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Name: _______________________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter Nine/Part One – The Fall of the Federalist Party

I. The Fall of the Federalist Party:

A. The Split of the Federalist Party and the Alien and Sedition Acts:

The Federalist Party, led by Alexander Hamilton, wanted a war with France in the belief that this would make the pro-French Democratic Republicans look bad in the eyes of the American people. A war would also result in an increase in the size of the military, which would mean an increase in the power of the national government. All of these factors were major goals of the Federalist Party. When John Adams refused to declare war on France and sent a set of three new diplomats to France to negotiate a treaty, Hamilton and a part of the Federalist Party broke away and called themselves the “High Federalists.” In effect, Hamilton had split the Federalist Party.

Determined to weaken the massive popular support that the Democratic Republicans had with the people (especially immigrants from France), Hamilton and his High Federalists created and pushed two new laws through Congress. The first law, known as the Alien Act, allowed the President to expel (kick out) any foreigner who was thought to be “a danger to the nation.” The law also raised the number of years an immigrant had to wait to become a citizen from five to fourteen years. Hamilton believed that this would eliminate many foreign born voters from the Election of 1800 and would weaken the Republicans.

A second law, known as the Sedition Act, was passed shortly after the Alien Act. Under the Sedition Act (sedition means to stir up a rebellion), a person could be fined or even jailed for criticizing certain government officials publicly. Within a short time, a number of anti-Federalist newspaper editors and Congressmen were thrown in jail. Hamilton and his supporters had designed a law to “silence” critics of the Federalist Party before the Election of 1800.

The new laws were enormously unpopular with the people and the Democratic-Republicans argued (correctly) that the laws violated freedom of the speech, press, and several other rights and liberties. Jefferson considered the laws to be a threat to the people, but could not gather enough support in Congress to overturn the laws. President Adams did not veto the laws, truly believing that there were enemy (French) spies in the nation and that he needed the laws to fight these foreign “threats.” In the end, the signing of the acts was John Adams worst mistake as President.

EFFECTS: The Alien and Sedition Acts did not have the effect that Hamilton and his High Federalist supporters had hoped for. In fact, the laws made the Federalists even more unpopular and virtually guaranteed that they would lose the Election of 1800 to the Democratic Republicans. The Federalists had taken an action to hurt their political opponents – and hurt the nation in the process. George Washington’s warnings about the dangers of political parties had come true.

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B. The Democratic-Republicans Fight Back:

Thomas Jefferson felt that the Alien and Sedition Acts were a danger to the rights of the people and were a sign that the Federal Government was becoming too powerful. He wished to fight the acts, but knew that the Democratic Republicans did not have quite enough votes in Congress to strike down the new laws. Jefferson also knew that fighting the laws in the Federal (national) Courts would fail. The Federal Courts were full of judges appointed by both President’s Washington and Adams – and most of these men were Federalists who supported the laws.

Instead, Jefferson and his friend James Madison worked with the States of Virginia and Kentucky to create two “resolutions” or statements that were passed by their state legislatures. The resolutions, later known as the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, claimed that every state had the right to decide whether a law was constitutional or unconstitutional and could “nullify,” or cancel, any federal law within state borders. Jefferson hoped that other states would follow the lead of Virginia and Kentucky and nullify (cancel) the Alien and Sedition Acts (or at least ignore them).

The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions was an offshoot of Jefferson’s belief in strict interpretation of the Constitution. In other words, the resolutions claimed that the Federal Government only had those powers that were directly listed to it in the Constitution and all other powers belonged to the states. The Constitution did not say that the Federal Government could declare a law unconstitutional. Therefore, Jefferson claimed that the states had the power to declare Federal laws unconstitutional. The resolutions were never officially used or acted on – within a few years, the Alien and Sedition Acts were changed by Congress and were no longer a threat.

EFFECTS: The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions was only a sign of a much larger issue that had been under debate since the Constitutional Convention was voted on by the 13 states: would the Federal or the State Governments be more powerful? Federalists argued that a powerful Federal Government that could force the states to act was the only way to prevent a weak and ineffective government.

Republicans (especially in the Southern States) argued that the only way to protect rights from an overly powerful national government was to make the State Governments more powerful – an idea that came to be called States’ Rights. States’ Rights never truly went away until the Civil War was over. The issue would cause many bitter fights in Congress, a near civil war in the 1830’s, and became one of the reasons for the Southern States leaving the United States in 1861. Unwittingly, Jefferson had created one of the causes for the Civil War of the 1860’s through his attempt to fight laws that he correctly believed to be unconstitutional.

C. The Election of 1800:

John Adams had little doubt about how he would do in the Election of 1800 – he knew that he would most likely lose to Thomas Jefferson. The mood of the nation had changed a great deal since 1796. Political Parties were a part of American politics and the Democratic Republicans were much more popular than the Federalists. The majority of the people (common Americans) disliked the fact that Federalists believed that only the wealthy and well educated should lead the nation. Federalist policies also supported business, trade, and manufacturing – representing a small portion of the nation’s population.

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Federalist attempts to start a war with France and to pass the Alien and Sedition Acts had backfired on them. Taxes raised to increase the size of the military were very unpopular and angry feelings against France were fading away. Adams went into the election with a split party only to face a strongly united Republican Party. The Republican strategy of attacking the Federalists for passing the Alien and Sedition Acts and for raising taxes made the election a fairly easy victory for Jefferson and his running mate - Aaron Burr of New York.

Winning the popular vote was the easy part for Jefferson, winning the electoral vote was another matter entirely. The House of Electors gave both Jefferson and Burr 73 votes apiece and could not clearly choose a winner (at that time, electors still voted separately for President and Vice President). Under the rules of the Constitution, Congress had to break the tie by holding a vote in the House of Representatives. It took four days and 36 votes in the House to break the tie – making Jefferson President by one vote over Aaron Burr, who became Vice President. With the passage of the Twelfth Amendment, this situation was prevented and has never occurred again. The Electoral College now casts votes for a President and his running mate (Vice President).

EFFECTS: The Election of 1800 had several important effects. Jefferson’s victory was a sign that the people of the United States were no longer willing to sit back and allow their “betters” to run the nation in their name. Common Americans wanted to participate in government and they believed that the Republicans would make this possible. Jefferson was the champion of the “common man.” In addition, the election gave the Republicans a true majority in both houses of Congress. A majority of his own party members in Congress gave Jefferson the ability to carry out laws and policies without serious opposition.

Two other important effects came out of the Election of 1800. The Federalist Party began to decline in power and never won control of Congress or the Presidency again. Finally, the election proved something to the American people and the world. Americans could switch power from one party to another without war and bloodshed. The peaceful transfer of power from one group to another became an example that has been followed in every election since 1800.

Review Questions

1. How did the Alien and Sedition Acts harm the party that created them – the Federalist Party?

2. What did the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions claimed that every state had a right to do?

3. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions was a sign of which “larger issue?

4. What did the Election of 1800 give the Republicans (two major advantages)?

5. What did the Election of 1800 proved to America and the world?

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Name: ___________________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter Nine/Part Two – A New Style of Government in 1800

II. A New Style of Government in 1800

A. Easing Fears and Changes in the Federal Government:

The Election of 1800 had been bitter and hard-fought. Jefferson and the Republicans won the support of common Americans while the Federalists continued to enjoy the support of the wealthy and well-educated classes. Federalists feared that the change of power from the Federalist Party to the Republican Party meant that the “mob” (what Federalists tended to call common, poorly educated Americans) would take over and destroy the nation that they (the Federalists) had so carefully built from 1789-1800. They also worried that the man who supported the French Revolution and opposed the adoption of the Constitution had become President.

Thomas Jefferson, as a Republican, did announce in his first speech that the government would become more democratic (attempt to make certain that all people had the same rights), but that the Federalists had little to worry about. He reassured them that they had a right to participate in government and that they would not be persecuted (punished) for their views. In his opinion, the minority (weaker political party) had an equal right to speak out and should be protected by the law. He also told Federalists that he had no intentions of changing or ignoring the Constitution while he was President. Finally, the new President claimed that “We are all Federalists, we are all Republicans.”

EFFECT: Jefferson proved that the United States could transfer the power of the government from one political party to another without violence and bloodshed and that the Federal Government (as created by the Constitution) was in no danger of collapse. His speech assured (promised) Americans that all members of government had the right to express their opinions and fight for what they believed in without fear of persecution or imprisonment. His claim that “We are all Federalists, we are all Republicans” was a message – we are all Americans.

B. Jefferson Changes the Government:

There were many differences between Jefferson and the Presidents (Washington and Adams) who went before him. He stayed at a simpleboarding house rather than an expensive hotel on the day that he was sworn in as President. The ceremony itself was very plain – he walked to the Capitol Building, gave a short speech, and walked back to his boardinghouse for a quick dinner. Jefferson wanted the Presidency to reflect the customs of common Americans. He believed that the government should serve common Americans or “the people.” Even as President, Jefferson held few parties and greeted people by shaking hands – not the more formal bow that Washington and Adams had used.

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Although Jefferson did keep many Federalist employees in government positions, he had every intention of changing a number of Federalist policies that he disagreed with. The Federalist had created the National Bank, and many Federalist Judges had been appointed to the Judicial Branch. President Jefferson, unlike the Federalists, wanted government to be as simple and inexpensive as possible and uninvolved in the economy. He called this policy “Laissez Faire” after the old French term meaning to “let alone”.

In addition, Jefferson believed in an economic theory created by Scottish economist Adam Smith that was known as the “Free Market” Theory. In other words, goods and services should be exchanged without regulation (government control) and free competition should be the standard rule. This policy fit in quite well with Jefferson’s “Laissez Faire” approach to government. Under Jefferson, the Federal Government would not use its funds or power to directly promote business, banking, or trade.

Jefferson wanted to take immediate steps to reduce the size, power, cost, and debt of the Federal Government. As a result, he decided to:

- Convince Congress to repeal the Whiskey Tax and stop using the Alien and Sedition Acts- Fire all federal tax collectors- Cut the size of the Federal Government and its spending by reducing the Army from 4,000 to 2,500 men and also cut shipbuilding- Cut the size of Federal offices by reducing the number of people employed in them

The new President worked closely with his Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, to reduce the size of the Federal Budget (the amount of money it takes to run the government) and to pay off the national debt. In Jefferson’s mind, reducing the size of the government and the military was a major step towards reducing the Federal Budget. Secretary of the Treasury Gallatin did convince Jefferson to keep the Bank of the U.S. in operation as a useful economic tool. Over time, Jefferson grudgingly admitted that he had been wrong about the Bank of the United States.

EFFECTS: Jefferson allowed the states to have more power and lessened the power of the Federal Government. The memory of the power of Great Britain’s Government was still very fresh in the mind of Thomas Jefferson. He wanted to reduce the chance that the U.S. Government would become so powerful that it would abuse the rights of the people, take away freedoms, and become corrupt.

Jefferson was also deeply concerned about the money that the United States owed to other nations and wanted to have it completely paid off by the time that he left office. Jefferson’s policies, however, carried a price tag of another kind. The reduction in size of the military weakened the United States and left it unprepared to handle a military crisis. The United States continued to find itself in the position of being a weak and poor nation that could not afford to become involved in a major conflict.

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C. Jefferson’s Fails to Change the Judicial Branch or the Bank of the U.S.:

Although the Republicans won control of the Presidency and the Legislative Branch (Congress), they were unable to make any changes in the Judicial Branch (Federal Courts). Once appointed, Federal Judges may not be removed unless they commit a crime, resign, or pass away. Washington and Adams had appointed nearly every Federal Judge and most of these judges were Federalists.

One judge in particular, Chief Justice John Marshall of the Supreme Court, was a Federalist who was determined to increase the power of the Federal (national) Government. Marshall and Jefferson often opposed each other’s policies and ideas. During Jefferson’s eight years in office, Chief Justice Marshall often stood in the way of Jefferson’s plans and protected the power of the Federal Government. The Judicial Branch was the one branch of the national government that remained strongly “Federalist.”

D. Marbury v. Madison 1803 Sets an Important Precedent:

Before President Adams left office, he created a number of new Federal Courts and appointed Federalists as judges on the new courts. The Jefferson Administration, however, never delivered some of the appointments left behind by Adams. One of the men who did not receive his letter of appointment sued the Secretary of State, James Madison, in an attempt to make him hand over his appointment. The man’s name was William Marbury.

Under the Judiciary Act of 1789 (a law passed by Congress to set up the court system), the case was sent to the Supreme Court automatically as it involved a federal official. In deciding the case, the Supreme Court rejected the idea that the Judiciary Act of 1789 could give it the power to decide cases against federal officials – claiming that such power was unconstitutional (the Constitution did not give the Supreme Court the power to try cases against federal officials).

Therefore, argued Chief Justice Marshall, Congress did not have the right to give the Supreme Court powers through laws such as the Judiciary Act. The Judiciary Acts was ruled “unconstitutional” and the Supreme Court would not make a decision on Marbury’s case.

EFFECT: Marbury v. Madison guaranteed that the Supreme Court had the power of Judicial Review or the right to declare any federal or state law constitutional or unconstitutional. The case gave the Court the power to protect itself against any attempts to weaken it by Congress or the Presidency. John Marshall had managed to protect the “Federalist” Judicial Branch and guaranteed that Federalist beliefs would still have a place in the National Government.

The decision, however, tormented (deeply bothered) Jefferson, who believed that it made the Judicial Branch far too powerful. Jefferson never did have any success in changing the power or the policies of the Judicial Branch. Chief Justice Marshall was there to block every attempt Jefferson made to alter the power of the Supreme Court. Most of the Federalist judges who had been appointed by Washington and Adams simply outlasted Jefferson and Jefferson was able to do little to change the Federalist nature of the Judicial Branch.

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President Thomas Secretary of State James Madison Secretary of the Treasury Albert Gallatin John MarshallThird President of the United States as he would have appeared in 1800 Picture taken years after he served as Secretary Chief Justice of the Supreme Painting from 1800 of the Treasury Court 1801-1835

Review Questions

1. How did Jefferson reassure Americans after he was elected (and what particular words did he use)?

2. What is the “Laissez Faire” idea on government?

3. What is the “Free Market” theory of economics?

4. What steps did Jefferson take immediately after being elected?

5. What very important power did the Supreme Court case of Marbury v. Madison guarantee for the Supreme Court?

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Name: ____________________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter Nine/Part Three – The U.S. Doubles in Size

III. The United States Doubles in Size

A. Western Farmers and the Mississippi River:

By 1800, over one million American citizens lived in the lands won from Britain during the Revolutionary War – from the Appalachian Mountains to the Mississippi River. The citizens living in this region, like most Americans, were farmers. The region between the mountains and the Mississippi, however, lacked something that American farmers needed badly – roads that connected them to the markets on the East Coast. Luckily for the farmers, the region had many rivers that flowed to the west and south into the Mississippi, and farmers depended on the Mississippi to transport their goods to markets on the East Coast. Farmers could send their crops down the Mississippi to New Orleans and from New Orleans to the East Coast by sea.

Spain controlled New Orleans and threatened to cut off American shipments up and down the Mississippi from time to time. The threat of the loss of New Orleans as a shipping port for U.S. products was taken seriously by the United States Government. Washington had sent an agent (Thomas Pinckney) to New Orleans during his administration to find a way to keep the port open to American farmers.

Pinckney succeeded and signed a treaty with Spain in 1795. Under the Pinckney Treaty, Spain allowed the U.S. to ship goods down the Mississippi and to store them in New Orleans before they were shipped to the East Coast. The treaty also settled the border between Spanish Florida and the United States. The problem of losing the Mississippi as a shipping route seemed to be over, but events in the early 1800’s were to prove otherwise.

In Europe, Napoleon (Emperor of France) was using a huge French Army to conquer large portions of Europe. France was faced with an alliance of nations as enemies (including Great Britain), but Napoleon’s brilliant strategies produced victory after victory. Several European nations had already fallen to Napoleon and it seemed as if nothing could stop him. One nation that was invaded by Napoleon was Spain. Within a short time, his brother ruled Spain, which became a puppet nation to France. In 1800, Spain was forced to surrender New Orleans and the entire territory of Louisiana to France.

News of Louisiana’s transfer back to France greatly alarmed Thomas Jefferson and other Americans. Jefferson knew that the United States Army and Navy could not stand against a large and hostile French force in the west. Fortunately for the U.S., any plans Napoleon had were ruined when the only large French force in the America’s was defeated by rebels on the island of Haiti and wiped out by disease.

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EFFECTS: The loss of Haiti meant that Napoleon had no base for supplies and soldiers in the Americas. With the British Navy in firm control of the Atlantic Ocean, retaking Haiti was not a realistic option. Napoleon believed that this would make Louisiana too difficult to control and abandoned his plans for the territory. Jefferson saw the French loss of Haiti in a different light. Perhaps France would be willing to sell Louisiana to the United States? The purchase of Louisiana would eliminate the threat of a European Empire on America’s western border and add valuable land to America (including control over the Mississippi River).

B. The Louisiana Purchase:

Jefferson wasted little time in acting on his concerns. He sent two men, Robert Livingston and James Monroe, to France with a proposal to buy New Orleans and Florida and allowed them to offer France up to ten million dollars. French Foreign Minister Talleyrand did not seem to be interested in the American’s offers at first. Napoleon, however, decided that France could not afford to send forces to America and that France was in desperate need of money to supply its enormous military. Much to their surprise, Talleyrand asked the Americans if they would be interested in buying all of Louisiana.

Monroe and Livingston were shocked. Although they had no orders from Jefferson to buy Louisiana, they realized it was too great an opportunity to ignore. After several offers and long negotiations, the American representatives offered France fifteen million dollars for all of Louisiana. Both men were troubled by the fact that they had gone beyond Jefferson’s orders but believed that this would be overlooked when news of the purchase reached the United States. Livingston declared “From this day the United States (will) take its place among the powers of the first rank.” Livingston could not have been more correct.

Jefferson was pleased by the purchase, but wondered if it was constitutional. The Constitution did not specifically give the President the power to purchase land and Jefferson was a believer in strict interpretation. After careful thought, Jefferson found a compromise. The President did have the power to make treaties with foreign nations and he asked Congress to accept the Louisiana Purchase as a treaty. Congress quickly approved and the United States took control of the territory in 1803.

EFFECTS: The purchase of the Louisiana Territory, known as the Louisiana Purchase, doubled the size of the United States in a single day. Jefferson believed that it was enough land to give Americans room to expand for generations and guaranteed that the United States would remain a nation of independent farmers. Jefferson also knew that the land would provide many valuable resources over time. Americans began to dream of a United States that would stretch from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The Louisiana Purchase was the first step towards reaching this dream.

C. Exploring the Louisiana Territory:

Jefferson understood that the Louisiana Purchase was a great gain for the United States, but exactly what was out there was a question that nobody could answer. President Jefferson was intensely interested in finding out what the Louisiana Territory contained. In 1803, Jefferson convinced Congress to set aside money for an exploring expedition to go into the territory. He also selected his own private secretary, Meriwether Lewis, to head the expedition. Lewis selected William Clark, a soldier and capable explorer to help lead the expedition with him.

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After careful planning and preparation, the two men set off from St. Louis with 50 men and several boats. The “Corps of Discovery” planned to go up the Mississippi River and then west up the Missouri River and head for the Pacific Ocean. Jefferson had given Lewis and Clark several missions. The most important was to map the territory as best as possible and determine if there was a water route to the Pacific Ocean. They were also told to study the geography, weather, rainfall, plant life, animals, and Indians of the territory and to make detailed records (including drawings and maps) of as much as they could.

Lewis and Clark were also given dozens of “friendship medals” to give the Indians. The medals did two things – they pledged peace and friendship to the Indians and announced that the United States was now in control of Indian lands. On a personal note, Jefferson begged Lewis to send him as many “samples” as possible.

The journey to the Pacific and back took over two years. Only one man was lost and the Indians proved (for the most part) to be far from hostile. In fact, an Indian woman named Sacagawea from the Shoshone tribe traveled with them and saved the expedition several times by acting as an interpreter and preventing fights with nervous Indian tribes. Despite great hardships such as droughts, grizzly bear attacks, lack of food, blizzards, and mountain ranges, the expedition was a great success.

EFFECTS: The Lewis and Clark Expedition did everything that Jefferson had wanted and more. Although disappointed by the news that there was no direct water route to the Pacific, Jefferson was delighted with the huge amount of information that the expedition produced about the land, animals, and Indians. Lewis and Clark provided valuable maps, soil samples, and information about rainfall that would help Americans settle the territory in the future. In addition, the expedition let the United States know where the Louisiana boundaries were to the north and south.

Zebulon Pike continued the work of the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1807. Pike concentrated on exploring to the southwest and actually went into Spanish territory where he was eventually captured by Spanish soldiers and escorted back into the United States. Although almost all of his maps and journals were taken by the Spanish, Pike managed to hide at least one map in his musket barrel. His journey provided valuable information about the southwest and Spanish strength in that region.

Above all, both expeditions excited Americans and thousands began to push further west into these new territories (often without the permission of the European and Indian nations that controlled them). The United States began to expand and the population grew rapidly as new lands opened to settlement. News of huge areas of open land spurred hundreds of thousands of immigrants to come to the United States to begin new lives.

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Name: ____________________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter Nine/Part Four – American is Neutrality Violated

IV. U.S. Neutrality is Violated

A. Conflict with the Barbary Pirates:

Despite earlier violations of American Neutrality by Britain and France (in the 1790’s), the situation for American merchants was profitable in the early 1800’s. American captains and their trading ships traveled the world’s oceans, looking for goods and rare items that could be sold for high prices in the United States.

Merchants traveled as far as China and India in search of trade goods and so many merchants from Boston visited the Pacific Northwest Coast that Indians there called all white men “Boston.” As usual, New England or “Yankee” merchants dominated the trading activity and made great profits off clever schemes such as selling ice to people in India in return for silks and spices.

By 1800, Americans could buy goods from around the world. China, silks, spices, and rare foods were all available in East Coast marketplaces. New England merchants were known as “Yankees” and had an unusual ability to make a profit through any trading that they became involved in. The flow of money into the hands of New England merchants led to the growth of cities and banking in New England. Eventually, these merchants would have enough money to invest in businesses and to build the first factories in United States History.

Trading, however, was not without its dangers and risks. The U.S. Navy was still too small to protect merchant ships around the world. One area of particular danger was the Mediterranean Sea along the North African Coast. A collection of small nations known as the Barbary States regularly attacked American ships, captured their cargoes, and held Americans as hostages until their relatives paid ransoms. The United States, like many European nations (including Great Britain) paid the “Barbary Pirates” a yearly fee or tribute to avoid these attacks. In 1801, however, the Barbary States increased their tribute demands and Jefferson refused to pay them any longer.

The Barbary States declared war on the United States and attacks on American merchant ships increased rapidly, resulting in heavy losses for American merchants. In response, Jefferson (who now regretted his decision to cut the military) ordered the United States Navy to blockade the largest port in the Barbary States – Tripoli. During the blockade, the frigate U.S.S. Philadelphia ran aground in the harbor and the Barbary Pirates captured both the ship and its crew.

Fearing that the pirates would salvage the ship and use it as a warship, the commander of the fleet blockading Tripoli ordered a young Lieutenant named Stephen Decatur to raid the ship with a small party of sailors and set it on fire. Decatur accomplished his mission after a brief and violent struggle with the Pirates and blew the Philadelphia’s powder magazine. At the same time, 500 U.S. Marines landed on the shores of Tripoli itself and launched a successful raid on the city to rescue the captured sailors.

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EFFECTS: The blockade and attack on Tripoli did force the leader of the Barbary States to sign a new treaty with the United States and he promised to stop any further attacks on American ships. The United States, however, still continued to pay a reduced yearly tribute to the pirates. Although this bothered Jefferson, he knew the United States was still too weak to avoid the tribute entirely. The attack also won the United States a small measure of respect in Europe – especially from Great Britain. The brief war showed the world that the U.S. was willing to defend itself and its interests around the world.

B. Britain and French Neutrality Violations:

In 1803, the war in Europe between France and the allied nations led by Britain started again after a brief period of peace. The fighting was intense and the French and British were far too busy fighting each other to worry about the American ships that were busily trading with both sides. For American merchants and farmers, the war in Europe was great for trading goods and selling crops. Profits increased rapidly and American merchants grew wealthy from the increase in trade with Britain and France.

The situation did not last for very long and by 1805, both Britain and France began to capture American ships once again. They were determined to stop the flow of goods from America to their enemies and the small size of the U.S. Navy did not concern either nation. The British took the attacks one step further, however.

After years of fighting the French and being forced to keep their ships at sea 365 days a year, conditions in the British Navy began to grow worse. Ships were in desperate need of repair and many men were lost to disease and accidents. The need to blockade the French Western and Northern Coasts in the Atlantic and Southeastern Coast in the Mediterranean combined with the need to chase down French squadrons and privateers that broke the blockade had stretched the British Navy to the limit. Britain did not have enough volunteer sailors to man all of their ships (by now, over 500).

In desperation, the British government allowed the Navy to send squads of armed sailors known as “press gangs” into English villages to literally kidnap men and force them into the navy. A favorite tactic was for a press gang to wait outside a tavern to attack and take away drunken men leaving at night. Criminals were even sentenced to serve in the Navy instead of going to prison for their crimes.

Faced with the possibility of not having enough men to run their ships, the British began to force American sailors from captured ships into their navy – a practice known as “pressing” or impressment. The British claimed that these Americans were really deserters from the British Navy serving on American ships, but many were really true American citizens.

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Americans were outraged by impressment and called on President Jefferson to declare war on Great Britain. Jefferson, like Washington and Adams before him, knew that the United States was too weak to risk a war with Britain. Although he bitterly regretted his decision to cut the size of the military, he remained determined to keep the nation out of war and to continue to eliminate the nation’s debt to foreign nations. As an alternative, Jefferson convinced Congress to create a law banning all nations. The Embargo Act of 1807, Jefferson thought, would deprive Britain and France of needed food and force them to stop attacks on American shipping.

C. Hard Times for Americans:

Trade profits dropped to alarmingly low levels and New England merchants were driven out of business. Smuggling, as in British days, increased rapidly. New Englanders smuggled goods into and out of harbors by ship and others smuggled goods back and forth between Canada and the United States. Anger against President Jefferson and the Republican Party in New England was intense.

President Jefferson realized that the Embargo Act was a failure and that it threatened to harm the Republicans’ chances of winning the Election of 1808. In the last days of his Presidency, Jefferson convinced Congress to pass another law, known as the Nonintercourse Act of 1809. Under the new trade law, merchants were allowed to trade with all nations except Britain and France.

The new law did improve trade slightly, but came nowhere near to restoring the level of trade that Americans enjoyed before 1807. France eventually did stop attacking American ships, but Britain continued the attacks and the impressment of American sailors. New England merchants were still hurt by the lack of trade with their major trading partner – Great Britain, and they bitterly blamed Jefferson for their troubles. Many Americans also still wanted to go to war with Britain.

Jefferson followed Washington’s example and announced that he would retire after his second term in office expired in March of 1809. In the Election of 1808, James Madison ran for President for the Republican Party and easily won the election against Charles Pinckney and the greatly weakened Federalist Party. Although the people were unhappy with the loss of trade and impressment of American sailors, a majority still voted Republican in the belief that the Republican Party represented the common American.

EFFECTS: Jefferson left the Presidency disappointed by his second four years in office and his failure to resolve (settle) America’s trade difficulties or the situation with Great Britain. Both Jefferson and Madison realized that the United States would not be able to avoid a war with Britain if impressment continued and American feelings against the British remained as strong as they had been under Jefferson. Deep inside, President Jefferson knew that his plans to keep the government small and to pay off the foreign debt would be scrapped if the United States went to war with Great Britain.

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Famous political cartoon making fun of and criticizing the Embargo Act HMS Leopard fires on the USS Chesapeake outside New York Harbor on of 1807 – pointing out who the act really hurt. “Ograbme” is Embargo June 22, 1807. Three U.S. sailors were killed and an additional 18 were spelled backwards wounded. The British boarded The Chesapeake and seized four sailors – all

of whom had deserted from the British Navy.

Review Questions

1. What did the brief war against the Barbary States show the world?

2. What is “impressment?”

3. What did Jefferson believe that the Embargo Act would do for the U.S.?

4. How did the Embargo Act impact the United States?

5. What did Jefferson know about his plans as a President if the U.S. did go to war?

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Name: ___________________________________ Social Studies Seven/PD: _____Chapter Nine/Part Five – The War of 1812

V. The War of 1812

A. Americans Push for War:

Feelings against the British remained strong in large areas of the United States after President Madison was elected. New England, however, was still suffering terribly from the loss of trade with Great Britain that began under Jefferson’s Embargo and Nonintercourse Acts. New England, which contained most of the nations’ trading companies and ports, wanted to put an end to the laws, which prevented trade with either Britain or France. Madison knew that anger against his Republican Party in New England (the last stronghold of the Federalist Party) was very strong and he did sympathize with their suffering.

Congress urged Madison to make the British and the French an offer as soon as the Nonintercourse Act expired. Under the offer, Madison told the two nations that the United States would begin to trade with the first nation that stopped attacking U.S. ships and would continue to refuse to trade with the other nation. Napoleon saw this as an opportunity to hurt the British and ordered the French Navy to stop the attacks. True to his word, Madison allowed Americans to trade with France but kept the embargo against trade with Britain in place.

At this time, a group of Congressmen from the south and west began a strong push for war with Britain. Within a short time, they earned the nickname of “War Hawks” by other Congressmen and the people. The people from the south and west supported their attempts to go to war. Only New Englanders, who were still hurting from the loss of trade with Britain, resisted. Their objections, however, were drowned in the rising feeling of intense nationalism or pride in one’s country.

The War Hawks argued that Britain was still treating the United States as if it were a British colony and that Britain remained a threat to the United States. In addition, many War Hawks pointed out that the British were supplying Indians with weapons and encouraging them to attack American settlers on the frontier. War Hawks voiced the feelings of many Americans when they said that it was time to punish the British for attacks on American ships and the impressment of American citizens. The most outspoken of all of the War Hawks was Henry Clay of Kentucky, who argued that a war with Britain could lead to the conquest and addition of all of Canada and Florida to the United States.

EFFECTS: Tensions continued between the U.S. and Britain as the British attacked U.S. ships, impressed American sailors, and began to blockade U.S. ports. After a battle between an American and British warship outside New York Harbor left a number of sailors dead and wounded on both sides, the War Hawks urged the nation to prepare for war. The call touched off a bitter and long debate in Congress, with New Englanders arguing that a war would only benefit southerners and westerners (by conquering land) while it would harm New England.

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In June of 1812, Madison gave in to the demands of the War Hawks and asked for a declaration of war. Despite a close vote, Congress declared war on Britain. The United States was at war with Britain again and the nation was as unprepared for this war as it had been for the revolution in 1776. Much as Jefferson had feared, his plans to reduce the size of the government and pay off the national debt were being destroyed by a war.

B. War Preparations:

News of the declaration of war produced mixed reactions in the United States. In some cities (especially southern and western cities where the Republicans were popular), people danced in the streets, held parties, and created songs and poems to celebrate the beginning of the war. Very little celebrating was done in New England or in areas with many Federalists. Federalists and New Englanders had opposed what they scornfully called “Mr. Madison’s War.” Regardless of the mood of the nation, the United States was as unprepared for the War of 1812 as it had been for the Revolutionary War.

Jefferson’s cost-cutting measures to pay off the foreign debt had resulted in the reduction of the military. When President Madison declared war in June of 1812, the United States Navy had only 16 true warships to face Britain’s 400 – 500 ships and the United States Army had fewer than 4,000 men. Although small, the United States Navy (and its shipboard soldiers – the Marines) was a well-trained and professional force that was prepared for war. U.S. sailors looked forward to getting a chance for “payback” and an opportunity to meet the British Navy in combat

The U.S. Army, on the other hand, was in very poor shape. The soldiers were poorly trained and had little equipment. To make matters worse, most of the officers in the Army had never seen combat or received any military training (many were political appointments). The situation in the Army was so bad that one Congressman remarked “The state of the Army is enough to make any man who has the smallest love of country to wish to get rid of it.” Congress realized that the situation with the Army needed to be corrected immediately.

Congress decided to attract volunteers by offering each man who joined the Army a $124 bonus payment (about one year’s pay) and 360 acres of land. The offer attracted thousands of men from the west and south (but far fewer from New England) and by the end of the war over 500,000 men served in the military. The Federal Government borrowed $98 million to pay for their training, equipment, and salaries. Jefferson’s plans for a small and inexpensive government and a nation free from debt were finished.

Despite the effort to bring men into the military, one further obstacle remained in place as the war started – training the volunteers to fight. Most of the volunteers had, at best, received very limited military training in militia groups in their home states. Officers soon discovered that the new volunteers had to be trained and that American volunteers often had a hard time adjusting to obeying commands without question. While it is true that the Army greatly improved by the end of the war, it was very much unprepared to fight through much of 1812 and 1813.

EFFECTS: The United States was unprepared for the war that it had started in 1812. The need to increase the size of the military and to train it meant that the United States would not be able to go on the offensive and would instead have to wait for the British to make the first moves. The delay gave the British time to prepare to defend Canada and to begin shifting ships from the war in Europe to North America. In reality, the only thing that saved the United States from an immediate blockade and invasion was the fact that Britain was both caught off guard by America’s declaration of war and the fact that Britain had dedicated most of its resources to fighting France.

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C. The War at Sea and on the Great Lakes:

The British Royal Navy had “ruled the waves” and experienced very few defeats in centuries of fighting the French, Spanish, and Dutch Navies. Few British captains and crews held any doubts about fighting the small American Navy. As far as the British were concerned, it was unfortunate that they had to fight the Americans, but it would prove to be another quick British victory. To their great shock and concern, the American Navy quickly inflicted the first serious defeats on the British Navy in over 100 years of heavy fighting at sea.

Several American warships won victories against the British, but few could equal the record of the U.S.S. Constitution. In August of 1812, the U.S.S. Constitution fought and destroyed a British frigate, forcing the captain to surrender his ship. During the battle, an American sailor saw a British cannonball bounce off the thick oak side of the Constitution and yelled, “Her sides are made of iron!” The Constitution had earned its nickname – “Old Ironsides.” Before being trapped in harbor by the British blockade, the Constitution went on to win several more victories and captured a number of British merchant ships.

On the Great Lakes, “scratch” (made in a hurried fashion for immediate use) squadrons of U.S. Navy ships defeated British Navy squadrons at the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813 and the Battle of Lake Plattsburgh on Lake Champlain in 1814. The importance of the two battles far outweighed their size. Each battle prevented the British from gaining control over two major bodies of water that could have been used to invade the United States and ruined British plans to invade New York State.

EFFECTS: American victories at sea gave the nation good news and encouragement to balance the defeats it began to suffer on land in 1812 and 1813, but did little to change the situation at sea (The United States was still greatly outnumbered). The British blockaded the U.S. coast by the middle of 1813.

Britain was deeply shocked by its setbacks at sea but quickly transferred more ships to block American harbors – effectively trapping U.S. warships and preventing them from putting out to sea. The British Navy had a new and real respect for the U.S. Navy, however, and orders were sent to all British captains to avoid a fight with the Americans unless they had at least a two to one ship advantage. On the Great Lakes, the Americans halted British invasion plans in 1813 and 1814, but could not successfully launch invasions of their own and the war in this region settled into an uneasy “stalemate” or draw.

D. War on the Frontiers

The war did not go nearly as well for the United States on land as it did at sea. Convinced somehow that Canadians would rebel against the British if the United States invaded Canada; the United States Army planned several attacks on British Canada. Every attempt to invade Canada failed and no Canadians rebelled against Britain.

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Although the Americans had little success in defeating the British on land or in capturing Canada, they did experience greater success against Native Americans. William Henry Harrison invaded Canada and defeated a combined British-Native force at the Battle of the Thames. The American victory resulted in Tecumseh’s death and the break-up of the Native Confederacy that he had formed. In addition, it made Harrison a national hero (his defeat of Tecumseh would later help him win the Election of 1840). Tennessee Militia General Andrew Jackson also became a national hero for defeating the British allied Creek Tribe at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend.

EFFECTS: Victories in the west against the Indians would open up large areas of land to American settlement after the war was over. The victories against the Indians, however, did little to change the situation against Britain. Britain remained in control of Canada and any hope of adding Canada to the United States vanished by the end of 1814. Plans to take Florida also failed and the War Hawks had to abandon their wartime goal of adding large areas of land to the United States.

E. Final Stages of the War:

Unfortunately for the United States, Great Britain and its allies defeated France in 1814. Britain was now able to devote all of its resources to fighting the United States and decided to launch an invasion on three separate attack routes. One force landed thirty miles from Washington D.C., defeated a small American force, and burned the capital.

The British then marched on to Baltimore, but were unable to capture the city when the British Navy could not get by a fort guarding the mouth of Baltimore Harbor (Fort McHenry). A young American lawyer who witnessed the battle from the deck of a British warship later wrote the national anthem or “Star Spangled Banner” to describe the battle. Seeing little to gain, the British withdrew from the area shortly afterwards.

A second invasion from Canada into New York was defeated and driven off after a short naval battle on Lake Champlain (the Battle of Plattsburgh). The third invasion was set to attack New Orleans. At the Battle of New Orleans in January of 1815, General Andrew Jackson crushed the British invasion force, losing only seven men while the British lost over 2,000. Sadly, the soldiers at New Orleans did not know that the war was over even as they fought.

EFFECTS: The victory at New Orleans gave the American people confidence in a time when little was going well for the United States. In addition, the battle made Andrew Jackson the nation’s greatest hero and would directly lead to his election to the Presidency in 1828.

F. The Federalist Party Self-Destructs:

Federalist leaders decided to meet at what came to be known as the Hartford Convention in December of 1814. The war had severely

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damaged trade and business in New England and the war was more unpopular than ever in this region. During the meeting, breaking away from the United States and joining the British unless the war came to an end was discussed. Fortunately, the war did come to an end that very month and the plan was never carried out.EFFECTS: When news leaked out that the Federalists had considered abandoning the United States in the middle of a war, the party became extremely unpopular in the United States. For a time, there were even calls to arrest and try the members of the Hartford Convention for treason. Although no member was ever put on trial, the Federalist Party lost most of its support (even in New England) and ceased to be a force in American politics.

G. Peace and the Treaty of Ghent:

In 1815, the U.S. and Britain agreed to stop all fighting. No land or money was exchanged and no promises were made. Impressment and attacks on U.S. ships were no longer a threat now that Britain was not fighting France. The threat of a large Indian war in the west had also been eliminated. Both nations were eager to go back to trading with each other and to settling the remaining border disputes on the U.S.-Canadian Border (agreed to be the 49th degree of latitude under an 1818 treaty). One diplomat was heard to say: “Nothing was won, nothing was lost.”

EFFECTS: The war did, however, have several important effects:

1. The U.S. proved that it could and would defend itself and its interests (trade) when attacked. This gave Americans a sense of pride (nationalism) and earned the nation some respect in Europe.

2. The war forced Americans to begin to consider the building their own factories to produce needed goods when they were cut off from trade. After the war, Americans would be much less dependent on Europe (especially Britain) for trade goods.

3. Large areas of the western frontier were opened up to settlement.

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USS Constitution defeats HMS Guerrierre Oliver Hazard Perry General Andrew Jackson

Review Questions

1. How did the government attract volunteers for the Army during the War of 1812?

2. What did American victories at sea do for the United States?

3. How did victories in the west against Natives help the United States after the war?

4. How did the Hartford Convention affect the Federalist Party?

5. How did the War of 1812 make the United States much less dependent on Great Britain and Europe?