%

5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%

Takeo/InitialClimb

Approach

Landing

Go-Around

23.5%20.4%

10.6%

18.0%

33.8%

6.1%

3.3%

3.1%

ACCIDENTS BY CATEGORY

TAKEOFF & INITIAL CLIMB

ACCIDENT CAUSES

TAKEOFF & INITIAL CLIMBPICS HIGHEST CERTIFICATE LEVEL

DISTRIBUTION OF CERTIFICATE LEVELSALL ACTIVE PILOTS (2009)

APPROACH, LANDING & GO-AROUNDPICS HIGHEST CERTIFICATE LEVEL

5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%

Takeo/InitialClimb

Approach

Landing

Go-Around

17.2%

33.6%

3.5%

18.6%

LETHALITY INDEX

APPROACH, LANDING, & GO-AROUND

ACCIDENT CAUSES

STUDENT PRIVATE ATP OTHERCOMMERCIAL

U.S. TAKEOFF & LANDING ACCIDENTS2000-2009

ALL ACCIDENTS FATAL ACCIDENTS

421 AVIATION WAY FREDERICK, MD 21701 800/638-3101 WWW.AIRSAFETYINSTITUTE.ORG

PUBLISHER: BRUCE LANDSBERG EDITOR: BRIAN PETERSON STATISTICIAN: DAVID KENNY 2011 AIR SAFETY INSTITUTE


6/13SAFE PILOTS. SAFE SKIES. PG. 6 WWW.AOPA.ORG

Weather is the most critical and complex

variable that aects your fying. But you dont

have to be a meteorologist to understand what

makes weather, or to use that understanding to

help make sound fight decisions. This is what

being weather wise is all aboutthe ability to

integrate ocial reports and orecasts with what

you can see outside to cope with changing fight

conditions in the real world. Wouldnt you like to

be WeatherWise?

FRONTS

Fearsome weather oten occurs when dierent

air massesthat is, large areas o air with similar

properties o temperature, pressure, humidity,

and stabilitycollide. The collision line is called

a ront. The our basic types o ronts are:

COLD FRONT

Cooler air is pushing warmer air out o the way.

I youre looking or violent weather, youre

more likely to nd it along a cold ront than a

warm ront.

WARM FRONT

Warmer air is slowly displacing cooler air.

Though less severe than a cold ront, warm

ronts requently cause low ceilings

and visibilities.

STATIONARY FRONT

Occurs where two air masses meet, but

neither is displacing the other. These ronts can

exhibit characteristics o a warm ront, cold

ront, or both.

ARTICLE TWO

WeatherWisePractical Tipsand Tactical Tricks

The moment a person says, I'm going to learn to fly, that person

needs to add, and I'll learn weather, too. Flying and weather

should be thought of as one skill, one art, never separated.Captain Robert N. Buck, Weather Flying


7/13

OCCLUDED FRONT

Occurs when a cold air mass overtakes a warm

air mass, so that the leading edge o both

occupies the same location. Occluded ronts

occasionally have severe weather.

PRACTICAL TIPS Seeing the windsock change direction is one

o the most obvious signs o rontal passage.

To determine rontal passage in the air, watch

or a change in your wind correction angle

and look or changes in the outside air

temperature (OAT). Also, note any dierences

in altimeter settings reported by air trac

control or on meteorologic reports.

Note any nearby ronts, even i theyre not

expected to be a actor or your fight. This

will give you a better big picture when (not i)

the orecast proves wrong.

For longer cross-countries, a rule o thumb

is that weather typically changes every

700 kilometers. But it can also change much

more quickly.

I a ront is orecast to pass your destination,

call the airport beore departing to see i

passage has already occurred.

To check on a ronts progress, look at stations

on either side o the ront and compare actual

conditions to the orecast weather.

STABILITY

Is the air around you stable or unstable? The

more stable an air mass, the less likely youll see

violent weather. Cloud types refect the degree

o stability.


STRATUS CLOUDSA SIGN OF STABLE AIR


8/13


9/13

THUNDERSTORMS

Thunderstorms can be categorized by their

origin, and each has its associated

characteristics, but you can think o them as

bad, worse, and impossible!

FRONTAL THUNDERSTORM

Caused by a cold ront pushing into a warmer air

mass with lots o moisture; dicult, i not

impossible to circumnavigate.

AIR MASS THUNDERSTORM

Occurs on summer aternoons as a result o

daytime heating. Usually isolated; youmaybe

able to maneuver around them.

EMBEDDED THUNDERSTORM

Thunderstorms hidden in solid masses o other

clouds. These storms can sometimes be

avoided by getting on top o the cloud layer and

watching or buildups, or by staying low (i

ceilings and visibilities permit) and navigating

around rain shats. Instrument pilots plowing

through the clouds without thunderstormdetection equipment are at greater risk rom

embedded thunderstorms.

PRACTICAL TIPS

Stay at least 32 kilometers away rom a

thunderstorm. Wind shear, gust ronts,

turbulence, and hail can all occur within

this distance.

A storm moves in the direction o its anvil. To

approximate the speed and direction o the

storm, use winds alot at FL 120.

Its usually better to circumnavigate on the

backside o a thunderstorm away rom the

anvil. However, the southwest corner is oten

where tornadoes orm.

Use caution under the anvil between cloud

layers. This area sometimes contains hail.

Select an altitude that will let you see the

cloud buildups. Recognize that it may be

higher than most light aircrat can fy and

may require oxygen or the pilot.

Ask or assistance rom air trac control

in avoiding convective activity you cant

visually identiy, but remember that weather

separation is a secondary duty or

controllers. As pilot in command, the ultimatesaety o the fight rests with you. There is an

art to fying around thunderstorms that cant

be developed just by reading or taking

courses. It must be learned by experience

very careully.

I caught in a thunderstorm, ocus on keeping

the airplane right side up. I possible, avoid

making turns. Adjust to your aircrats

maneuvering speed (VA). Lowering thelanding gear may also help stabilize the

airplane. Do NOT lower the faps.


THUNDERSTORM


10/13

TURBULENCE

At altitude, turbulence can range rom

uncomortable to catastrophic. Close to the

ground, it can turn a routine landing into an

accident. Turbulence is classied by intensity

and type:

INTENSITY

Light turbulence can momentarily cause slight,

erratic changes in altitude and/or attitude. Many

GA pilots will report vigorous light turbulence as

moderate. Aircrat type (wing loading) may

greatly infuence the perception o severity.

Moderate turbulence can cause changes in

attitude and/or altitude, and usually, variations in

indicated airspeed as well. The aircrat remains

under control, but the ride will be uncomortable.

Severe turbulence induces large, abrupt

changes in attitude and/or altitude, as well as

airspeed. The aircraft may momentarily be out

of control.

Extreme turbulence, in addition to all o the

above, renders the aircrat nearly impossible to

control, and may cause structural damage.

TYPE

The three most common types o turbulence are

convective, mechanical, and wind shear.

Convective turbulence results rom liting

action. This is the turbulence associated with

thunderstorms.

Topography can cause mechanical turbulence.

Airports known or having squirrelly winds,or example, typically earn their reputation

due to topographical actors. Strong winds

near mountains oten create moderate or

severe turbulence.

Wind shear occurs at the point o a change in

wind direction and/or speed. Wind shear is oten

associated with thunderstorms or microbursts,

but strong winds alot and light winds at the

surace may also cause wind shear.

Clouds are excellent signposts or rough air.

Standing lenticular clouds and rotor clouds

signiy the presence o turbulence and should

be given a wide berth. Similarly, any clouds that

resemble crashing waves or appear as i theyve

been shredded indicate turbulence. Towering

cumulus or cumulonimbus can also generate

severe or extreme turbulence.

PRACTICAL TIPS

Ask local pilots about topography or other

airport conditions that may create

mechanical turbulence.

Summertime bumps almost always end at

the top o the haze layer. Climb above the

haze, and your passengers will thank you.

Climb above a deck o puy cumulus, and

your ride will generally smooth out. In the

summer, the tops may quickly climb ashigh as FL 120, and climbing above may

not be practical. Tops during winter tend

to be lower.

Fly early or late. The air is most turbulent

between the hours o 10 a.m. and 5 p.m.,

when the heating o the ground sets updrats

in motion.


KELVIN-HELMHOLTZ WAVESA SIGN OF TURBULENT AIR


11/13

I you encounter turbulence, slow to

maneuvering speed (VA). Maintain attitude,

but dont ght to hold altitude.

Tighten seat belts; use the belts on

unoccupied seats to secure any loose items.Its much easier to secure the cabinbefore

takeo. Incorporate this task into your

prefight checklist.

I fying in a complex airplane, lower the gear

to help stabilize the aircrat.

Advise passengers when turbulence is

expected, so that they are prepared or the

encounter. Assign them tasks that will keep

them ocused outside the aircrat, such aslooking or checkpoints or other landmarks.

ICING

Structural and carburetor ice are both serious.

Structural ice on your airplane can make it

incapable o fight. It can only orm on your

airplane when the temperature is zero degrees

centigrade or below in visible moisturethat is, in

a cloud, or perhaps in reezing rain. Carburetor

ice can occur on warm, sunny days and causeengine ailure. Thankully, all airplanes susceptible

to carburetor ice have a carburetor heat system.

For more inormation on handling icing

conditions, please read the AOPA Air Saety

Foundations Saety AdvisorAircraft Icing

(http://www.aopa.org/as/publications/sa11.pd).

PRACTICAL TIPS

Take the reezing level and cloud bases into

account i planning an instrument fight, and

choose an altitude that will keep you out o

either reezing cold air or clouds, unless your

aircrat is approved or fight in icing conditions.

Watch the OAT gauge as you climb to

cruising altitude and note the reezing level.

This way, youll know how ar to descend to

nd warm air i ice begins to orm.

I you encounter ice when fying above the

minimum altitude required on an instrument

fight, remember that you may be able to

descend and still be clear o obstructions.

Know the required minimum altitudes, and beready to descend to, but not below, them

unless its an emergency.

Icing is subject to regional and seasonal

infuences. Be amiliar with the icing actors

that dominate the skies in which you fy.

Check airmets and sigmets or areas o

potential icing.

Look or the reezing level in the winds alotchart and area orecast.

The absence o pilot reports (pireps) o icing

may merely indicate that no one in the area

is fying.

Seeing rainbows in the cloud tops when

fying above a cloud deck usually indicates

icing conditions.

Icing is most severe near the top o thecloud. When descending into clouds in

below-reezing temperatures, expedite your

descent to minimize any icing encounter.



12/13

Monitor the EGT in potential carburetor icing

conditions. The EGT will fuctuate when

carburetor ice is initially orming, giving an

earlier warning than the traditional symptom o

lower maniold pressure or decreasing RPM.

Help other pilots by reporting any icing to air

trac control.

FORECAST VS. REALITY

Forecasts are educated guesses, not

guarantees.As in any endeavor, practice

improves perormance: Pay attention to the

weather even when youre not fying. Note what

kind o weather system predominates, how itlooks, and what it does. When fying, compare

the orecast with actual conditions you

encounter. Pay attention to trends.And always

leave yourself an out. Thats what being

WeatherWise is all about.



13/13

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