growing bread on trees

Picture of Author for back Cover (Ido Golandsky)

Cover Photo Woodlot and Wheatfield in Yorkshire (Geoffrey Hobson)

Cover Photo Wild Caper plants used to replant a slope (Elaine Solowey)

Cover Photo Wild Argania trees in the Atlas Mountains (Elaine Solowey)

Growing Bread On Trees

The Case for Perennial Agriculture

Dr. Elaine M. Solowey

Growing Bread on Trees

The Case for Perennial Agriculture

Dr. Elaine M. Solowey

©2010 by Elaine Solowey

All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this book or portions thereof in any form whatsoever.Front cover photo credits:

Oak Forest—Geoffrey HobsonPine Forest—Paula KeysPomegranates—Guy Eisner

ISBN 978-0-9785565-2-5

Substance Editor – David Schutt, engineer and horticulturist

The Thistle Syndicate is a group of writers and researchers who are dedicated to bringing specific skills and information to the public in a series of low cost publications.

This book is dedicated to Ed and Vivian whose generosity makes my work possible.

And to Serdar Afican, Ana Schwartz and Hannah Medalia who work with me every day.

i

Table of Contents

Introduction: The Case for Perennial Agriculture ............................ 1The Weakness of the Current System.......................................... 1

The tree in the landscape ....................................................... 5Trees make food and air ........................................................ 8Trees manufacture topsoil ...................................................... 8Trees stop erosion and store water .......................................... 8Trees are magnets for rain...................................................... 8Trees are home for beneficial creatures .................................. 9Trees mitigate and stabilize the climate.................................... 9

Chapter 1: Forests and Climate ................................................. 11

Chapter 2: Carbon Sequestration .............................................. 22

Chapter 3: Fertilizer Trees ......................................................... 31Nitrogen: the Most Commonly Missing Element ........................ 32Nitrogen Fixing Trees.............................................................. 36The Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria ................................................... 38

Rhizobia ............................................................................. 38Frankia ............................................................................... 39

Other Symbionts that Improve Plant Nutrition ........................... 40Potassium ........................................................................... 41Phosphorus ......................................................................... 42

Replacing the Fertilizer Sack with Something Better.................... 43

Chapter 4: Growing Bread on Trees .......................................... 45Four Approaches and a Fifth Possibility .................................... 45

Extend Flour with Tree Products............................................. 45Bread Trees......................................................................... 46Stop Feeding Bread to Animals ............................................. 46Engineer a “Wheat Tree” ..................................................... 46The Potential of Perennial Grasses ........................................ 48


ii

Nuts and Loaves..................................................................... 481. Stretching a Loaf: Flour Extenders and Flour Substitutes....... 482. The Promise of Bread Trees .............................................. 513. The Price of Feeding Bread to Animals: Why This Practice Must

Change ......................................................................... 584. Growing Bread on Trees................................................... 60

Chapter 5: Trees for Energy ....................................................... 66Bioethanol ............................................................................. 67Biodiesel ............................................................................... 68Can Biofuels Be Produced Sustainably?.................................... 69Cellulosic vs. Conventional Ethanol ......................................... 70Arboreal Energy Crops............................................................ 72Wild Trees for Energy.............................................................. 73Other Energy Crop Candidates ............................................... 74

Chapter 6: Fuel and Firewood ................................................... 78Short Term Fuel Crops ............................................................ 80Fast Growing Woodlot Trees ................................................... 81Focusing on Fuelwood Species for Arid Areas ........................... 82Select Individual Species of Useful Trees and Plants ................... 83

The Acacia Genus of Trees ................................................... 90Eucalyptus Genus of Trees ..................................................... 94The Haloxylon Genus of Trees ................................................. 98

The Prosopis Genus of Trees................................................. 99The Tamarix Genus of Trees.................................................. 103

The Zisiphus (or Ziziphus) Genus of Trees ............................ 104

Chapter 7: Arboreal Pastures ................................................... 106Trees for a Variety of Climates and Zones............................... 114Other Temperate Zone Fodder Trees ..................................... 115NFT-Nitrogen Fixing Trees..................................................... 120

Chapter 8: Trees for Edible Oil ................................................ 124Old Favorites ....................................................................... 125

Walnut Oil ........................................................................ 125Almond Oil ....................................................................... 126Olive Oil........................................................................... 126Edible Olive Oils ............................................................... 127Inedible Olive Oils............................................................. 128Pine Nut Oil ...................................................................... 129

iii

Hazelnut Oil ..................................................................... 129Apricot Oil ....................................................................... 130Avocado Oil .................................................................... 130

Lost Crops ........................................................................... 131Cashew Oil ...................................................................... 131Macadamia Oil................................................................. 131Argania Oil....................................................................... 132

Oils For the Future ............................................................... 134Baobab ............................................................................ 134Balanites .......................................................................... 135Marula ............................................................................ 136Tallow Nut ....................................................................... 137Mowrah Butter .................................................................. 137Owala Butter .................................................................... 138Kange Butter .................................................................... 138Dika Butter ....................................................................... 138Brazil Nuts/Paradise Nuts .................................................. 139Babassu Palm ................................................................... 140Caryocar Oil .................................................................... 141

Chapter 9: Cloth That Grows On Trees .................................... 143Making Barkcloth in Uganda................................................. 145Barkcloth in Samoa .............................................................. 148Barkcloth in Fiji .................................................................... 152

Barkcloth in the North American, Pacific North West............. 154Barkcloth in New Guinea ..................................................... 156Barkcloth in Japan ............................................................... 158Basho-fu: Cloth from Banana trees ........................................ 161Cloth from Dead Sea Fruit .................................................... 162

Chapter 10: Vitamin Trees....................................................... 164Discovering the Cause of Scurvy............................................ 168

Chapter 11: Trees and Their Names ........................................ 179

Chapter 12: Sugar Trees ......................................................... 187Maple Trees (Acer spp.) ....................................................... 187Birch Trees (Betula spp.) ....................................................... 190Hickory Trees (Carya spp.) .................................................... 191Poplar Trees (Populus spp.) ................................................... 191Other Nut Trees .................................................................. 192


iv

Carob Trees (Certonia siliqua) .............................................. 192Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos)....................................... 193Mesquite Trees (Prosopis spp.) .............................................. 195Palm Tree Sugars ................................................................. 196Date Palms (Phoenix dactylifera) ............................................ 200

Chapter 13: Salad Trees, Tree Vegetables, and Leaf Protein ...... 202A short list of common trees with edible leaves........................ 206Leaf Protein.......................................................................... 209

Chapter 14 : Trees That Changed the World ............................ 212The Fever Tree (Cinchona spp.) And Malaria .......................... 212Of Oaks and Humans .......................................................... 217Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead—the incense trees ... 221Coffee, Tea and Cocoa: the Engines of Trade ....................... 228

Coffee .............................................................................. 228Tea................................................................................... 232Cocoa, the Drink of the Gods............................................. 237

And Finally, Kola, the Bitter Stimulating Nut of Africa............... 242

Chapter 15 : Where Are the Trees? .......................................... 246City Trees ........................................................................... 246Suburban Trees .................................................................... 248Rural Trees .......................................................................... 249Anti-Tree Developments in the World ..................................... 251Our Historic Relationship with Trees ....................................... 252Are There Trees in Our Future? ............................................. 254

Chapter 16: Microstock Trees .................................................. 257Edible Insects ....................................................................... 257

Butterflies and Moths (Order Lepidoptera) ............................ 259Cicadas (Order Homoptera) ............................................... 265Termites (Order Isoptera).................................................... 267Bees, Ants and Wasps (Order Hymenoptera) ........................ 269Beetles (Order Coleoptera) ................................................. 270Grasshoppers, Crickets, etc. (Order Orthoptera) .................. 271

Heliculture ........................................................................... 272Silkworms ............................................................................ 281

Tasar Silk Worm ................................................................ 284

v

Chapter 17: Host Trees .......................................................... 286Symbiotic Fungi .................................................................. 286Truffle Cultivation................................................................. 287

Truffles in the Negev (and their hosts) .................................. 296Morel Mushrooms ............................................................. 299Domesticated Mushroom and Fungi.................................... 301

Modern Domestications ........................................................ 304Wild Mushrooms (and their trees) ......................................... 317

Leccinum scabrum............................................................. 317Integrating Fungi Growing with Conventional Agriculture......... 321

Afterword ............................................................................... 322

Appendix 1: Environmental and economic potential of Bedouin dry-land agriculture ................................................................. 325

Appendix 2: A Short List of Fuel Trees....................................... 339Fuelwood species for Arid Areas ............................................ 339Fuelwood species for Tropical Highlands................................ 340Fuelwood species for Humid Tropics...................................... 340

Glossary ................................................................................ 342

Bibliography........................................................................... 351

Index ..................................................................................... 357

1

IntroductionThe Case for Perennial Agriculture

Proposed in this book is a form of agriculture just asproductive as modern agricultural systems but thatrests more lightly and kindly on the suffering earth.

In this system no wasted nutrients pollute the waterwe drink, no topsoil is blown away by the wind andcrop- protective chemical sprays do not contaminatethe food we eat.

This system of agriculture draws carbon from theoverloaded carbon cycle and stores it usefully andsafely, stabilizes climate and greatly reduces the needfor artificially fixed nitrogen.

In short, it is a way to make almost all the food prod-ucts we need from edible oil to carbohydrates, fromsalad, to sweets to nuts.

We can also produce animal feed, rope, fabric, medi-cine, spices, teas, fuel and building material.

And while we are doing this we can stop erosion andgreatly slow global climate change.

The only obstacles to using this agricultural systemto heal the earth is our ignorance of what perennialcrops can do for both us and the land we work—andour attachment to a kind of agriculture that wasdeveloped in the stone age and has changed sincethen only in scale and intensity.

The Weakness of the Current SystemModern agriculture is not sustainable because itdestroys topsoil and uses more energy than it pro-duces in the form of food.


2

This is a fact, not a supposition and if the truthabout modern agriculture is not faced squarelyeveryone fed from this system is going to suffer.

Other factors besides erosion and the negativeenergy equations of modern food production exacer-bate the agricultural situation and it is only a ques-tion of which set of circumstances will burst thebubble first.

Some serious thinkers believe the increasing costand scarcity of oil will lead to crisis.

The following troubling quote is from a book calledThe Long Emergency in which author James How-ard Kunstler envisions a bleak future brought on bythe shortage of oil.

He assumes rightly that modern agriculture isexceedingly dependent on non- renewable fossil fuelsfor transport, energy to run irrigation systems andfarm machinery and for the manufacture of fertiliz-ers and pesticides. He is also extremely critical of theway modern agriculture is being done:

“There is a reason why farming is called agriculture.The culture part stands for the body of knowledge,skill, principles and methodology acquired over thou-sands of years. Most of that knowledge has been jetti-soned in a rush to turn farms into something likeautomated factories. In fact the current system isexplicitly called “factory farming” by those who run it.The technology of factory farming promotes the expan-sion of farms by orders of magnitude above what hadbeen the upper limit for traditional non-industrialfarms. Increasingly farming has changed from beingorganized on a family and community basis to beingcorporate and national, even global with few benefitsfor the localities where it takes places and with devas-tating effects on local ecologies and social relations.The diminishing returns of technology in farming havebeen especially vicious. Few other human activities

Introduction: The Case for Perennial Agriculture

3

demand so much respect for natural systems and theabuse of natural systems has been monumental underthe regime of industrial farming. The genetic modifica-tion of monoculture crops is only the latest (and possi-bly the final) technological insult among many previousones and comes at the climax of the of the industrialblowout. Diminishing returns are nature’s way of bit-ing back. The “winners” in recent decades have beenthe corporations that could enjoy the economies of scaleconferred by gigantism. The “losers” can be summa-rized generally as the future and its inhabitants. Theystand not only to lose future wealth but their civiliza-tion.” James Howard Kunstler.

Jared Diamond is another author who believes thatagriculture must be changed radically. His recentbook Collapse details the rise and fall of several soci-eties as diverse and separated by geography as MesaVerde in the American Southwest, Easter Island inthe middle of the Pacific Ocean and the Viking settle-ments of Greenland. In each case natural systemswere abused, trees were cut down and agricultureendeavors extended far beyond the point of sustain-able land use. Strained to the tipping point,droughts, bad weather, and social unrest broughtthese societies down. The greatest factor contribut-ing to the failure of these cultures was the collapse ofthe local ecology and agricultural systems that sus-tained them.

Jared Diamond obviously believes that ecological andsocial problems are just as dangerous for our ownunsustainable systems as they were for the nowextinct Greenlanders.

The result of such a failure now would be truly cata-strophic. The percentage of people who actuallyknow something about producing food in the devel-oped world is as low as it has ever been in humanhistory. Left to fend for themselves, 99% percent ofthe current population would probably starve to


4

death in a few weeks since so few of them would beable to grow, gather or catch anything to eat.

Whether survival would be possible even for the agri-culturally skilled few- as society melted down aroundthem- is debatable.

Both authors predict failure for modern conven-tional agriculture. They are not alone in this opinion.Since modern agricultural operations are so disre-spectful and wasteful of the resource base that sup-ports them more than a few scientists have come tosimilar conclusions.

Without cheap oil factory farming, global trade andmany other systems we take for granted will not bepossible. And without these systems collapse is inevi-table, therefore the scientists opine, what we call civ-ilization will not survive the deadly convergences ofthe 21st century.

Certainly without cheap oil there will be no commer-cial aviation, no monster wheat combines, no rushhour, no private motor vehicles and probably no sky-scrapers. Lettuce will not be trucked 2,000 miles tothe dinner plate and cheap appliances will not beimported from China

But civilization existed long before these things wereinvented and agriculture, which made civilizationpossible, is even older than that. I personally do notbelieve that human beings are helpless in the under-tow of approaching problems, like so lemmings beingswept out to sea. After all, it is humankind whoinvented economics, globalism, factory farming,genetic modification, spaceflight and a host of otherwise and unwise methods and endeavors.

If these things have ceased to serve our purposesthen they can be changed—or if necessary, un-invented by exercising restraint and not using what-


5

ever piece of destructive cleverness is causing theproblem. The idea that progress is an irresistibleforce pushing us toward a disaster from which wecannot turn aside is an adolescent and unworthynotion.

The tendency of certain people including scientists,politicians and philosophers to parade about withend- of- the-world signs pinned to their clothing willnot help humanity through the coming challenges ofclimate change, fossil fuel depletion, political unrest,periodic epidemics, droughts and famines. Sound,clean, wise and respectful systems of agriculture- ifimplemented immediately- will see most of usthrough the crisis and will heal and renew a goodpiece of the planet as well.

Agriculture does not have to be inherently destruc-tive.

In fact there is one sort of agriculture that is almostalways regenerative, positive and renewing and thatis the practice and culture of growing trees.

Why then is this not the agriculture that we prac-tice?

The tree in the landscapeErosion is the enemy of both agriculture and civiliza-tion according to J. Russel Smith who made a seriesof expeditions to the Mediterranean, Far East andthe Middle East to study various patterns of landuse. He was appalled by the vast stretches ofdestroyed and depleted land he saw.

“Forest—field—plow—desert… that is the cycle of thehills under most plow agricultures. China has a deadlyexpanse of it (destroyed land) but so has Syria, Greece,Italy Guatemala and the United States. Indeed weAmerican though new upon the land are destroying soilby field wash faster than any people that ever lived-


6

ancient or modern, savage, civilized or barbarian. Wehave the machines to help us destroy as well as create.The merciless and unthinking way we tear up the earthsuggests that our chief objective may be to make an endof it.

How does it happen that hill lands have been sofrightfully destroyed by agriculture? The answer issimple. Man has carried to the hills the agricultureof the flat plain. In hilly places man has plantedcrops that need the plow and when a plow does itswork on lands at an angle instead of flat lands wemay look for trouble when rain falls.” J. RusselSmith. From Tree Crops, A Permanent Agriculture

It should be added at this point that when crops needthe plow on flat lands we should also look for troublewhen the wind blows. Second only to water erosion isthe relentless erosion of arable lands by the windwhich carries away millions of tons of soil each plow-ing season.

Between the water erosion on hilly and sloping landsand wind erosion of flat plains the fertile topsoil ofthe world is either drifting away or being washedaway.

The population of the world is as large as it has everbeen in human history and all of humanity needsfood. But depending for our food on a system thatsystematically ruins the land it uses simply meansthat sooner or later this kind of food production willsimply not be possible.

In my opinion erosion of the topsoil is as big a terroras abrupt climate change, a vast underlying problemnot as visible as the coming shortage of oil but a fargreater threat to humankind.

We practice an agriculture that kills the soil, depletesthe soil, makes the soil disappear.


7

And we are utterly dependent for our food on aresource that we are destroying with almost everykind of crop we plant.

The megacrops of the 20th century are all weak com-petitors and have to be planted in environmentswhere other plants have been eliminated. Cereals forinstance are grown on bare fields with every weedsprout sprayed or harrowed out of existence. Rice iscultivated in flooded, intensively weeded methaneproducing paddies, soybean and rape seed are grownin fields made abiotic by chemical application andcorn is grown in huge monocultural blocks as big assmall countries where no other living thing isallowed to survive.

A terrible ecological price is paid for this kind of cul-tivation. Communities wither, wildlife disappearsand the land becomes barren. Unfortunately almostevery modern crop is cultivated in this manner.

Every kind of crop except the tree crops. Tree crops,besides their bounty of fruits, nuts, fibers or pods,are a blessing to the naked, wounded earth.

Though there are many ecologically unfriendly andunsustainable orchards, tree cultivation is not inher-ently damaging in itself. Annual plowing is notneeded. Agricultural run off is not a problem in awell tended orchard. Trees do well with long cyclenutrition so trees can be composted and mulchedinstead or fertilized with chemical preparations.Diverse orchards can be kept pest free with sensibleIPM strategies.

Just about every damaging factor in modern agricul-ture is absent from arboreal cultivation. And the eco-logical benefits of the trees are profound andnumerous.


8

Trees make food and airTrees turn sunlight into stored food and fuel by pho-tosynthesis, making sugars, carbohydrates, celluloseand many other substances that nourish insects,wildlife, domestic animals and human beings. Usefulnon edible tree products are too numerous to name.Trees absorb carbon of which there is currently toomuch in the atmosphere and produce oxygen onwhich all higher animals depend.

Trees manufacture topsoilTrees are rooted deeply in the earth, like livingpumps, breaking up rocks in the subsoil layers andreleasing minerals needed to make topsoil. The fineroot hairs absorb these minerals and the tree bringsup this food and stores it in the form of fruit, seedsand leaves. The fruit and seeds become food for ani-mals, birds and man but the leaves fall to the groundand rot, releasing the stored minerals into the soilfor other plants to use. The roots of the tree stabilizethe soil and become the refuge for soil-making micro-organisms and insects.

Trees stop erosion and store waterThis zone of biological richness full of roots that pen-etrate the ground and make channels and pathwaysfor water infiltration then becomes an area whichcan absorb and hold run off allowing the tree to growand develop and the soil creating activities of all theassociated organisms to continue. With the subsoilbroken up by the powerful rooting system excesswater can flow down in the subsoil and eventually tothe aquifers.

Trees are magnets for rainTrees draw up water from the ground and make itavailable for the next cycle of precipitation bybreathing out water vapor into the air. The famous


9

naturalist who described the Amazon basin as thelungs of the world was not speaking poetically. Hewas being accurate. A mature deciduous tree maytranspire five hundred liters of water from itsapproximately six acres of surface area on a warmsummer’s day. The cool air under the trees coveringa forested area, drawn upward as rain clouds flowover, often encourages the formation and fall of rain-drops. When the rain falls the tree will intercept it,absorbing water through the leaves, shedding theraindrops downward to pool around the trunk androots.

Trees are home for beneficial creatures Trees provide a living structure to inhabit for innu-merable plants and animals. Their leaves and prod-ucts feed many more creatures and their roots androot structure shelter even more. Biologists investi-gating the rain forest dramatically revised the num-ber of estimated species of birds and insect theybelieved to exist after discovering thousands of newplants and new creatures in the canopies of oldgrowth forests. Burrowing mammals and insects,benign fungi, nematodes earthworms and dozenstiny microorganisms including soil building andnitrogen fixing bacteria find homes in the branching,permeable and complex underground structures oftrees.

Trees mitigate and stabilize the climateThe air and the earth are several degrees coolerunder a tree in hot climates and several degreeswarmer in a cold one. As well as acting as the lungsof the world, trees are the world’s air conditioners.They slow and divert air currents so that dust parti-cles drop out, cool and add moisture to the scorchingwind of the desert. Forested slopes are prime areasfor fog condensation. A north wind, tamed by trees,is more likely to murmur than roar. What trees do


10

around our dwellings they also do for the world pro-tecting, shading, stabilizing and cooling.

Deforestation, something of a throw-away line whenglobal climate change is discussed is most likely oneof its primary causes.

With all the benefits of arboreal agriculture whythen is plowed agriculture the most prevalent formof cultivation?

And with the loss of forest cover one of the majorcontributing factors to climate change—- why are noalternatives being seriously discussed?

11

Chapter 1Forests and Climate

Deforestation rapidly and completely changes boththe climate and the geography of the areas whereforests of trees have been cut down. Deforestation isthe primary cause of floods, mudslides, land slips,avalanches and other similar disasters. It is also oneof the factors that affect the amount and pattern oflocal precipitation.

Deforestation was the main cause of the decline ofthe Byzantine era city of Ephesos, now a ruin inmodern-day Turkey. Trees were cut down on the sur-rounding hillsides for shipbuilding and other usescausing the erosion which first made the harborshallow, then turned the harbor area into a malarialswamp, and which ultimately left Ephesos sitting sixkilometers inland with no access to the sea at all.

It has been known for many hundreds of years thatdeforestation has dire consequences. As early as1215 Louis the VI of France promulgated an ordi-nance called “the decree of water and forests” whichpromoted conservatory measures along river banksand forested watersheds. He was of the opinion thatdeforesting these areas led to floods and that asdivine retribution for allowing these disasters tohappen, God would stop sending the rain.

Christopher Columbus was also of the opinion thatforests promote precipitation. He commented on thedecline of rainfall in the Azores and Canary Islandsafter Spanish settlers felled much of the natural for-est cover.

It has also been known for centuries that the healthand extent of forests influences the rivers and


12

streams that flow from watersheds. An Italian engi-neer by the name of Lombardini measured theamount of silt and soil carried to the sea by the PoRiver and found that 25 million cubic meters of soilhad been washed away after the clear cutting of thenearby mountain forests.

Cutting trees on watersheds in Italy, Austria, andFrance was forbidden as early as the sixteenth cen-tury as it became apparent that deforestation causederosion and the over silting of rivers. Germany soonfollowed with anti-clearing laws after publicationsappeared on the subject.

Reforestation projects, as a means of controlling sea-sonal flooding, began in Japan in 1683 and the prac-tice of reforestation was enforced by imperial decree.

In the 1700s and 1800s the sand dunes on the westcoast of France were reforested. These dunes hadoriginally been covered with trees. When the forestswere cut down the dunes began to shift, covering upagricultural land and threatening villages on thecoast. Small scale attempts at reforestation weremade by private parties whose property was threat-ened. Then the Commission of Dunes was created in1799 to carry on the work systematically and withthe help of the government. In this manner, 200,000acres of shifting sands were fixed and reforested. Thenearby Landes marshes, almost as problematic andconsidered a breeding ground for malaria, werereforested between 1837 and 1892 by planting1,750,000 acres of maritime pine.

In 1837 in Denmark a study of the deteriorating cli-mate of Jutland attributed the decline to the fellingof most of Jutlands natural forest. This had exposedthe peninsula to strong sea winds that blew thecoastal sands inland and buried large areas of fertilesoil.

Chapter 1: Forests and Climate

13

A treatise on forest influences was published in 1853by French scientist Becquerel. In this work he asksserious and pointed questions about the influences offorests on the surrounding areas:

1. What is the part that forests play as shelteragainst the winds or as a means of retarding theevaporation of rain water?

2. What influences do the forests exert through theabsorption of their roots or the evaporation fromtheir leaves in modifying the hydrometrical condi-tions of the surrounding atmosphere?

3. How do they modify the temperatures of a coun-try?

4. Do the forests exercise an influence upon theamount of water falling and upon the distributionof rains through the year, as well as, upon the reg-ulation of running waters and springs?

5. In what manner do they intervene in the preser-vation of mountains and slopes?

6. What is the nature of the influence that they maybe able to exercise on public health?

Becquerel did not answer these questions to his ownsatisfaction in a lifetime of labor though he did notthink reforestation could revive vanished springsand streams.

A contemporary of Becquerel by the name of VonWex, studying the Danube basin of Central Europe,came to the opposite conclusion. He recorded reduc-tions in the level of water in wells and streams whenlands were deforested that were partially restored inareas that had been replanted.

In the United States the problems of deforestationwere recognized as early as 1739 when a series oflaws were passed against cutting wood and grazinganimals too close to the Massachusetts shore.


14

Denuding the areas near the coast had allowed thesands to blow inward and bury fertile fields.

In 1799 Noah Webster presented a paper to the Con-necticut Academy of Arts and Sciences on a per-ceived change in winter temperatures he attributedto deforestation. He said:

“From a careful comparison of these facts it appearsthat weather in modern winters in the United States ismore inconsistent than when the earth was coveredwith woods at the first settlement of the Europeans inthe country, that the warm weather of autumn extendsfurther into winter and spring encroaches upon sum-mer, that the wind being more variable, snow is lesspermanent and perhaps the same remark may be appli-cable to the ice of the rivers. These effects seem toresult necessarily from the greater quantity of heataccumulated in the earth in summer since the groundhas been cleared of wood and exposed to the rays of thesun and to the greater depth of frost in the earth in thewinter by the exposure of its surface to the cold atmo-sphere.”

In short Noah Webster is bemoaning the loss of theforested woods as a mitigating factor on the weather.Without the forest, the weather is both hotter andcolder and also windier and drier. His paper was oneof the first published references to the subject in theUnited States.

Webster's concerns were echoed by writer W.C. Bry-ant in 1858: “Streams are drying up and from thesame cause, the destruction of our forests, our sum-mers are growing drier and our winters colder.”

In 1877 Dr. R.B Hough prepared a report for the USgovernment on the subject of forestry that included alengthy section on the connection between forestsand climate complete with compiled evidence toshow the beneficial effects of forest cover and thedeterioration of the local climate when the trees


15

were cut down. Senators and representatives whoread the report were impressed and interestedenough to try to pass a bill in the US Congress forthe preservation of the forests of the nationaldomain adjacent to the sources of navigable watersand other streams in the US. The aim of this legisla-tion was to keep the rivers from drying up.

The bill did not pass, but in 1882 a similar bill passedin Massachusetts. California was not far behind. Cal-ifornia passed a bill in 1892 which reserved17,500,000 acres of forested watershed in the southof the state. These were the first laws passed in anenthusiastic initial effort to preserve some of NorthAmerica's vast forests.

In 1902, the Forest Reserve Manual gave these rea-sons to maintain forests on watersheds:

1. To furnish timber2. To regulate the flow of water. This the forests do:

a. By shading the ground and snow and affordingprotection against the melting and dryingaction of the sun.

b. By acting as windbreaks and this protectingthe ground and snow against the drying actionof the sun and wind.

c. By protecting the earth from washing awayand thus maintaining a storage layer intowhich rain and snow soak. This storage layerconserves the moisture for dry seasons whenrain and snow are wanting.

d. By keeping soil more pervious so that thewater soaks in more readily and more water isthereby prevented from running off in time ofrain and when snow is melting.

In 1911 the Weeks Law provided for the protection ofwatershed of navigable streams and the acquisitionof lands for conserving their navigability. The east-


16

ern United States was convinced of the value of for-ests to the general health of riparian areas.

After the man-made disaster of the 1930's DustBowl, the Western States were much more likely tolisten to advice about soil stabilization, erosion andflood control. Many deforested areas were replantedwith trees and huge areas, previously gone to dust,were replanted in native grasses. Unfortunately,there were and are still too many people who believethat God put trees on the earth to be cleared offbuilding sites and processed into paper and lumber.

An example of this attitude can be found in the hillsaround modern Athens. Every summer fires burn onthese mountains around the city. This is not mysteri-ous, since, by their laws, land which has been“burned over” becomes eligible for rezoning andbuilding, who needs these useless trees which arestanding in the way of “development?” The predict-able result of this annual burning is a significantdecline in precipitation on the seaward side of themountain range and a serious erosion problem astons of topsoil are washed into the sea. The conse-quences in 2007, during an especially dry year werehorrific, as fires set to “burn over” real estate racedout of control, charring thousands of acres and kill-ing dozens of hapless citizens all over Greece.

In the case of the fires around Athens, we are onlyspeaking about the further ruin of sparsely forestedareas in Greece, a country more or less deforested inancient times. However, the destruction of the rainforests, the lungs of the world, for temporary farm-land, is widespread, ongoing, and apparently unstop-pable. This destruction is a critical loss.

To fully understand the outcome of the loss of therain forests, it is necessary to consider the interac-tion of one living tree in the landscape on its contigu-


17

ous environment and the many beneficial effects ofthat interaction. Because of this one tree: the groundis made permeable, moisture is captured and allowedto seep into the earth, the sun's energy is absorbedand turned into food, water vapor is released into theair, carbon is stored and oxygen is manufactured, theearth is shaded and cooled.

Now, imagine this tree has been cut down. It its placeis a barren spot which has been left by cutting thetree. No food is made there. No oxygen or water isreleased into the air there. No carbon is stored there.The very earth becomes hardened and impervious tothe rain. The hot sunlight striking this naked placeis being reflected back into the air, heating the airup. Now multiply the effects of the loss of one treeone million, five million, ten million times over. Thisis a tragedy. With all that is known about the effectsof deforestation, from flooding to loss of rainfall,silted rivers, harbors made too shallow to receivecargo ships, it should be apparent to all that defores-tation has profound and long lasting deleteriouseffects.

While it is argued by some that climate, geographyand water storage capacity are only modified on alocalized basis by stripping the nearby land of protec-tive trees, many hundreds of locally modified cli-matic zones quickly add up to vast stretches ofdenuded and depleted land. Collectively, these dam-aged landscapes have become so vast that the “red-line” of the critical amount of surface area that mustbe maintained in a forested state for sake of the goodhealth of the global environment is in danger ofbeing surpassed.

The elements of climate that are most significantlyaffected by the presence or the absence of trees arewater retention and precipitation, solar radiation,temperatures and wind. In other words, what is most


18

affected is the amount of rainfall, the ability of theland to store water, the ability of the aquifer torenew itself, how much sunlight is converted to bio-mass and how much is reflected back into the atmo-sphere to heat up the air. Also affected is thestrength, direction and temperatures of the windsand even the shape of the landscape itself.

With all these critical factors changed so profoundlyby deforestation, it is hard to understand why theeffects of deforestation on the global climate are nottaken more seriously by everyone.

I do not dispute the fact that our penchant for foul-ing our only planet by burning fossil fuels is causingdamage. I am also convinced that the fact that thereare fewer trees to absorb carbon and fewer trees toproduce oxygen and fewer trees to encourage rainand fewer trees to decrease the amount of CO2 in theatmosphere is just as critical a factor in our environ-mental damage as is our fossil fuel consumption.

We know by historical example that changes in cli-mate, particularly decline in rainfall and the result-ing reduced flow of springs and stream are the directresults of large scale deforestation. The silting up ofharbors and damage to property by shifting sandsare a direct result of deforestation. Damage to lifeand property by flooding, torrents and avalanchesare common consequences of the cutting down of for-ests, especially on sloping land.

Sadly, many of the ways that trees mitigate the cli-mate are only now beginning to be understood. Aus-tralian scientists have recently discovered, forinstance, that upland rainforests harvest vastamounts of water directly from clouds in addition tothe water that falls on them as rain. In high, wet,tropical areas above 900 meters, low clouds, mistsand fog constantly condense on the trees and the


19

drops of water are soaked up by the ground whenthey collect and run down to it. This does not happenwhen areas are cleared of their forest cover. Notethat this cloud water is in addition to the water thatfalls as rain. Because these upland forests transpirevery little they contribute a disproportionately largevolume of water to their catchment area. This contri-bution is greatly reduced when the forest is clearedand the water is then allowed to escape by runningoff.

Experiments carried out in North Queensland andreported by the CSIRO placed rain gauges, troughsand collar gauges around and among the trees, mea-suring direct rainfall, condensation on the trees, andstemflow, or the water than runs down the treetrunks. The amount of water “stripped” from clouds,fog and mist by the forest was far greater thanexpected.

Because of these experiments it is only now knownthat if the cloud banks, which currently contributetheir vast quantities of water to the forest via cloudstripping by the trees, should rise in altitude due toglobal climate change or should be lost because ofdeforestation, there will be a major loss of water tothe catchments and all the communities down-stream.

Another little known mitigating factor only recentlyunderstood is the protective influence of the man-grove swamps and estuaries on fragile coastlines.These partially inundated areas where the watermay be as shallow as a few inches or several metersdeep according to the tides, are a tough natural buf-fer that protect the coastlines from wave action andweather events. Areas where the mangrove treeshave been cleared for shrimp farms and fisheries areparticularly vulnerable to erosion, storm surges andflooding.


20

The 2008 Burmese cyclone, a catastrophe thatreportedly killed over 100,000 people was apparentlyexacerbated by the deforestation of the tidal man-grove forests. Without the deep strong fibrous rootsof the trees to prevent erosion the coastline was liter-ally eaten away allowing the surging tides to rollover the low lying areas and penetrate far inland.Far from being useless and unproductive area, themangrove forests were a necessary barrier, a protec-tive zone that shielded the land from the action of aperiodically aggressive sea.

What has not yet been grasped by much of the worldcommunity is that there is a tipping point, anamount of tree cover which must be maintainedglobally lest the climate change too radically and tooirrevocably to recover. A lovely fable was written inthe year 1953 by Spanish author Jean Giorno. It wascalled The Man Who Planted Trees. In this decep-tively simple story a solitary shepherd whose wifeand son had died roams a desolate land with hisflock. However, he does not accept the abandonmentand ruin around him. Every day he rescues seedsand acorns from the wasted landscape sorting themat night so that only the perfect, healthy onesremain. On the following day he plants one hundredtrees. He does this day after day, year after year untilthe barren land is again a beautiful forest and thesprings and rivers are restored and people come backto live in the land again.

This was such a compelling tale that many peoplethought the shepherd and the forest were real andtried to contribute money to the project or visit therestored area. This particular story is fiction but for-ests and woodlands have been restored all over theworld with very encouraging results.

What the fictional fable describes is truly possible.The barren land can be made green. The air can be


21

made clean and the water cycle renewed. With greateffort a wounded landscape can be healed. Yet, con-sider how much better it would be if we simply paidattention to the hard lessons of the past 2,000 yearsfrom Ephesos to the Amazon and acknowledged thefact that we need trees, not just for wood and forestproducts but as great living stands of treed forests tothe keep our world healthy, our air breathable andour global climate stable.

22

Chapter 2Carbon Sequestration

Carbon is one of the several elements which cyclethrough the natural world. The carbon cycle is con-sidered the first of the biogeochemical cycles. Carbonis the basic building block of life. It is the cycling ofcarbon from the atmosphere through plants andalgae, to animals and microorganisms and then backto the atmosphere which keeps the atmosphere andclimate in balance.

During photosynthesis plants combine carbon diox-ide (CO2) from the air and hydrogen from water tomake carbohydrates (CxHxOx). Some of these carbo-hydrates are used directly by the plant for its energy.Others are stored in plant tissues in the form of sug-ars, starches, and oils. When plants are eaten by ani-mals, the plant tissues, with the storedcarbohydrates, are broken down by the animal'sdigestive system. The plant's stored carbohydratesand other nutrients are absorbed into the animal’snutritional system. The carbohydrates are “burned”as fuel for the animal's body in the animal's cells andend up in the form of carbon dioxide once again. Asanimals exhale, the carbon dioxide is released intothe air where it can be reused by being reabsorbed byplants.

If this was all that was happening in the naturalworld, the carbon cycle would be relatively stableand balanced. However, carbon also gets back intothe atmosphere when plant and animal matter areburned. Fossil fuels, such as oil, coal, and naturalgas, are made of ancient, compressed, and concen-trated plant tissue, the stored food made by yearsupon years of the energy of ancient sunlight and the

Chapter 2: Carbon Sequestration

23

carbon removed from the atmosphere millions ofyears ago.

In the past century the carbon dioxide content of theearth’s atmosphere increased apparently by about25%. It is continuing to rise 0.4 percent per year. Ifthe present rate of increase continues, the pre-indus-trial atmospheric content of CO2 will be doubled byabout 2150.

Since increased CO2 in the atmosphere is one of thefactors believed to promote global climate change,especially the so-called greenhouse effect, thisincrease is seen to be very threatening to climaticstability. Indeed, some scientists have begun to relateto CO2 as if it is a deadly pollutant (which it is not)and some economists foresee carbon credits as a newform of currency (which they should not be).

Still, increased carbon dioxide in the air is a factor inour changing world. It has been estimated by themembers of the IPCC (the United Nation's Interna-tional Panel on Climate Change) that average meantemperatures near the Earth’s surface will increasebetween 2.8 and 5.2 degrees centigrade with a dou-bling of present carbon dioxide levels. However, itseems scientists and commentators cannot agree onwhether this is a “cause” or an “effect,” whetherincreased carbon dioxide will lead to warming orwhether a warming globe simply releases more CO2into the atmosphere from warmer oceans and melt-ing permafrost. Indeed, there are many serious sci-entists who believe the opposite of global warming iscurrently happening. Recorded temperatures areactually falling, these scientists show, because of adimming solar cycle and the globe is measured to becooling despite the increased CO2 in the air.

Whether the globe is cooling after warming for thelast few decades, or warming up after the Little Ice


24

Age (ca CE 1300 – 1850), is almost a moot point.Increasing tree cover stabilizes climate no matterwhere we are on the climatic roller coaster andshould be something of a first line of defense. It isamazing that “geo-engineers” can speak about put-ting reflective particles in the atmosphere or paint-ing roofs and roads white as climate mitigatingstrategies while forgetting the only strategy for sta-bilizing climate that has been shown to be both effec-tive and benign.

Yet, whether carbon is the cart or the horse is alsounimportant. Each year the burning of fossil fuelssends approximately twenty billion tons of carbondioxide into the atmosphere, compared to estimatedemissions of only seventy two million tons per year acentury ago. Since WWII the use of fossil fuels hasdoubled roughly every ten years. The presentdestruction of tropical forests and old growth areasis probably releasing another five billion tons of car-bon dioxide annually. While much of the CO2 isabsorbed by oceans and other carbon reservoirs,about eleven billion tons remain in the atmosphere,already causing changes in the biosphere and seriousrisks to human health.

While adjustment to these increased levels in someecosystems is occurring, it would be wise to halt theCO2 enrichment of the atmosphere as soon as possi-ble since we do not know what will be the outcome ofa continuing rise. We also do not know what levelmight be a tipping point for unforeseen changes.Furthermore, we do know that polluting the air withall the other substances that are released with theburning fossil fuels is extremely destructive.

Replacement of fossil fuels with other energy sourceswould greatly decrease the amount of CO2 releasedinto the atmosphere, but this will take many yearsand require a quick ripening of alternative energy


25

technologies. As a result, even though many nationshave agreed in principal to stabilize carbon emis-sions, no one knows how to do it, so the levels of CO2in the air continue to increase.

In view of the global risks, making rules no one hasany intention of following and tinkering withunproved technologies while there is a continuousrise in greenhouse gases, is irresponsible and unac-ceptable. This is a problem that must be approachedimmediately and the best way to approach it is tofind a way to store more carbon.

Many experts have pointed out that both afforesta-tion and reforestation help remove CO2 from theatmosphere. While a mature forest produces,through rotting biomass, almost as much CO2 as itabsorbs through photosynthesis, a young foreststeadily converts more and more CO2 to biomass.Tracts of forest store as much as two hundred tons ofcarbon per hectare, which is the equivalent of takingseven hundred and fifty tons of CO2 out of the atmo-sphere. A fast growing forest can absorb as much asninety tons a year per hectare.

This does not mean that rare old growth forestsshould be felled and new tree plantations put in theirplace. Old growth forests have incalculable value asreservoirs for biodiversity and felling them woulddestroy this, as well as, release immense amounts ofcarbon as the biomass rotted or was burned. There isample room for new plantings all over the world.

The potential of afforestation is often underesti-mated because only the CO2 absorption of the newlyplanted forest is considered, not the long term car-bon storage capacity of the forest. To bind and storeall the excess carbon being released through burningfossil fuels would indeed require millions of squarekilometers of new forests. In a world where much of


26

the forest cover has been destroyed, there is muchdepleted, eroded and damaged land on all continents.Restoring these areas might be the most effectiveand beneficial way to approach the problem.

Large scale afforestation efforts could replace lostvegetative cover and restore the topsoil, renew thewater economy of degraded areas and increase thearea's productivity. Projects such as these can beorganized on a provincial, state or at the nationallevel and be designed to meet the needs of the localpeople and the local ecologies. Another very impor-tant benefit from such endeavors will be work for theunemployed and underemployed, a population per-centage usually of single digits in wealthy countries,but in poorer areas the unemployed make up onethird to one half of the adult population.

Approximately five million square miles of replantedforest could store all the new carbon emissions forthe next 30 years…a mammoth and seeminglyimpossible undertaking until one considers howmuch of the earth’s surface has been destroyed byovergrazing, ruined by erosion, or worked out byunsustainable annual cropping. It is these areaswhich should be replanted in trees. The benefitsbesides greatly increased carbon storage would benumerous.

The lack of firewood in the third world is already aproblem. Greatly increasing the tree cover in deso-late areas would mean that the downed wood couldbe used for fuel or that trees could be coppiced. Whilewood burning also puts CO2 into the air, this type ofpollution in no way compares with the scope andintensity of the burning of fossil fuels in the trans-portation and industry sectors.

Reforestation and afforestation could supply sustain-able building materials. Planting trees that can be


27

coppiced, that is cut back and allowed to regeneratefrom the root is an excellent way to produce largeamounts of usable wood. This ancient system wasabandoned for the truly destructive method of clearcutting, or harvesting an entire forest with theresulting waste of secondary species, destruction ofthe undergrowth, destruction of habitat and loss ofbiodiversity. The reasons were purely economic, inthe most derogatory sense of the word, for it ischeaper to come in and harvest a forest all at once,even though it often ruins the land, than to pay thekind of skilled and knowledgeable employees neededto manage a forest property and get the most of itwithout destroying the resource base. This should bequickly rectified as massive reforestation effortscould save the world we know by providing at least atemporary solution to the overload of the carboncycle.

Trees are crop engines without compare, with liter-ally acres of photosynthesizing surface area aboveground, a net of soil building and soil holding rootsbelow ground, and a harvest index no annual plantcan equal, but because trees are less suitable for fac-tory farming than plow and field crops, their utiliza-tion and development has been neglected throughoutthe 20th century.

Trees should be planted to supply wood as wasalready mentioned, but the useful products from treecrops are innumerable. These great perennial plantswhich do not need the plow or chemical fertilization,protect the earth and underpin the soil's water stor-age capabilities, and can supply much more thanfirewood, charcoal and building materials.

Trees can provide animal feed, carbohydrates forhuman consumption, edible oil and material formaking ethanol and alcohol. Trees can supply fruits,nuts, fiber, sugar, medicines, teas, spices and raw


28

materials for Integrated Pest Management (IPM).Trees can be hosts to valuable fungi, pastures formicro-livestock, sources for rare substances, andengines for pulling up minerals from the subsoil toenrich the topsoil. Trees can mitigate the drying orfreezing winds, return the rains to areas we haveturned into desert, break up our compacted and ster-ile soils which have been destroyed by continuousannual cropping, and restore the soils to fertility.

Importantly, some trees also fix nitrogen. The nitro-gen cycle is just as critical as the carbon cycle toglobal health but the problem of misused nitrogen,which seems to have less direct influence on climate,is generally ignored.

There are important points concerning the nitrogencycle which should be more widely known. Nitrogenis the most common gas in the atmosphere. It isrequired for plant growth. Nitrogen is the mainbuilding block for the construction of proteins,enzymes and other structures necessary for life. Freenitrogen (N2) is all around but only a few organismscan use it as it is. These organisms can “fix” nitrogenso that other organisms can also use it.

The nitrogen “fixers” are vital to the first part of thenitrogen cycle in which free nitrogen from the atmo-sphere is turned into something that other creaturescan utilize. Most of the nitrogen fixing organisms arebacteria that live in the roots of some plants or insidethe plants themselves. They convert nitrogen intoforms such as nitrate (NO3), nitrite (NO2), ammonia(NH3), and ammonium (NH4). These forms of nitro-gen can be used by plant cells. The plants are theneaten by animals.

The second part of the nitrogen cycle deals with thebreakdown of plants, animal waste and animal mat-ter and the release of the nitrogen back to the air.


29

This is also accomplished by other bacteria, this timeby specialized organisms that decompose the nitro-gen based compounds which are so vital for life andturn them into free nitrogen again.

Unfortunately, besides being overlooked, the nitro-gen cycle has also been overloaded. The productionand widespread use of nitrogen based fertilizer andNH4 emissions from animal manure are two sourcesof the surplus nitrogen in the air and water. Evenmore surplus nitrogen enters the soil as rain washesdown the pollution from burning fossil fuels, toomuch to be used by plants or de-nitrified by decom-posing bacteria. The surplus nitrogen often doesharm, for example the nitrogen heavy run-off watersthat flow into rivers and then to the sea encouragehuge algal blooms and die-offs. These events lead tohypoxic dead zones by the deltas of major rivers andraise water temperatures wherever they occur. Theextremely warm waters in vulnerable areas oftenexacerbate storms.

Taking nitrogen out of the atmosphere should alsobe a priority, luckily this can also be done by plantingtrees, a special class of leguminous trees which growquickly, improve the soil by fixing nitrogen andwhich protect and encourage annual field crop pro-duction even as they do so. Also able to help restorethe nitrogen balance, are many pioneer plants thatgrow in association with the nitrogen fixing bacteriaFrankia. These include the myrtle, the buckthorn,the alder and the birch.

Instead of converting forests to farmland, we shouldbe doing exactly the opposite. We should be convert-ing areas planted with damaging, uncompetitive,nutrient- greedy, labor-and-input intensive plowcrops into great forests of food-bearing, resource-pro-ducing trees. Too many people, as they think of for-ests, see in their minds eye a forest of pines with


30

maybe a bear and picnic table in it and nothing to eatin sight.

Forests which are planted in the 21st century shouldbe forests of stock feed trees so that most of thewheat, corn, rice, and soybeans we grow can be usedfor human consumption and not end up as animalfeed in a Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation(CAFO).

Forests planted in the 21st century should be foodforests, planted to nourish us with fruit, nuts andedible leaves. Forest should also be planted to pro-duce medicines, spices, rare substances and teas.Forests should supply firewood fuel energy andbuilding material. Finally, forests should be plantedto produce carbohydrates so that we may stop spoil-ing the world to grow our cereals and grains and con-fine their cultivation to areas suitable for this type ofagriculture.

While we reap these benefits and collect these har-vests, the trees we plant will store the excess carbonand fix the surplus nitrogen, cool and protect the suf-fering earth, redeem the barren, dying, and erodedlandscapes found all over the planet.

Why then, do we not plant trees to save our world?

Is it too easy a solution?

31

Chapter 3Fertilizer Trees

In the 2Oth century, fertility came out of a sack. Thesack was purchased by the farmer and the contentsspread on the land or put in the irrigation water. Theresult was bountiful crops and 20th century agricul-tural scientists rejoiced and did their best to spreadthis kind of farming all over the world.

However, by the end of the 20th century the picturedid not look so rosy. The chemical salts in the sack,heavy with P, K and N, tended to wash out with rainor excess irrigation water, getting into the air, pollut-ing rivers and making dead zones in the oceanswhere the rivers flowed out to sea. The chemicalsalts also tended to destroy microorganisms in thesoil and make the soil unfriendly to beneficial insectsand worms so when the soil became depleted, therewas no biological base for its renewal. The contentsof the sack also cost too much for many farmers toafford, used too much non- renewable energy while itwas being produced, and produced foodstuff of greatappearance but of poor quality and dubious nutri-tional value. In short, the use and overuse of chemi-cal fertilizer created a bubble of abundant, but not-so-good food which is unsustainable in relation tothe world’s resources of water and soil.

The very materials used to enrich the soil have nowproved to actually impoverish it. The use of chemicalfertilizer, thought to be a solution, has provedinstead, to be another problem. One we are going tohave to solve as we try to untangle the vast untidyknot of unwise practices and the difficulties theyhave caused in order to have success in the search forsustainable methods of food production.


32

It is for this reason organic farming is on the riseagain, after many years of being relegated to thefringe. But, to put conventionally farmed land inshape for organic farming takes years of intensivework to remove objectionable chemicals and muchcomposting, inoculation, and mulching to restorewhat ought to be naturally in the soil. It is difficultand expensive to do and the cost of organic producereflects this.

For much of the depleted, spoiled and worked-outland in the world, it is simply too expensive. Thelocal farmers cannot afford it. Most of the govern-ments will not subsidize the process, even thoughmany governments subsidize chemical agriculture,simply because they mistakenly see a return toorganic methods as a step backward.

If fertility is to be restored it must be restored inanother way and the most logical way to do this is toexamine the contents of that expensive sack of con-centrated and toxic fertility and ask, “what was init?” Most likely the sack contains the aforemen-tioned minerals Phosphorus, Potassium and Nitro-gen, or P, K, N, in various compounds and ratios.

Knowing this, how can we restore or create fertilityin a less damaging way?

Nitrogen: the Most Commonly Missing ElementThe number one ingredient of almost all widely usedchemical fertilizers is Nitrogen (N). It is the nutrientwhich is most commonly deficient in poor soils,depleted soils, and marginal soils. So there are goodreasons to try to increase the nitrogen content ofcrop land. The vegetative growth of leaves stems androots is particularly dependent on nitrogen. Nitrogendeficient plants are often small stunted, discoloredand generally unhealthy.

Chapter 3: Fertilizer Trees

33

Molecular nitrogen (di-nitrogen, N2) makes up fourfifths of the atmosphere but in this state it is meta-bolically unavailable to higher plants and animals.However, nitrogen in this form is available to somemicroorganisms through a process called BiologicalNitrogen Fixation in which the atmospheric nitrogen(N2) is converted into ammonia (NH4) by theenzyme nitrogenase in nitrogen fixing bacteria.

Microorganisms which have this rare nitrogen fixingability are called “diazotrophs.” Diazotrophs can bedivided roughly into two groups, free living diazotro-phs and photosynthetic diazotrophs. The free livingdiazotrophs basically fix nitrogen for themselves,usually using a chemical energy source. Photosyn-thetic diazotrophs use light energy to accomplish thesame thing.

Associative nitrogen fixing microorganisms are thosediazotrophs which live in close association with plantroots, either in the root zone (rhizosphere) or in theplants themselves. These diazotrophs obtain energyfrom the host plant to fix nitrogen and the hostplants benefit from the nitrogen the microorganismshave made available.

While diazotrophs make a modest contribution offixed nitrogen directly to agriculture and forestry,the amount of nitrogen needed for cropping is sogreat, the contributions of free living diazotrophs arenot adequate. So the association between organismssuch as rhizobia and legumes are used to providelarge quantities of nitrogen to enrich nitrogen poorsoils. The symbiosis between legumes and nitrogenfixing rhizobia takes place within specialized noduleson the roots or sometimes on the stems of the plant.A similar symbiosis occurs between certain types ofwoody plants and the diazotropic actinomycete,Frankia. In both cases, the host plant supplies theenergy to the diazotrophs and the diazotrophs


34

reduce atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. Thisammonia is then transferred from the bacteria to theplant for the plant's nutritional needs.

Nitrogen, in the form of ammonium ions, is alsoadded to the soil from the decay of plants and ani-mals which have benefited from the fixed atmo-spheric nitrogen in their life cycles. The nitrogenwhich originates from decomposing animals, plantresidues, and also dead micro-organisms, is inessence nitrogen which has already been fixed and isnow cycling through the ecosystem. Usually, there isnot enough of this nitrogen, even in rich soil, to sup-port the kind of intensive cropping which hasbecome the modern norm. It is this nitrogen defi-ciency which has led to the widespread use of syn-thetic nitrogen, on one hand, and also, an urgentdesire to find a way to replace the synthetic nitrogenwith an enhanced biological process, on the otherhand.

It is important to find a replacement for syntheticnitrogen because non-biological fixing of nitrogen isa process which requires large amounts of energy. Itis primarily done by the Haber-Bosch process whichconsumes extensive amounts of fossil fuel. There issome nitrogen fixing by the effects of lightning, ofcourse, but this is a natural process which fixesabout ten million metric tons a year and has notchanged over time. Artificial nitrogen fixing, how-ever, has increased from three and a half tons in1950 to ninety-one million tons in the year 2000 andto one hundred and twenty million tons in 2005. Oneand a third tons of fossil fuel is currently needed tofix one ton of nitrogen, an unhappy ratio whichreflects the unsustainability of this kind of fertilizeruse.

There are, however, many other significant reasonsto seek alternatives to the manufacture of more syn-


35

thetic nitrogen. These include the unhealthy, water-filled, growth of plants which are given too muchsynthetic nitrogen in cropping formats, the acidifica-tion of the soil by over-application of fertilizer in theform of chemical salts, and the extremely negativeeffects of fertilizer run-off throughout the riparianareas and down into the sea. When large amounts ofnitrogen collect in a body of water, eutrophicationcan occur. Eutrophication occurs during an algalbloom and die-off such as the “red tide”, a processwhich can suffocate all life in the water as the decay-ing algae uses up all the available oxygen dissolved inthe water.

Acid rain also has its origin in the overloading of thenitrogen cycle. Nitric oxide in the air, which comesfrom burning fossil fuels, can react with water vaporto form nitric acid which is brought down to earth inthe falling raindrops.

As mentioned in a previous chapter, we have no clearidea of what the effect to the environment will befrom the disruption of the nitrogen cycle in the longrun. This provides a significant incentive to findalternative ways to get fixed nitrogen into our agri-cultural systems. This is one reason why the associa-tive diazotrophs, such as Rhizobia and Frankia, lookmore and more interesting in the context of thesearch for an ecologically friendly way to fix nitro-gen. These bacteria fix nitrogen for their host plantsin sufficient quantity to eliminate the need for chem-ical fertilizer. As green manures, nitrogen fixingcrops are often turned into the earth, supplying thefixed nitrogen and the nutrients released by thedecomposition of the plants. It is estimated morethan three hundred and forty kg. of nitrogen perhectare can be fixed by fields of alfalfa or otherlegumes such as vetch and clover.


36

Enriching the soil with compost and animalmanures, which break down and release ammoniumions, is immediately effective and while it is morelabor intensive than spreading synthetic nitrogen, itis much less likely to disturb the pH of the soil.

It has been found the nitrogen content of soilimproves notably when the soil is left fallow. Also,there is less loss of available nitrogen when crops arerotated. Together these practices do supply enoughnitrogen for the healthy growth of agricultural cropsand they must be encouraged simply because theyhave very few negative effects as compared to thedeleterious effects of the application and the produc-tion of synthetic nitrogen.

Nitrogen Fixing TreesNitrogen fixing trees (NFTs), the hosts of nitrogenfixing bacteria, can do much to restore depleted andruined agricultural lands. The high nitrogen contentof their leaf litter makes them particularly valuable.The trees themselves have the advantages conferredby their own fertilizer production, making a “home”for symbionts and thriving in extremely challengingareas. When used as living fences and windbreaks,they protect and nourish grain and vegetable cropsin improved fallows. Burned to fertilize the soil withtheir ash in the traditional “gum garden” cycles ofthe arid zones of Africa, they confer enough fertilityon the barren earth to nurture food crops for severalseasons.

Most NFTs are exceedingly hardy plants with welldeveloped root systems which break up compactedsoil, and hold and stabilize dunes. These are theplants which can do much of the work of restoringdamaged and worn out soils simply by being plantedin areas which have been abandoned after conven-tional agriculture is no longer profitable there.


37

The Sesbania, Gliridia and Pterocarpus families oftrees have been used successfully for soil regenera-tion and fodder production in sub-Saharan Africa.The leguminous Acacia family has over a hundredspecies which are suitable for soil enrichment,browse and fodder production, and also includes spe-cies which produce seed pods which can be groundinto high-protein flour extenders. The Prosopis fam-ily of trees contains a wealth of useful NFTs whichare deep rooted, swiftly developing, multi-purposespecies. These are pioneer plants, which hold tena-ciously to life in harsh, hot, and dry conditions,become islands of food, shade, and safety for otherplant and animal life.

In mixed tree fallows in Zambia where NFTs havebeen integrated with maize, the soils have changedphysically, with better water infiltration and holdingcapacity, reduced crusting, and greatly increasedorganic matter. A study, Occasional Paper 05, TheImpact of Natural Management Technologies: Fertil-izer Tree Fallows in Zambia, published by the WorldAgroforestry Centre [aka International Centre forResearch in Agroforestry (ICRAF)], documents thework of local farmers and a research team from theICRAF in introducing these trees and carefullytracks the changes to soil and cropping systems.

The many wonderful benefits of tree fallows arelisted in the study, starting with increased yields ofmaize; production of poles, stakes, and firewood;source of fodder for livestock; improved opportuni-ties to grow vegetables; suppression of noxious weedsand insects; provision of shade; additional incomefrom sale of seeds and saplings; reduced run-off;windbreaks; and enhanced biodiversity. The projectwas so successful; the number of farmers plantingNFT in Zambia’s eastern province jumped rapidly to77,000 by 2005 and is still climbing. On average, the


38

value of the maize crop increases by 20% and theother benefits brought by the NFT tree fallowsadded another 10 to 15% to the participant's familyincome.

In tropical areas, Leucaena trees have been usedextensively for soil regeneration, fodder and woodproduction. Called “the Multiplier Tree” and origi-nating from Central America, it is useful as a nursecrop and green manure as well.

In Australia mixtures of eucalypts and acacias arebeing planted to protect and improve depleted top-soil.

There are NFT species which grow in cold and tem-perate zones as well including some of the most com-mon trees. See Chapter 7 for lists of suggestedspecies for various climatic zones.

The Nitrogen-Fixing BacteriaRhizobiaIn one of the biological world’s most interestingexamples of mutualism, the host plants of somenitrogen fixing bacteria “invite” the bacteria to con-gregate in the rhizosphere around the plant's rootsby releasing a variety of chemicals into the soilthrough the roots cells. Some of the chemicalsreleased encourage the growth of the bacterial popu-lation in the rhizosphere.

Reactions between the bacterial cell wall and theroot surface take place, which allows the bacteria torecognize the proper host plants. The bacteria thenattach themselves to the root hairs of the “inviting”host.

The rhizobia bacteria, once bound to the root hairs,make the next move. They excrete compounds called“nod factors.” These compounds stimulate the root


39

hairs to curl. Rhizobia then invade the root throughthe hair tip where the nod factors induce the forma-tion of an infection thread. Oddly enough, the infec-tion thread, a sort of super-highway for bacteria, isconstructed by the plant, not the bacteria, just as theplant constructs the maze of enclosed tubes whichmake up the root nodule. In these nodules millions ofbacteria live. It is in the symbiosomes, specializedcells of plant membranes which interface betweenthe bacteroids and the living tissue of the plant,where the fixation of nitrogen takes place.

FrankiaBacteria of the genus Frankia belong to the classactinobacteria. These bacteria were originally linkedto fungi because of the mycelium like filamentsmany of them form. Twelve species of Frankia arerecognized, nitrogen fixing bacteria which live sym-biotically with a large variety of dicot plants. Theseplants, with their bacterial symbionts, are responsi-ble for fixing about 15% of the biologically fixednitrogen in the world. Alder and myrtle are two ofthe pioneer plants which live in association withFrankia. The hardy Casuarina, a heat and salt toler-ant tree from Australia, also lives in association withFrankia. The leaf litter of these three trees isextremely rich in nitrogen and the trees stay greenfor long periods of time, even when surrounding spe-cies are remobilizing their nitrogen and droppingtheir leaves. Some of the other trees and plantswhich benefit from Frankia nodulation are birches,oleasters, buckthorns, eleagnus (autumn olive),Shepherdia (buffalo berry), and Hippophae (seabuckthorns).

The Frankia bacteria also cause root hair deforma-tion. Then the bacteria penetrate the cortical cellsand induce the formation of nodules. The nodulesare colonized by vegetative hyphae (mycelium)


40

which differentiate into round, thick walled struc-tures called “diazo-vesicles” where reductive nitro-gen fixation takes place.

Other Symbionts that Improve Plant NutritionThere are other organisms that fix nitrogen.Cyanobacteria are examples of such organisms.These blue green algae are found in many terrestrialand aquatic habitats and their thick mats of biomassare sometimes used as food for animals or fertilizerfor the fields.

The aquatic fern Azolla is the only fern which can fixnitrogen. It does so by a symbiotic relationship witha specific species of Cyanobacteria (Anabaenaazolle). Azolla ferns are often planted in fishpondsand dike/pond integrations to supply nitrogen for thecultivation of rice, lotus and other water plants.

Leafy liverwort (Porella navicularis) is an abundantepiphyte in the Pacific Northwest. These plants ben-efit from their association with Cyanobacteria calledNostoc which lives on the plant's leaves. Nostoc alsoforms associations with other bryophytes. Nostocalso can be found in lichen where they occupy spe-cialized pockets within the plant. These in-dwellingbacteria are called cephalodia.

Cycads are ancient plants which are considered theforerunners of modern palm trees. Cycads are theonly gymnosperms or naked seed plants which formroot nodules and are also the only vascular plantswhich team up with cyanobacteria to fix nitrogen.

Mycorrhiza is fungus which lives in a mutually bene-ficial association with plant roots.

Micro-symbionts are symbiotic fungi and bacteriawhich improve plants' ability to absorb nutrients. Itis estimated, in a tablespoon of ordinary soil there


41

are thousands of miles of fungal filaments, unseen,but a crucial living bridge between the mineral worldand the plant world. It is these invisible links whichare most put at risk by chemical agriculture.

These examples of mutualism are encouraging andthey point the way towards a better method of intro-ducing nitrogen to the soil than using syntheticnitrogen while keeping the elements of the soil inbalance.

PotassiumPotassium is the second element in the sack of fertil-izer, usually given in the relatively benign form ofpotassium nitrate (KNO3) or in the nastier form ofpotassium chloride (KCl). These forms of potassium,besides being expensive, tend to leach out quickly incoarse soils and end up polluting watersheds andforming hypoxic zones. These are two good reasonsto find a more ecologically friendly way to put potas-sium into the soil and to keep it there.

The major role of potassium in living organisms isosmotic control. It is important as an enzyme activa-tor in plants and it is needed to facilitate membranepermeability and the translocation of sugars. Potas-sium is also required for photosynthesis, fruit forma-tion, disease resistance, and protein formation.Potassium builds strong plant structures but it is nota permanent fixture of plant tissues. Instead, itpasses in and out as needed by the crop. It is oftentranslocated to root and stems during ripening of theprimary products. Thus, potassium is readily avail-able from crop residues. Very little potassium isneeded if crop residues are returned to the soil. How-ever, continuous cropping or the harvesting of hay orsilage without returning potassium to the soil canquickly induce K deficiency.


42

Potassium is taken up, retained and excreted by liv-ing organisms in the form of a positive ion. In animalmanures and decaying plant matter, the potassium isnot fixed to other compounds and so is readily avail-able to growing plants. This is sometimes called “soilsolution K.” The K in solution can change form andrest in negatively charged soil sites. Potassiummoves back and forth between the state of exchange-able potassium and potassium in solution.

Potassium also becomes available by the weatheringof clay and rocks but this is a slow process. Powderedbasalt, green sand and clay minerals can be appliedto the soil to correct potassium deficiency, but, theaddition of organic material and the use of greenmanures will aid in potassium storage and keeppotassium from leaching away. Healthy soil with lotsof organic matter and abundant sites which are neg-atively charged can both fix and release potassium,thereby allowing it to interact dynamically with cal-cium and magnesium and be taken up by the plant.

Legumes and green manure crops are especially goodfor the balance of potassium in the soil. Leaves fromdeciduous trees are rich in potassium. Dry leavesfrom nitrogen fixing trees and from most windbreaksare good sources of potassium. Potassium in leavesand crop residue is generally 1-4 percent of the dryweight, enough potassium for a stable supply to thecurrent crop if retained in the form of compost orhumus.

PhosphorusPhosphorus is the third element in the sack of fertil-izer. Ironically, most forms of phosphorus, includingthose in commercial fertilizers, can not be taken updirectly by the crop plants, even though phosphorusis very important in plant cell division and plantgrowth. This makes P a difficult nutrient to manage.


43

Although there is a good deal of phosphorus in mostsoils, it is often in an unavailable form. Phosphorusis bound in acidic soils to iron and aluminum. Inalkaline soils it combines with calcium. Even with aneutral pH, phosphorus readily becomes immobi-lized. Since it becomes inactive so easily, it is difficultto keep enough usable phosphorus in the soil. Phos-phorus anions can be trapped in clay humus com-plexes and be lost through erosion. It is another ofthe nutrients which can end up in eutrophic andhypoxic zones. Stopping soil erosion is one of the bestways to conserve phosphorus.

Another method to conserve phosphorus is to restoreback to the soil the micro-inhabitants eliminated bychemical applications of fertilizers. It is possible toadd powdered rock phosphate or rock dust to avoidphosphorus deficiency but the release of P to plantsdepends on biological activity in the soil. Soil acidsproduced by bacteria and mycorrhizal fungi act uponsoil phosphorus and makes the phosphorus becomeavailable to plants. Therefore, phosphorus availabil-ity is not just a matter of supply and demand, butalso, of maintaining high levels of biological activityin the soil.

Some plants produce acidity around their own rootswhich assists in the uptake of P. This is true of mosttrees and plants which fix nitrogen, some palms,rapeseed, buckwheat and many pioneer bushes andshrubs.

Replacing the Fertilizer Sack with Something BetterIn the case of each of these major nutrients there is asustainable less expensive alternative to the contin-ued application of chemicals. In some cases, the samemethods and organisms which promote increasednitrogen in the soil will also help solve the problems


44

of potassium and phosphorus deficiencies. The meth-ods include mulching composting, crop rotation, andthe application of green manure.

The helpful organisms include trees, shrubs, somecereals, and leguminous plants which encourage theactivity of countless tiny soil enriching and produc-ing organisms. These organisms and practices areless costly in both the long and short term than thefertilizer in the “sack”. They improve the agricul-tural and ecological system on many levels, as theycreate fertility by transforming P, K, and N intoforms other living organisms can use. They areinstrumental, as well, in retaining these forms in thesoil.

The chemical sack of fertility should be relegated tohistory. It was an unsuccessful experiment and onewhich has proved to be too much of burden for thefarmer, the agricultural system and the earth.

45

Chapter 4Growing Bread on Trees

Bread, like money, does not grow on trees. Correct?But what if it did? What if carbohydrates equal, oreven superior, in quality to those produced by cerealgrains came from trees? Would the kind of agricul-ture we do change for the better?

I think it would.

We would plant more trees, cultivate more trees, andreceive larger yields per acre while doing little eco-logical damage. We might also use trees to regener-ate areas which have been worked out from previousimproper agriculture since this would be profitable,as well as wise.

Four Approaches and a Fifth PossibilityThere are four main approaches in which bread canbe “grown on trees” and three of them would moveagriculture much closer to sustainability.

Extend Flour with Tree ProductsThe first would be to cultivate trees whose productscan be used as flour extenders. In this case, muchnutritious substance and protein could be added tolocal bread. This can be done relatively quickly, asmany tree products which can be used in this man-ner have already been identified. In some places,those trees which produce these products can beintroduced and planted. In other places, the appro-priate trees already exist and it is simply necessaryto gather the products and use them.


46

Bread TreesThe second is to cultivate trees which produce seedsor products which can be made into bread. This ismuch more difficult than the matter of flour exten-sion. Flour must be created, not merely stretched orenriched from the products of these trees. However,modern bread is a “raised” product containing glu-ten, this kind of bread from tree products is difficultto achieve as there are currently no “wheat trees”known. Still, raised breads can be produced frommaterials which have little or no gluten in them,such as corn meal, by forcing air into the dough,malting, fermentation or using a leavening agentwhich does not require gluten to act.

Stop Feeding Bread to AnimalsThe third strategy would be to replace much of thegrain fed to animals with tree products. This wouldserve several purposes, the first being grain productswould be used to feed people instead of dairy or meatanimals. A slackening of demand for cheap cereals tofatten animals would mean less strain on the agricul-tural systems of the world. Other benefits from thisstrategy would be an increase in free-range animalhusbandry with fitter and healthier animals and bet-ter milk and meat. Less medicines and antibioticswould be used since the animals will no longer bekept in crowded feedlots. Also, this would be a moreecologically “friendly” use of land since worked outand marginal areas could be regenerated by plantingnitrogen-fixing, stock-feeding trees.

Engineer a “Wheat Tree” The fourth strategy would lie in the realm of geneticengineering (GM). Genetic engineering has been adisappointment when viewed as a method forincreasing the food supply. Trendy and purely com-mercial genetic modifications have been made in

Chapter 4: Growing Bread on Trees

47

crop plants. Many of these modifications haveproven to be unsustainable and dangerous. Othermodifications are worthless in the long run, such as“built-in pesticides” which only develop resistanceall the faster in insects than the sprayed-on pesti-cides ever did.

Yield drag in modified crops, lawsuits from spreadingGM material, soil contamination by GM organisms,and recalls of foods made from crops unsuitable forhuman consumption have all made farmers and con-sumers justifiably suspicious of every GM strategy.However, genetic modification could be put in theservice of a wiser kind of agriculture, if a few simpleand logical rules were followed:

1. Do not modify food plants with genetic materialfrom organisms which are inedible.

2. Do not modify food plants with the genes fromhumans, animals, insects, or anything but otherfood plants.

3. Make all GM plants sterile so GM genetic mate-rial does not spread to related plants by cross- pol-lination.

4. Test every new GM plant as carefully as if it is anew and unknown plant.

5. Do “pharming,” which is the production of medic-inal material by crop plants, in closed formats,with all products labeled and registered as care-fully as prescription drugs.

6. Pass legislation to insure the person or companywho is making the money from GM organisms isthe one responsible for cleaning up the mistakes,not the general public.

If these rules could be enacted and enforced, GMstrategies would be much less dangerous to theglobal commons. The risks of GM contamination ofcrops and crop relatives would be greatly reducedand the risk of inedible chimeras such as Starlink


48

corn and the GNA potato getting into the food chainwould be zero.

Under this system of rules, it might be possible tomake a few modifications which would really changeagriculture for the better. Why not modify a few copi-ously producing nut trees with a genetic sequencewhich produces gluten? These modified trees, alsomade sterile during the modification process, couldthen be safely tested as producers of raw material formaking bread. If successful, then bread could reallybe grown on trees, rather than from the weak andfragile, over pampered, annual grasses which cur-rently produce our grain.

The Potential of Perennial GrassesA fifth strategy for a more ecologically friendly wayto produce bread crops, the cultivation of perennialstands of grass, is already being tried in Africa andon the American prairie.

These five approaches are either in development orbeing seriously considered because the demand forgrain crops is so high and we have changed so muchof the earth’s surface to produce them. We are liter-ally mining the earth to produce our daily bread.

Now that we have discussed what might be done to“grow bread on trees,” let's look at how these fiveapproaches might be accomplished.

Nuts and Loaves1. Stretching a Loaf: Flour Extenders and Flour SubstitutesActually, many of the flour substitutes and extendersfrom trees have become known to humankindbecause of periodic grain shortages throughout ourhistory. While many kinds of edible and inediblematerials were used during famines to “stretch a


49

loaf” (including sawdust), this section is confined tothose materials which improve the extended flournutritionally or replace a fair percentage of it in thebaking process.

The Multipurpose MesquiteOne of the best tree products for this purpose is theground seeds and pods of the mesquite tree. Mes-quite is already known for its value in animal feed-ing. The tree is also cut or trimmed for high qualitysmokewood for barbecues. It is considered a veryvaluable tree for grazing and for honey production.Mesquite gum is a fair substitute for gum Arabic.However, this hardy tree from the Prosopis familyalso produces copious amounts of pods which havehigh percentages of protein and sugar. These podsand seeds can be milled into flour.

The mesquite pod is already used as food in the Cen-tral Mexican Plateau region, also known as the Mex-ican Altiplano. There the mesquite pod is consumedfresh, boiled in its own syrup, or ground into sweetflour called “pinole.” They can also be made intocandy (queso or pilonchillo) or boiled into a thin por-ridge with water, milk and corn meal. The mesquitepod can also be used to prepare a beer-like alcoholicdrink.

Mesquite pods are ground into meal in a variety ofways from the home made mortars and pestles toadvanced processing equipment which separates thepods into cotelydon, seedcoat, endocarp and exocarpand makes a different product from each part. Themost common way of making mesquite flour forhuman consumption is to sort and air dry the entirepod before crushing it in a hammer mill.

Mesquite pods are high in fiber, 17% to 30%, and lowin fat, 1% to 4%. The protein in the seeds is similarto soybean protein and the protein in the outer pod


50

is similar to the protein in whole rice or barley. Sugarcontent of mesquite pods can be as high as 41%, or aslow as 13%, but the sugar is mainly fructose whichthe body can process without insulin. Mesquite mealcontains a high percentage of soluble fiber. Theground pods are high in lysine and a good source ofpotassium, manganese, and zinc. There is a gooddeal of variability between individual seedling treesand even more variability between mesquite species.

Used to extend flour, mesquite meal is blended incombination with other flours. A typical recipe uses30% mesquite meal to 70% rice or wheat flour. It isespecially good in cakes, cookies, bread, porridge andmeal replacement drinks, as its slow absorption, andthe resulting flattened blood sugar curve, staves offhunger and supplies a steady energy level to thebody.

Carob

Carob flour, a fine ground meal produced from thepod of the Ceretonia siliqua is valued because it doesnot contain gluten. This makes carob flour suitablefor producing baked goods for sufferers of celiac dis-ease, wheat allergies and some people who sufferfrom diabetes. Carob flour has a moderate amount ofprotein, no cholesterol, is low in fats, and high infiber. The major mineral supplied by carob flour iscalcium and the major vitamin is Niacin. However,89% of the food energy is supplied by carbohydratesand sugars, so it may not be suitable for some diets.

Carob flour can be added to other non-gluten floursat a ration of 1 part carob to 3 parts non-gluten flour.It can be used to extend wheat flours at the sameratio. Carob is often used as a chocolate substitute ora substitute for coffee for those who must avoidthese substances. In North Africa, it is an ingredientof choice in baked goods because it behaves as other


51

flours do in cake batters and imparts a special tex-ture and heartiness to the final product. In Cyprus,the carob pods are processed into syrup. Carob flourburns easily when it is heated because it containsalmost no fats. Its starch granules absorb moistureand rupture when heated, releasing a stabilizinggum. Carob flour is rarely used on its own but usu-ally mixed with other flours, sugars and fats.

The ripe pods, shiny brown, and nick-named SaintJohn’s bread or “boxers”, can be eaten straight fromthe tree, but the small hard seeds, uncannily regularin size, are usually discarded. A steady diet of carobpods is not suitable for man or beast, as too muchcarob intake is bad for human digestion and limitingfor animal fertility. The recommended ration forcarob in the diet is currently, in both cases, not morethan 25% of total food intake.

2. The Promise of Bread TreesThese are trees with seeds which are suitable formaking bread and porridge. Very little has to be doneto the seeds, except leaching and milling. An espe-cially nutritious flour and meal is produced fromthem which is valuable when used to extend flour,but of such a high quality, bread might be madeentirely from these seeds.

The Oak, the bread tree of antiquityLiterature and fiction about prehistoric culture oftenremake our ancestors in our own image. However,we are never going to know exactly what theythought and felt, how they worshipped, nor how theydealt with all the problems and troubles to whichtoday's humans have inherited. We even know lessabout what they ate and how they hunted than wethought we do. Hundreds of sites have been dug upand the artifacts which were discovered have beeninvestigated. Theories have been constructed and


52

demolished by the archeologists who have examinedthese prehistoric sites and prehistoric middens (A“midden” is a mound or deposit containing shells,animal bones, and other refuse which indicates thesite of a human settlement. They are also called“kitchen middens”).

The most common mental picture of a prehistoricman is that of a muscular fellow, dressed in skins,hunkered in a cave, roasting a hunk of meat fromsome extinct behemoth over an open fire. The under-standing is emerging only recently that prehistorichumans probably ate a much more varied diet thanwas formerly thought. They seem to have consumedanything and everything from fish, snails, worms,insects, small animals, birds, large animals and evenlarge carnivores. They also ate a good deal of vegeta-ble matter, including leaves, shoots, roots, grasses,and nuts.

One particular class of nuts appears to have been themainstay of many prehistoric cultures. These are theacorns, a nut rarely eaten in modern times, but onewhich may be the closest thing to producing “breadgrown on a tree” nature has to offer. In William B.Logan’s fascinating book Oak, the Frame of Civiliza-tion, he devotes an entire chapter to his premise ofthe acorn as a staple food, perhaps the most impor-tant food in antiquity. This explains why so manypeople, in so many different places, have eitherrecords or legends of acorns being eaten. It alsoexplains why many people used them well into the20th century as a special seasonal food or a delicacy.

Logan cites Greek poets and historians. The Greekpoet Hesiod wrote in the eighth century BC, “Honestpeople do not suffer famine, as the gods have giventhem abundant subsistence: acorn bearing oaks,sheep and honey.” Ovid in a work called Fastiexplained that people once lived more or less on the


53

acorns. “The sturdy oak afforded splendid afflu-ence.” Pliny described all the oaks in his part of theworld and described their many uses. He declared,“Acorns are the wealth of many races even whenthey are enjoying peace.” Pliny adds to this state-ment, “When there is a shortage of corn they(acorns) are dried and ground into flour which iskneaded to make bread. In the Spanish provinces aplace is found for acorns in the second course of thetable.” The “second course” was a cooked or bakedcourse, so the acorns might have been served asbread, porridge, or mush.

This also solves a mystery which has puzzled arche-ologists for over a hundred years: in areas with nohistory of grain cultivation, millstones and grind-stones are found in archeological sites. If there wasno grain to grind—then what being ground intoflour? Apparently, in these areas, acorns were thestaple carbohydrate food and whether the nuts werepounded up in mortars and pestles, milled betweenstones, or crushed in pits by smooth rocks, as wasdone by the Native Americans in California, theresulting meal was baked on hot stones as bread orcooked with hot water and flavoring as porridge.

The practice of using acorns was not confined to theMediterranean region. The legendarily fierceHebrew tribe of Dan reportedly made acorns into the“waybread” they took with them to war. Acorns arestill dried and salted or sweetened to make snackfoods in parts of Spain. Kurds and Turks still makefoods out of acorn flour, spiced and scented or mixedwith buttermilk. Acorn flour and acorn tofu can befound in Korean supermarkets. The California Indi-ans based their entire system of food storage andcookery on the acorns of California’s many species ofoak. They turned the nuts into mush, bread, soup,crackers, and a fermented paste like poi. Oaks still


54

grow easily and abundantly in the Mediterraneanregion, in France and England, in California andOregon, in the cooler parts of Southeast Asia, in themountains of China, in Turkey, and the SovietUnion.

Their abundance goes mostly ignored and unused.New York’s Central Park, home to the world’s fattestsquirrels, has a serious disposal problem with oakleaves and acorns, discarding thousands of tons ofoak “mast” yearly. This mixture of leaves and fallennuts in other places and other times, would havebeen used to fatten sheep, goats and pigs. Now it isconsidered garbage, an expensive nuisance to behauled away and dumped into a landfill.

Could the oak become an important food tree again?

For a brief time in recorded history the oak became a“bread tree” again. The Little Ice Age, a periodwherein the population in Europe plummeted aswheat and rye based agriculture suffered throughyears of cool wet summers and winters when theground froze solid, brought the acorn back into thepantry. Bread was made with the 50% addition ofacorn flour. Acorn mush, flavored with herbs,became a staple food.

The famine in Sweden in the 1840’s also saw areturn to the use of acorn bread and mush. A largepeasant population, farms which had been sub-divided by inheritance laws into holdings too small tosupport a family and the same wet weather andshort summers which brought on the “potato fam-ine” in Ireland also brought northern agriculturalsystems into crisis.

A wave of emigrants emerged from Sweden and Nor-way, heading mostly for North America but settlingas far away as Australia. The farmers who stayedhome increased their holdings by acquiring land sold


55

by the emigrants and eking out their bread grainsand hay with acorns, oak mast, and the wild prod-ucts of forests and meadows including hazelnuts,lichen, the roots of bracken, and ferns. Some par-ishes, lost half of their population to migration orstarvation between the years of 1840 to 1875.

If acorns are good enough to eat when little food isavailable—then, why are they not used all the time?Part of the problem is the bitterness of so manyacorn types. This bitterness has to be leached awayby soaking the acorns in water. The acorns can beleached quickly by boiling them and changing thewater several times. Or they can be leached slowly byburying them in the wet gravel by a stream so theslow action of cold water will take away the bitter-ness. Modern plant breeding could select a few sweetacorn varieties of oak and propagate them, but oddlyenough, few people remember the acorn is excellentfood until all their other food disappears.

The second problem with the acorn as a food is theleached acorns and acorn flour is almost tasteless.The flour smells good. Mush bread or tofu madefrom acorns is wonderfully nutritious and very fill-ing. However, acorns must be cooked or mixed withsomething else to give them flavor. In a mush, soup,or stew, this is not a problem.

As a whole nut or made into bread, the flavorlessnessof the acorn is unappealing. It is for this reasonacorn nuts are toasted, salted, or sweetened, andacorn bread is flavored with herbs or seeds. This isalso a problem which could be overcome by plantbreeding and selection—or simply by seasoning theflour or adding it to another type of flour with amore conventional taste.

Among the trees of the many varieties of oak, thereare individual plants which produce acorns with


56

stronger, nuttier tastes. If this is what the potentialconsumers want, as regards to the flavor of acornflour, trees with this quality would not be hard toreplicate. What is missing is the will to use and culti-vate the oak for food—unless the bread from thefield fails. Then suddenly, it is remembered, “thebread of antiquity came from the forest.”

Acacia, the bread tree of tomorrowThere is another tree even more ubiquitous than theoak, hardy, drought tolerant, and nitrogen fixingwhich lives happily in the most desolate areas of theworld. This would be the acacia tree which graceswith its rough trunks, thorny branches, and tinygreen leaves, the sands and rocks of the most forbid-ding deserts.

Acacia seeds have long been a traditional food inAustralia. Aboriginal women winnowed, parched,and ground the seeds of the Acacia aneura, turningthe flour into both bread and porridge. If acaciaseeds are going to be used for food for humans, thetraditional knowledge and skills of these women willbe very important.

Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and IndustrialResearch Organisation (CSIRO) held a workshop in1995 which involved the Aboriginal community inseed collection, taxonomic studies, and the recordingof traditional knowledge. Species trails in outbackcommunities were planned and nurseries wereestablished. Then seeds and trees were introduced toa similar climatic zone in sub-Saharan Africa. SomeAustralian acacias had already been introduced inthe 1970’s to serve as windbreaks, stabilize the soil,provide firewood, and halt desertification. The aca-cias introduced after the workshop were species spe-cifically chosen for their potential value as humanfood.


57

Acacia seeds are splendidly nutritious. They aremore dense and concentrated than most plant partsand contain significant percentages of carbohy-drates, edible oil and crude protein. For example, theseeds of A. victoria contain 18% crude protein, athird more protein per gram than wheat varieties.The addition of acacia seeds gives traditional stews,pancakes, and starch dishes a welcome heartiness.While some acacias like Acacia colei, currently underexperimental cultivation in Maradi, Niger, haveseeds which can be added to sorghum and milletbread or porridge, other acacia seeds can be madeinto malted or unleavened bread. Some acacia seedsand pods can even be milled in the same manner asmesquite pods are milled.

So far A. colei, A. cowlena, and A. tumida seem themost appropriate acacia species for sub-SaharanAfrica. These three species are easy to establish, fastgrowing, highly nutritious, and can be winnowedand gathered easily. They show no signs of toxicity oranti-nutritional characteristics. Other species mayalso be suitable and the search for edible acaciassuitable for different areas and soil types in bothAfrica and Australia continues. Twelve species ofacacias have been planted in provenance trails inAustralia's most arid zone.

The introduction of edible acacias in Niger and Ethi-opian, has yielded such promising results that fivemore African nations have started their own acaciaprojects.

The growing “Bush tucker” industry in Australia,which is built around native foods and traditionalAboriginal knowledge, has familiarized many peoplewith the kinds of food eaten before the European set-tlers arrived. Acacia seeds were a staple of theaboriginal diet before the introduction of wheatflour. The Australian Native Produce Industries, one


58

of the largest firms dealing in “bush tucker” has suc-cessfully used acacia seeds in the production of lin-guine, damper, pavlova, and ice cream.

It is assumed Aboriginals began to use acacia seedsas food as long as 20,000 years ago. Grinding imple-ments of great age have been discovered all over thecontinent. There is no reason why the acacia tree,having been a bread tree for thousands of years inthe past, should not resume its role and be a breadtree of the future.

3. The Price of Feeding Bread to Animals: Why This Practice Must ChangeThe major food crops of the world, providing morethan 80% of the food energy for man and beast, arethe cereals, the soybeans, and the potato crops.These are crops which must build themselves aneweach season and in doing so require immenseamounts of water, fertilizer and care. They are rela-tively weak plants on a competitive level and theycan only be cultivated efficiently if they are plantedon clean, flat, well-tilled earth, with all the clods bro-ken up and possible competitors eliminated.

These are crops best suited for thick layers of topsoiland for alluvial plains. The new powerhouse of nutri-tion, the soybean, is cultivated in the same format ascorn, cotton, rape seeds, and a dozen other mega-crops of the modern world. The substance of thiskind of agriculture has not changed in thousands ofyears. It depends on plowing the land and making itbare, turning over the earth and making it vulnera-ble. Just this single practice is enough to cause theerosion of hundreds of thousands of tons of topsoilevery year.

An uncomfortably high percentage of these ecologi-cally taxing food crops are fed to animals. Thisincludes corn, wheat, soybeans, and oil seeds. The


59

animals do not need these foods. They are naturallyequipped to digest grass leaves, browse, and stubble,and many other plant materials which keep themhealthy—all substances people cannot eat.

Domestic animals, built to roam and graze in herds,are today confined to vast feedlots where they canhardly move. Highly dosed with antibiotics to keepthem safe from the diseases of overcrowding, stand-ing in their own droppings, and fed constantly, theyfatten very quickly. After butchering, their fat-mar-bled anti-biotic contaminated, meat is fed to increas-ingly unhealthy and obese citizens of the developedworld who suffer from clogged arteries and other dis-eases caused by eating the meat of unhealthy ani-mals.

Meanwhile, there are many, many, people who can-not raise and cannot buy their daily bread. Unsus-tainable crops, misused land, unhealthy animals,and people who are starving to death or dying of sur-feit—there is little about this system which makesany sense. The situation must be improved. The dev-astated, eroded, abandoned areas of the countrysidemust be replanted with species of trees which pro-vide high protein pods and browse, thereby providingfood for the animals and reforesting the abandonedland. Animals must be allowed to graze, browse, androam, eliminating many of the diseases of over-crowding and the need for drugs and producingleaner meats and healthier products. We must dropthe expensive practice of subsidizing the productionof grain, so that, the farmers of the developing worldcan grow their own crops for human consumptionand not have to compete with the flood of cheap cornindustrially grown to underpin animal feeding.

This complex web of destructive practices has to beunraveled sometime. It should be done while there isstill choice about how and when we change it. This


60

system impacts very negatively on the global foodweb—but the collapse of this system would beunimaginably catastrophic. Willing modificationtowards sustainability will prevent much sufferingand save many lives in the future.

4. Growing Bread on TreesShould we turn wheat and corn into perennialplants? (Other staple crops have perennial types thatare now being investigated)

Should we modify nut trees to produce flour forbread?

Are GM strategies necessary? Or can we find solu-tions in smart breeding?

Basic research, analysis, and evaluation, which hasalready been done, indicates it may be possible toachieve high yielding varieties of perennial corn andwheat. While the perennial corn plants are still inthe experimental stages, perennial wheat, which hasto be replanted only after the fifth year is already areality. Perennial sorghum and rye seeds are alsoalready available on the market and there has beenmuch progress in breeding perennial versions of sun-flower, flax, chickpeas and rice.

The current perennial wheat varieties are not yetequal in their yields to annual wheat, but they doshow promise for challenging cropping areas becausethey eliminate the need for annual plowing and miti-gate some of the other negative effects of cereal culti-vation. The development of the roots is the keydifference between the perennial and annual plantvarieties, affecting the roles they play in soil conser-vation and nutrient cycling. Perennial wheat sendsroots down three times as far as annual wheat, hold-ing the soil tightly in place even on sloping land. Thissoil binding root net does not die off annually, mak-


61

ing perennial plants very effective at controlling ero-sion. In some cases, perennial wheat has beendemonstrated to be six times as effective as pro-grams of improved management of annual cropwheat with crop rotation and mulching. Soil struc-ture improves under perennial wheat plants andthere is better water infiltration. Perennial wheatplants cycle nutrients more efficiently, resulting inless leaching of nitrogen into the watersheds. Peren-nial wheat crops use 90 percent of added fertilizers,leaving less to run off and pollute streams andground water. Also, perennial wheat crops do notallow the easy growth of weeds and competingplants. As run-off trapping borders, swards, forage,grazing, and anti-erosion plantings, even a minorshift to the perennial varieties of these crops couldhave great benefits for agriculture.

Perennial stands of wild grasses are beingresearched. Some have yields in quality and quantitycompeting favorably with domesticated annualgrains. Perennial grasses have long growing seasons.They are already in place and ready to resume grow-ing when the spring rains come. They collect extrasolar energy, a fact which is reflected in a good har-vest index. They are an ecological blessing to chal-lenging areas as they continuously cover the soil,stabilize that soil, facilitate rainfall infiltration, andenhance absorption of water which would otherwiserun-off and cause erosion. The savings in energy, asthese stands do not have to be plowed or fertilized,and the savings in edible material, as seeds do nothave to be saved for replanting, make the possibilityof perennial grain crops an exciting option.

One of the places these exciting possibilities arebeing studied is the Land Institute of Salina, Kansas.There Wes Jackson and his colleagues are attempt-ing to revolutionize the way carbohydrates are pro-


62

duced. Their aim is not an improved wheat field buta self-planting, self-sustaining ecosystem like theprairie, but a prairie which produces edible foliageand edible grain. These innovative methods may leadthe way to a much more sustainable way to produceour daily bread.

What about engineering a brand new crop—choosinga copiously producing nut tree like the oak, thebeech, or the hazelnut and modifying it to producegluten?

This is a bit of a long shot as it requires genetic engi-neering to be done with a level of skill which is notcurrently possible. It would involve moving a geneticsequence for the production of gluten which wouldfunction without any negative effects in the neworganism and for this function to not be silenced bythe epigenetic system of succeeding generations ofthis new organism—hopefully achieving flour thatcan be used in the making of raised breads.

This goal is not quite as strange as it sounds. Nutflours are very nutritious and have more proteinthan the flours of cereal grains. Sufficient oil isalready present in ground nuts for baking. However,100% nut breads are heavy, even denser than unleav-ened rye bread. The missing element is the elasticitynormally provided by gluten which would allow thebread to be leavened and rise. This could be solvedby the addition of gluten, but part of the appeal ofbread made with substances other than wheat is thefact that most of these flours are gluten free. Ratherthan genetically modifying the tree products to makebread from them, it might be much cheaper and sim-pler to learn how to make raised bread from non-genetically modified nuts and seeds.


63

Much basic research must be done before GM strate-gies are considered as a solution. These are some ofthe subjects which must first be explored:

1. Current use of tree-produced carbohydrates2. Evaluation of current carbohydrate crops by com-

parative analysis3. Re- evaluation of “lost” carbohydrate producing

tree crops and famine foods4. Identification of possible “bread trees” among the

palms5. Bread trees and oil trees among Indigenous wild

species and their possible domestication6. Comparative harvest index exploration7. New products and processes from promising

bread plants8. Profiles, qualities, and characteristics of bread

making materials from alternative sources of car-bohydrates

9. New food technologies that might be usable withperennial carbohydrate producing crops

Genetic modification to achieve the desired result isnot an easy or a quick process. It has potential risksand negative impacts. Despite its reputation as atechnological quick fix, GM strategies take as longas, or even longer, than conventional breeding. Also,while gluten is necessary for elastic dough, there aremore ways than one to make raised breads.

For instance, nut flour can be malted, as sorghumflour is malted, to achieve a raised bread or dough. Itcan be puffed up with air, as is done when makingrice-cakes. Corn flour has no gluten but cornbreadwas the respectable staple of the American Southand Southwest for three hundred years.

If it comes down to a choice of adding new breadmaking possibilities by creating new plants by GMtechnology, or using new technology to make raised


64

bread from veteran foodstuffs in new ways, then it isobvious that new food technology is both cheaperand safer and can put new products on the marketwhile the GM advocates are still getting their geneguns out of their holsters.

New food technologies come into use rather quickly.One need only look at the development of the edibleproducts derived from hemp seeds, for example.Hemp oil and hemp fiber are extremely useful mate-rial and they have been in use in many parts of theworld for hundreds of years. The oilcake, however,has only been considered food for human beings forthe last decade or so. Quite suddenly the oilcake hasbeen identified as a valuable food and processed intoingredients for cookies, food supplements and powerbars. If a fraction of the amount of time and moneyspent on hemp would be invested into making raised,or otherwise more palatable, breads from nut flours,those products would bloom just as quickly.

As we search for a way to grow bread on trees theseare the questions that must be answered:

1. Can the perennial versions of annual crops moveagriculture towards greater sustainability?

2. Can the products of wild and domesticated treesprovide “bread” or a reasonable substitute?

3. Can perennial crops, both wild and previouslydomesticated, supply material to replace a signifi-cant amount of the grain used in the productionof flour?

4. Can arboreal or other perennial crops whichreclaim spent soils also supply browse and mast insufficient quantity and quality to replace a signifi-cant percentage grain and cereal crops in animalfeeding programs?

5. Can transgenic plants truly change current agri-cultural equations regarding the production ofcereals and grain?


65

These questions can be answered by investigatingnew crops, lost crops, current crops, and wild speciesof perennial plants for the qualities and characteris-tics necessary for producing bread, bread substi-tutes, and animal feed. This research could improvethe balance in the agricultural world and allow thecultivation of cereal and grain crops to stay in areasbest suited to that type of cultivation.

The exploration of trans-genetic modification ofarboreals for carbohydrate production, the possibil-ity of turning maize into a perennial plant, and theserious examination of perennial grain producersalso have bearing on the original questions andshould reveal if is it possible for grains and cerealcrops to be replaced in part or supplemented by treeproducts in the context of a more sustainable agri-culture.

66

Chapter 5Trees for Energy

Trees grown especially for energy production pur-poses, other than firewood, deserve a chapter of theirown. Biofuel from tree products is something of aninnovative use of tree crops. The redirection ofresearch into this matter now is being spurred by therising costs of petroleum and other fossil-fuel prod-ucts, and also by an anticipated difficulty withobtaining adequate future supplies. Research intotree species which can be cultivated and harvested toproduce energy has also been spurred by fears thatsome biofuels, instead of improving the energy situa-tion, will simply take food out of the mouths of thepoor as maize, sorghum, and other vital grain cropsare turned into substitute fuels. Another fear isincreased demand for tropical oil seed crops, insteadof improving the environmental equation of energyproduction, will lead to a further loss of forest coverand natural diversity as new plantations for growingoil-rich seeds and foliage are developed at theexpense of forests and jungles.

So, what are biofuels? Biofuels are crop productsthat can be processed into liquid fuels for the pur-pose of transportation, on-farm energy, or heating.Bioethanol and biodiesel are the most common biofu-els, but there are others, such as biomethanol, biogasand biomethylester. Production of these latter threebiofuels is still in the experimental stage, thoughmany small farms use biogas and even biomethanol.Not many areas are planning to use these on a largeenough scale to replace fossil fuels.

Chapter 5: Trees for Energy

67

BioethanolBioethanol currently looks like the most likely sub-stitute for gasoline. However, there will be a longprocess of development, evaluation, and experimen-tation before bioethanol can be produced sustainably.Bioethanol is now commonly produced from maize,beets, wheat, sorghum and sugar cane. These cropsare all important food crops. The use of them to pro-duce fuel drives up the price of these crops worldwide. This is a major problem for the poorest peoplewho grow or purchase the crops for food.

All these crops require considerable inputs in freshwater energy and labor causing many researchers towonder if the apparently small net energy gain istruly worth the loss in food and potable water. Otherresearchers have declared turning maize and otherfood crops into ethanol is a process which on the sur-face requires 29% percent more fossil-fuel energy toproduce than it yields when used—and if all the costsand subsidies are added up, including repairing dam-age done to waterways and soil by industrial stylefarming, corn-based ethanol costs a stunning seventimes as much to produce as it yields as a biofuel.

The creation of ethanol and cellulosic ethanol areprocesses which illustrate both the potential and theproblems of biofuel production. Conventionally, etha-nol is currently derived from corn, wheat, or soy-beans, but corn is the most used feedstock. In drymilling operations, liquefied corn starch is producedby heating corn meal with water and enzymes. A sec-ond enzyme converts the liquid starch to sugarswhich are fermented by yeast into ethanol and CO2.Wet milling operations separate out oil, fiber andprotein from the starch before it is fermented intoethanol but the results are the same. Making ethanolin these manners utilizes fossil-fuels during the con-version processes, drives up the price of the food


68

crops being used for the raw materials, and ends upputting the poorer citizens of the world in directcompetition with the automobile.

Many people, consumers and researchers as well, areunderstandably revolted by the idea of burning foodfor fuel. This fact alone should keep corn, wheat, andsoybeans from being used to make bioethanol.Unfortunately, this kind of competition for resourcesis inherently unfair and a full gas tank will win outover a full belly every time unless concerned citizenspush for legislation which will eliminate subsidiesand keep staple food crops from being used for fuel.Corn, wheat, and soybeans are actually far too valu-able to use in this manner. They only appear to becheap raw materials because their price is kept arti-ficially low by the systems of subsidies in the coun-tries where they are produced. The entire conceptwould be abandoned if the real price of these stapleswas paid by those who want to convert grain andfoodstuffs into fuel.

Often, unwise practices in agriculture are condonedbecause there is some kind of “economic” benefit andthe logic of the “bottom line” is used as an excuse formany abuses. When looking closely at the economicscorecard for corn-based ethanol, one can only won-der what sort of convoluted reasoning and “cookedbooks” can give it the name of a “green fuel”.

Still, ethanol itself holds promise because it is a fuelwhich burns cleaner than gasoline and it can bemade from any material containing cellulose. It doesnot have to be made by letting food crops go up insmoke.

Biodiesel Biodiesel is currently made from seeds such as rape-seed, sunflowers, soy, palm, coconut, and jatropha.


69

With the exception of jatropha seeds, all these cropsare also edible or used to make edible oil. Except forjatropha, they currently are massively cultivatedmono-crops, ruinous to the countryside and har-vested with energy intensive methods.

The palm oil plantations are especially devastating,causing the loss of much of the remaining Asianrainforests and large tracts of the South Americanjungles as vast areas are cleared to make way for theplanting of oil palms. This is obviously a costly andunsustainable business as well and can only beadvertised as a “renewable” and “ecological” way ofmaking fuel substitutes if there is a willing suspen-sion of disbelief on the part of everyone involved.

Can Biofuels Be Produced Sustainably?Instead of asking, “Can biofuels replace fossil fuels?”perhaps the better question would be, “Can biofuelsbe produced sustainably for a more sustainable econ-omy?” If biofuels could be produced sustainably, thevery fact they are something which can be grown,rather than a one-time, non-renewable endowment,would change the patterns of energy production anduse in agriculture.

While it is not possible to power up the currentgigantic and wasteful global systems of cultivation,harvesting, and transportation by switching fromgasoline to bioethanol, it may be possible to producefrom a given locale's agricultural waste and somedeliberately cultivated energy crops, enough biofuelsto take care of the energy needs of that specific loca-tion. This would mitigate shortages of fossil fuelsand return energy autonomy and energy indepen-dence to many agricultural communities. Local pro-duction of biofuels would also save the energy beinglost in the transport of fuels produced centrally.Local biofuel production will also create local jobs


70

and job opportunities. Such a strategy would be animportant step in the relocalization of agriculture.

However, this strategy would require the identifica-tion and usage of appropriate crops for each areawhich are suitable for biofuel production. Certainly ahealthy stable of local energy crops would includetrees, but probably it would include perennialgrasses and other copiously growing plants whichcan also be used.

Sorghum, for instance, is an interesting biofuel feed-stock which would be appropriate for many areas.Sorghum needs only a fourth of the amount of waterand energy which is needed to cultivate corn and canproduce 4,000 to 6,000 gallons of conventional etha-nol per acre per year. Sorghum has a high yield ofbiomass, a high percentage of fermentable sugars, ahigh percentage of combustible material for fuelingthe process of converting it to ethanol, and a compar-atively short growth period. It is also in demand forbread, beer, and animal feed but sorghum is so hardyand so diverse it can be cultivated in degraded andmarginal lands where corn, wheat, and soybeanscannot. Increasing the amounts and types of sor-ghum under cultivation may be one sound way ofincreasing conventional ethanol production capacitywithout depriving the poor of food. Perennial sor-ghums can be used for topsoil regeneration as well asproducing biomass for fuel.

Cellulosic vs. Conventional EthanolCellulosic ethanol can be made from many forms ofagricultural waste, from the byproducts such as saw-dust and paper pulp of many industrial processes,and from crops of all sorts which have high amountsof cellulose, including trees grown especially for thispurpose. The cellulosic biomass from these manysources which can be used for ethanol feedstock is


71

composed of cellulose, hemi-cellulose, and ligninwith small amounts of lipids, protein, and ash alsopresent. Roughly two thirds of the mass is celluloseand hemi-cellulose and roughly one third is lignin.Fermentable sugars are extracted from the stock bybreaking down polysaccharides through acid hydro-lysis or enzymatic hydrolysis. After the sugars havebeen extracted from the biomass, microbial fermen-tation of this sugar yields ethanol and CO2.

Lignin, a by product of hydrolysis, is a fuel with theenergy value of coal which burns with almost nogreenhouse emissions. This allows the process ofmaking cellulosic ethanol to be fueled by one of itsown by-products and totally eliminates the need forfossil-fuel input in the ethanol conversion process.

Additionally, cellulosic ethanol will not take food outof the mouths of the poor (and put it in the gas tankof vehicles) because it can be made from such a widevariety of feedstock, most of which are not in thehuman food chain. It can also be produced frommaterials which are usually burned or put into landfills, such as paper sludge and municipal garbage. Itsproduction can be accomplished by using a by-prod-uct of its own processing for energy to covert bio-mass into ethanol. Because it can be made from somany materials, it can be produced anywhere thereis agriculture, trees, or a human population.

While many fear genetically engineered trees may beplanted to produce ethanol or indigenous people andsmall farmers may be pushed off their land becauseof the demand for bio-energy mono-crops, cellulosicethanol can be made out of so many waste products,perhaps 40 to 50% of potential global demand can beproduced without planting anything new at all. Theremaining requirement can be gained by planting awide variety of high cellulose crops specific to areaswhere biofuels are needed in an ecologically friendly


72

manner. These crops should be regenerative, plantedon degraded or worked out land, non GMO, waterand labor resource thrifty, and genetically diverse. Inthis way, every area will be encouraged to produce itsown ethanol and little or no energy will be lost intrucking it about.

Arboreal Energy CropsThe ever useful mesquite tree, used for food and live-stock feed, is also a potential bio-energy tree. Oneton of dense mesquite wood will yield 200 gallons ofethanol. An acre of mesquite standing 3 to 4 meterstall will yield 8 to 10 tons of wood. Above groundgrowth can be harvested and then the stumps can beallowed to regenerate for reharvesting in a few years.Mesquite grows well in areas with more than 300mmof rainfall and is both salt tolerant and drought tol-erant.

The poplar tree is also a serious energy crop candi-date. It is often selected for its swift growth and itsadaptation to many different climatic zones, as wellas, its relatively long growing season. Poplars can beharvested by coppicing at a rate of 10 tons per acreper year to be made into 700 gallons of cellulosic eth-anol. The residue from ethanol production can becomposted and returned to fertilize the soil wherethe trees are grown. Poplars and other swift growinghardwoods can be harvested sustainably for decades.

Some researchers have discovered the potential ofthese trees. Experiments to change the lignin con-tent and increase the amount of cellulose and hemi-cellulose in the trees are underway to facilitate etha-nol production since the presence of lignin makesextraction more difficult. However, the GM redesignof the poplar may be dangerous from an environmen-tal point of view and unnecessary from an economicone. Lignin is a high energy content substance which


73

can replace fossil-fuel input in ethanol production.Since it is such a useful substance, a GM redesign toreduce the percentage in poplar wood makes littlesense. Trees with reduced lignin may be less resis-tant to weather events and more prone to breaking,bending, and falling.

Cottonwood trees also grow swiftly, up to 3 meters ayear, can be coppiced and also have high energypotential. They can be harvested at rates of 9 to 12tons per acre per year, producing from 650 to 950gallons of ethanol per acre per year. Hybrids of pop-lar and cottonwood combine swift growth with highbiomass yields and dense wood. Other trees beinginvestigated as possible energy crops are willows,albitzias, wattles, horse chestnut trees (the “conk-ers” are also being considered as a source of biodie-sel), leucaenas, marulas, and tamarisks. There aredoubtless dozens of other plants and trees whichcould be cultivated as energy crops. they simply havenot been investigated or evaluated as yet.

Sustainable cultivation practices would put cellulosicethanol at the head of the pack of biofuels, making itnot only the least expensive of the possibilities butalso the “greenest.” Biodiesel could then be producedwithout exacerbating the current problems of agri-culture. About 10% of the current biodiesel feed-stocks are used vegetable oil and waste vegetable oil.This means the other 90% must come from oil richcrops. The oil palm cultivated as a mono-culture anddoing untold amounts of damage to communities,watersheds, forests, and local plant associations allover S. America and tropical Asia is not the most effi-cient of the oil producing plants.

Wild Trees for EnergyXimena caffra, Moringa olifera and Pappea capensisare wild African trees with oil rich seeds which can


74

be converted to biodiesel. With each tree producingan average of 10 kilos of seeds and 65% of the oilbeing convertible to biodiesel, a hectare of trees willproduce 2,400 liters of oil or 1,560 liters of biodieseleach year. Selection and cultivation of the treeswould probably increase the yield but thousands ofhectares of these trees are already present in the“bush” of southern Africa. The seeds can be gath-ered presently by wild croppers, children, and theunemployed without damaging the tree populationsand then used for local energy needs.

The most efficient oil or ethanol producers for someareas may actually be in the families of shrubs andthe perennial grasses, renewable plants, and regen-erative sods which produce biomass year after yearsuitable for biodiesel and bioethanol production.Native wild plants and eco-typical cultivars are oftenoverlooked as potential energy crops. These shouldbe surveyed and evaluated before plants from otherareas are introduced.

Other Energy Crop CandidatesHemp is a high yielding multipurpose fuel and fibercrop. Hemp can produce four times as much biomassas the biomass of a sustainably harvested forest ofcomparative area. An acre of hemp yields 10 tons ofbiomass in four months, enough to make 1,000 gal-lons of biomethanol plus 300 pounds of oil. Confu-sion between hemp and its close botanical relativethe marijuana plant, have kept hemp from being cul-tivated in many places, most notably North America.Since hemp contains almost none of the mind alter-ing substances of marijuana and confers so manybenefits, there is no reason why hemp should notassume an honored place in the sustainable agricul-tural systems of the future. Cloth, edible oil, and fuelare only a few of hemp’s possible products.


75

Jatropha curcas, a large shrub which produces oilrich seeds, is being grown along railway lines byIndia’s village cooperatives, utilizing land which wasout of production and converting the seeds to thou-sands of liters of biodiesel which are used locally topower tractors and other agricultural machinery.

Switchgrass, an anti-erosive perennial forage crop,already planted in some areas to stop the loss of top-soil to wind and water, also has great potential forbiomass which can be made into fuel, producing sixtons of dry matter per acre annually. Standardbreeding techniques could double this amount, mak-ing switchgrass a leading crop candidate. The peren-nial grass, native to North America, would be mowedtwice a year in moderate climates and once a year incold ones, and planted in unstable, eroded, anddegraded areas which are currently out of produc-tion. The environmental benefits of this crop aremany. The foremost benefit, after biofuel production,is the stabilization of eroded and damaged land, pulpby-products for animal feeding, and increased waterabsorption by the switchgrass swales and sods.

There is no lack of agricultural materials to makesustainable bioethanol, nor is there a lack of theknow how to take the materials and convert theminto fuel. What is missing is the commitment toretooling the systems which use energy so lessenergy can be used to accomplish the same impor-tant tasks on a smaller, smarter, greener, more flexi-ble scale.

A radical reorganization of farming systems mustcome sooner or later if agriculture is going to con-tinue successfully in the developed world. As well asfinding alternative sources of energy, alternativeways to use energy must be found. Energy cropsmust be diverse and keyed into the specific localeswhere they will be used in conjunction with the


76

locale's agricultural, and perhaps municipal waste aswell. To be truly efficient, the local biofuels must beutilized close to the source rather than produced cen-trally and distributed over long distances.

Since one of the advantages of biodiesel and bioetha-nol is its transportability, it could well be asked,“Why use energy to convert mesquite to ethanol? Ifthe maximum net energy is extracted from materialsby using the materials as close as possible to thesource, why not just use the mesquite wood itself asfuel?” If we want an answer to this question and oth-ers which come to mind, it requires new ways ofthinking about the issues.

Inventors and researchers are currently designingtractors that use wood as fuel and automobiles whichuse manure. It is already clear these machines willbe smaller, lighter and more energy efficient. Theywill have to be to utilize less energy dense fuels thanfossil-fuels.

There is not going to be a neat, organized and seam-less transition from fossil fuel to biofuel use. Biofuelsare not a substitute for oil in quantity or versatility.If made and used wisely, taking care their productionis done in such a way the conversion is accomplishedclose to their usage, all the hidden costs of acquiringthe feedstock are taken into consideration, and ifthere is a net energy gain in the process, it may bepossible to produce enough energy to keep the mostimportant processes of food production up and run-ning. Biofuels cannot power up the millions of auto-mobiles on the roads, nor can they fuel the fleets ofplanes in the sky.

There are going to be many flat tires, bumps, detoursand mistakes along the way to the sustainable pro-duction and use of biofuels, but to reach the desireddestination, researchers, inventors, and consumers


77

should be able to agree on a few simple premises. Ata minimum, these are:

1. Bioethanol will not be made from staple foodcrops

2. There will be no subsidies for crops turned intobioethanol or biodiesel

3. Bioethanol and biodiesel will be produced locallyand used in scaled back energy efficient systems.

4. The current systems of agriculture and the trans-portation of food will be redesigned to use muchless energy, much more efficiently.

In this way, bioethanol and other biofuels can comeinto widespread use without adding to the problemsof agricultural systems which already make themproblematic and unstable. Trees and perennialplants will be planted and cultivated sustainably forthe production of energy which is both renewableand “green.”

78

Chapter 6Fuel and Firewood

One of the continual challenges for the poor is find-ing enough firewood for fuel to cook their meals. Mil-lions cook over open fires or in small wood-firedstoves and ovens. Since the grains, pulses, andtubers which make up the bulk of their diets have tobe cooked to be edible, there is fierce competition,what the National Academy of Science calls a “fran-tic scramble” and the FAO calls the “cooking potwars,” over anything which can burn.

In very poor countries up to 90% of the populationprepares food in this manner and the head of a fam-ily can use over a ton of wood a year. Because of this,firewood is becoming harder to find. The developingworld is in the midst of a critical shortage of thisessential material. Prices for firewood and fuel havesoared. More time must be spent to acquire wood forfuel. Often, people who cannot find it or buy it areforced to burn animal dung or crop residues, thusdepriving the soil of these two vital inputs and caus-ing decreases in crop yield. In many places it takesmore time to find fuel to cook the food than isexpended in growing the food to eat. To quote theNational Academy of Sciences (NAS) publication TheLost Crops of Africa, vol. 1 “There is a saying inAfrica that it costs more to heat the pot than to fillit.”

Obviously this need is causing many forests andwoodlands to shrink and some to even disappearaltogether, as the speed with which the wood is har-vested and used is greater than its rate of renewal.The result is often a treeless, eroded, dying land-scape and a population which can no longer feed

Chapter 6: Fuel and Firewood

79

itself or even cook the donated grains of food aid pro-grams.

In recent years, research into selecting species whichmight be cultivated to help provide this vital fuelresource has led to accelerated tree plantings at thelevel of the village and the family, many reforestationprojects, and the establishment of fuel tree planta-tions in some locales. While population growth in thepoorest countries has tended to swallow up the mod-est gains from some projects, other efforts to plantand maintain firewood plantations and to use themsustainably have been very successful. The most suc-cessful efforts by governments or NGOs are thosecommanding broad support in nearby communities.

Planting millions of trees, nurturing them to matu-rity, and keeping them from being poached by des-perate people, eaten by hungry domestic animals, orharvested unsustainably is complicated and difficultunder the best conditions. In areas where there havebeen inadequate supplies of wood for a very longtime, it is very difficult to keep even the fastest grow-ing trees from premature harvest without a localconsensus in an agreement that not harvesting thefuel and wood today means there will be more fueland wood for tomorrow. To reach this critical agree-ment requires support and sanction from the tradi-tional power structure, investment by nationalgovernment or a powerful NGO, approval of the localgovernment, and the cooperation of a good percent-age of the local population. Then it may be severalyears between the planting of the firewood planta-tion and the first harvest. For people who do nothave wood with which to cook, there is a terribletemptation to use the resource as soon is there isanything big enough to burn.


80

Short Term Fuel CropsLuckily, there are some plants which produce usablebiomass for fuel within a few months. If a plantationof this sort is established in the same general area asthe firewood plantation, there is a much greaterchance of preserving the plantation trees until woodcan be harvested. Some short-term fuel plants alsoproduce edible products and these should be consid-ered for fast producing fuel plantations in addition toquick growing trees.

Solid stem sorghum is one such plant. It has a full,small head of grain but a solid, fibrous, almostwoody, stem which is easy to set alight and whichgives off much heat as it burns. One type fromEgypt, called Giza 114, has a particularly lignifiedstem and has been used in Egypt and Peru for cook-ing, firing brick kilns, and baking ovens.

Sorghum is a fuel crop which can be harvested inthree to fourth months, with three crops grown peryear in areas with an appropriate climate. Theannual sorghum biomass equals or betters theamount of usable biomass which could be gainedfrom most tree species, topping 75 tons per hectare.When dried and the grain removed, the stalk androot mass of a hectare would equal more than 10tons of wood. Unlike bulky firewood which must bechopped up to be used, the sorghum stalks fit nicelyunder a pot propped up on stones or bricks and canbe broken by hand and fed into the small cook stovesused in most poor rural areas.

Another possible food/fuel crop is corn. The actualcorn kernels are too valuable to be used as fuel, butthe cobs and stalks burn well in cook stoves. Cornstalks have many other uses and do not produce asmuch heat as solid stem sorghum, so using corn


81

should be considered something of a stopgap mea-sure.

The pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) is a food crop withtall woody stems which burn as well as smallbranches do and it gives off more heat than kindling.The nutritious seeds of the pigeon pea contain 22percent protein. Green seeds and fresh pods areoften eaten as vegetables. The pods husks and foliageare good fodder for animals and silkworms have beencultivated on pigeon pea leaves. The pigeon peagrows quickly and densely enough to be used as awindbreak in sandy areas. The plant is particularlywell suited to arid, saline, and infertile areas. Fourhundred mm of rainfall is enough to guarantee abountiful crop and the plant tolerates a wide rangeof sandy soils and loams. Besides the edible seedsand nitrogen fixing ability of this hardy legume, infour to nine months the plants reach maturity and 2-3 tons of fuel can be harvested per hectare of thebrittle, round, woody, lower stalks while the thinnerupper portions can be used for thatch or basketry.

Among the inedible plants there are many short-term fuel crop candidates. Reeds, elephant grass,Sudan grass and the smaller bamboos burn fiercelyenough to fire up any stove or oven. They also growquickly and re-grow from the remaining roots afterbeing cut or mowed.

Having a short-term fuel crop close by often stopsthe desperate foraging in whatever woodlands andgroves still remain and allows firewood plantationsto reach maturity when sustainable harvesting ofwood can begin.

Fast Growing Woodlot TreesThere are many fast growing tree species which canbe used for both firewood and fuel. Fuel and fire-


82

wood species including trees, shrubs, and other kindsof plants, are usually multipurpose species which areeasy to establish, adapt well to different sites, andneed little care. They are often planted on marginallands, or areas which have degraded. Often they arespecies which are not attractive as browse for goatsand sheep or food for wildlife.

Many of these plants can be coppiced or re-har-vested, have nitrogen fixing ability, and burn withoutmuch toxicity, sparks or smoke. Some of these plantsgrow in a wide variety of environments, needing dif-ferent amounts of rainfall, intensity of sunlight anddifferent kinds of terrain.

Because of the danger of invasiveness in the kind ofquick growing, hardy plants chosen for firewood andfuel, some effort had been made to give local trees ahigher priority. Luckily, there is no lack of candidatespecies for fuel and firewood plantations.

Focusing on Fuelwood Species for Arid AreasIn semi-arid and dry areas, the shortage of firewoodis more acute simply because the aridity severelylimits the kind of plants which will grow there. Thenatural biomass productivity of these plants is usu-ally low due to the lack of rainfall. Because of theselimitations, this chapter deals with the kind of hardyplants which can alleviate this shortage.

There are many more species suitable for fuelwoodin temperate and tropical humid zones than oneswhich grow in arid and semiarid zones. A list of thesespecies and their description can be found in theNational Academy of Science (NAS) booklet Fire-wood Crops – Shrub and Tree Species for EnergyProduction. An abbreviated list can be found inAppendix I of this book. For the arid, semi-arid, andsaline areas, there are some suitable trees, described


83

in the latter parts of this chapter along with somedetails as to their tolerances, as well as their positiveand negative qualities.

Many millions of people live in arid and semi-aridareas, usually defined as areas with less than 500mm rainfall and many of them are desperately poor.In their need for firewood and fuel they damage frag-ile areas, removing trees, uprooting saplings, burn-ing anything combustible, and then burning thedung of their animals which contains nutrientswhich should have been returned to the soil. Withouttrees to bind and shade the soil and to allow for theinfiltration of rainwater, grass and other vegetationthins out and vanishes. Aquifers do not recharge.Grazing is poor and hungry animals begin to eatleaves, twigs, and saplings so the area does notrecover its tree cover. The result in many cases isman-made desertification, a state of ecosystem col-lapse in which virtually all vegetation is gone andeven the soil blows away on the wind.

Trees for firewood plantations in these areas areusually tough, salt tolerant species with especiallydeep or well-developed root systems which penetrateto subsoil moisture or win moisture from extremelylarge areas. Often they are trees which are associ-ated with nitrogen fixing bacteria. Most have smallleaves or needle-like leaves to limit transpiration orsome other physiological mechanism to limit waterloss during drought. Many have thorns to protectthem from hungry animals.

Select Individual Species of Useful Trees and PlantsAdhatoda vasica, is a many-branched evergreenshrub which usually grows between 2 and 6 metersin height. This plant is almost never grazed bysheep, goats or wild animals. Because of this, it can


84

be planted as a hedge, a windbreak, or a living fence.It is a lush looking, leafy plant with broad leaveswhich give off an unpleasant smell when crushed.The white and purple flowers are also unpleasantlyscented. The wood, however, burns cleanly andbrightly, giving off considerable lights and heat.Native to India, Burma, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia, itis often turned into charcoal. It is also a medicinalplant. Its leaves are used as green manure or to cur-tail insect populations much as Neem leaves are. Theplant is also a source of yellow dye. Its usefulness isrestricted to tropical and subtropical areas because itis sensitive to low temperatures and frost.

Albizia lebbeck, is a robust and adaptable tree with afull crown and white bark which produces small tim-ber, fuelwood, fixes nitrogen through nodules in itsroots, and is excellent for reforesting dry, alkaline,sandy areas. The tree can reach 30 meters in heightunder the right conditions, but is usually between 6and 15 meters tall. The wood of the tree is dense andthe tree coppices well. Leaves and pods provide goodfodder or green manure. The tree is valued for shade,for beauty, and for its value to bee keepers since thetree flowers copiously early in the spring. Albizia leb-beck trees are also considered suitable for erosioncontrol both in windy desert areas and areas wherelight soil is in danger from water erosion. It is some-what frost and drought tolerant. In its native range,the tree does well from sea level to 1600 meters withrainfall ranging from a modest 40 mm to a “wet” 200mm.

Anogeissus latifolia, is sometimes called the Axel-wood tree. It is a rugged tree of the semi-arid zonesof India which produces fine, dense firewood. Thetrees develop into large plants in areas of deep soil,but stay gnarled and stunted in areas where the soilis rocky. The trees coppice well and are fire hardy,


85

but will grow slowly in very dry conditions. The gumof the tree (Gatty gum) is twice as viscous as gumArabic and is used in medicine and printing. Thebark and leaves are rich in tannin which is used inthe leather-making industry of India. The foliage issuitable fodder for grazing animals and can be fed totasar silkworms. The tree’s name, Axelwood tree,comes from the strength and durability of its woodwhich polishes well and can be used to make farmimplements, including the shafts and axels of carts.Currently this non-domesticated species is propa-gated by seed.

Azadirachta indica, or Neem tree is also known asthe “village pharmacy tree.” Neem is potentially oneof the most important and valuable of the arid zonetrees. It can grow in arid and nutrient deficient soiland be used as a fast developing source of fuelwood.It can also be cultivated as a medicinal plant, sincevirtually every part of the tree has value in bothAyurvedic and conventional medicine.

Neem is a deep rooted, medium size tree with beauti-fully feathery deep green foliage and small fragrantwhite flowers. The trees generally have a short trunkor multiple trunks covered with thick reddish greybark. The wood of the neem is reddish white anddurable. The wood is heavy and makes suitable polesand other small timber items. It is rarely attacked byinsects and polishes well. After the first season, thedevelopment of young plants is rapid. Though coldtolerance in adult tree varies from tree to tree, youngneem trees are all very vulnerable to frost and lowtemperatures. The tree coppices easily and regrowthdevelops even faster than the original trunks.

Besides the neem wood, the seeds contain oil suitablefor lamps or to lubricate machinery. Neem oil is alsoa wound healer and disinfectant. Neem is an excel-lent windbreak and shade tree. Its heavy leaf falls


86

create natural mulch and the tree has been used inmany reclamation plantings in Africa and Asia.Neem bark is full of tannins useful in the leathermaking industry.

Neem products, which are also fungicidal, are addedto toothpaste, shampoo and soap. Several “green”preparations for insect control are made from Neemproducts. Small neem twigs are used as chew sticksand toothbrushes because of the beneficial effects ofNeem sap on teeth and gums.

Neem trees can be grown from cuttings but they aremost easily grown from fresh seed. Seed viability isseverely limited. Most seeds will lose their ability tosprout after a month. The plant is extremely heattolerant and does better in saline soils than might beexpected if enough water is supplied and drainage isgood. The tree can survive with as little as 130 mm ofnatural rainfall or as much as 500 mm.

Cajanus cajan, or The pigeon pea, mentioned at thebeginning of the chapter, is not a tree but a food cropwith tall woody stalks. These stalks are an importantby- product because they can be used instead of woodto cook meals in rural households. A nitrogen fixinglegume, the pigeon pea can be grown in infertile orworked out soils. The speed of plant developmentprotects soils quickly from erosion and sometimes adouble row of pigeon pea plants, which may be 3.5meters tall is used as a living fence or a windbreak.

Dry seeds of the pigeon pea are the plants mostimportant product, but green pods are sometimesharvested and used as a vegetable. The pods and foli-age are suitable forage for grazing animals andpotential food for silkworms and lac insects, the tinycreatures from which shellac is obtained.

The plants grow in full sunlight in hot areas withrainfall over 500 mm and below 1000 mm. Pigeon


87

peas are not frost tolerant. They will grow in a widerange of poor soils but best in deep sandy loams. Theplant is propagated by sowing seed “in situ”.

Cassia siamea, or Yellow cassia, is a large evergreentree with dense dark colored wood which makes agood fuel or an attractive timber for cabinet making.The trees coppice easily and are hardy enough to bechosen for land reclamation and reforestation proj-ects in many countries. In Nigeria these trees areused successfully to replant and reclaim miningsites.

The tree can be propagated by seed and is tolerant ofheat as long as it is generously supplied with waterfor part of the year. So the areas most suitable forthis tree are monsoonal areas with a long dry season,canals, or riverbank sites. The tree is not cold toler-ant nor will it grow in areas with less than 500 mmof rain per year. The leaves and pods are also palat-able for sheep, goats, and cattle, so young treesshould be protected for the first years. Pigs shouldnot be fed any part of this tree, as the leaves, podsand twigs are toxic to these animals.

Colophospermum mopane produces the best fire-wood in Africa. It is also the host of the African deli-cacy, the Mopane worm. A moderately tall tree, withfissured gray bark, the Mopane grows on very poorand damaged soil where little else can grow. Mopaneleaves have a distinctive butterfly shape and thewood is so hard, felling a tree is a major undertaking.The durable wood is useful in construction forbeams, fence posts, poles, bridge supports, and rail-road ties. The leaves provide excellent fodder forsheep, goats, horses, and cattle and their percentagein the food ration of grazing animals does not have tobe limited. The leaves retain their food value whendried. The Mopane worm, actually a caterpillar,grows and develops on a diet of Mopane leaves in


88

great numbers. These worms are collected and eatendried, fried in oil, or salted and are considered a deli-cious snack. The tree is very salt tolerant and willgrow in shallow soil but does best in deep loam. Thetree is heat tolerant to a high degree and can toleratemild frosts but heavy frost can damage the branchesand cause dieback.

Emblica officinalis, a semi-domesticated tree, is verymuch appreciated in Asia and is usually left standingwhen land is cleared for agriculture. A medium sizeddeciduous tree with slender branches and pale greenor reddish fruits, the Emblica is used for reforesta-tion and land reclamation, cultivated for firewood, orfor its extremely close grained and durable timber. Itis also planted in gardens for the sake of its fruit,which is rich in vitamins and pectin.

The Emblica wood is water resistant and used forbuilding in wet areas and for lining wells. The fruit ispicked, dried, or cooked, and appears in candiedforms and as relishes and chutneys. Both fruits andleaves are eaten by livestock and the fallen leaveshave considerable value as green manure. The treesare frost sensitive and do best where there are twodistinct seasons. The tree does not grow well above600 meters in altitude. Native to humid areas, it alsogrows in dry zones and tolerates sandy and alkalinesoil. Seedling Emblicas are inferior to budded, moredomesticated types. The seeds are not viable formore than a few weeks and germinate well afterbeing treated with hot water.

Parkinsonia aculeata, also called Jerusalem Thorn orBlue Palo Verde, is native to the US southwest butnaturalized in Hawaii, South Africa, and India. Ithas also been introduced to Israel, Jamaica, Florida,Cyprus, Uganda, Kenya, and Chile. It is a small,crooked tree which rarely reaches above 8 meters inheight. It has a green trunk, about 40 cm in diame-


89

ter, many drooping branches, and delicate grass-likefoliage.

Despite its tender look, Jerusalem Thorn is a veryhardy tree. It is most comfortable in full sunlightand poor, gravelly or sandy soils. It is heat tolerantinto the 40o C range and tolerates light frosts. Thetree is appropriate for anti-erosive plantings but alsoprized for its vivid foliage and flowers. These quali-ties make it a candidate for urban plantings, as wellas, planting along roads and highways threatened bysand encroachment. The tree also fixes nitrogen andis tolerant of saline sites. A minimum of 200 mm ofrainfall is enough for reasonable rates of growth anddevelopment, but waterlogged soils retard growthand can kill young trees. Because of this, drainagemust be good where the Jerusalem Thorn is plantedeven if the water supply is sparse or seasonable. Thewood is used for firewood and charcoal in Mexico andother South American countries but is brittle andnot suitable for lumber. Trees revive easily evenafter vigorous harvesting. Branches are lopped off tofeed goats and sheep, and the seed pods are veryattractive to grazing animals.

Pinus halepensis, the Aleppo Pine, is a tree suitablefor Mediterranean sites with 250 to 800mm of rain-fall and 7 to 8 rainless months. It is a tree with around crown which may reach 25 meters in heighton deep soils, but it is able to tolerate poor, shallowand eroded areas. It is not suitable for swampy soilsbut grows well on clay soils which many other coni-fers will not tolerate. The tree is tolerant of colddown to minus 20o C and heat into the 30o C range.It can grow up to 2,000 meters in altitude.

Aleppo Pine is a useful source of tinder and resin. Itis a robust tree for soil conservation plantings andshelter belts, and also a popular ornamental. It hasbeen planted extensively in Greece, Italy, Israel, Jor-


90

dan and many other semi-arid areas around theMediterranean for reforestation projects. It has alsobeen introduced to South America and the SovietUnion, especially to the warm semi-arid areas there.In some areas it is considered too valuable to use asfirewood and the trees are selectively harvested fortimber. The wood is resinous and burns well so wastewood from logging for construction wood is collectedand sold as well. The trees are planted out as seed-lings, having been sown in pots and beds in thespring and then moved into plantation format or ter-races at the start of the rainy season.

The Acacia Genus of TreesThe Acacia genus is a large family of trees particu-larly suited to arid, saline, and infertile areas.Among the many types of Acacia, several speciesstand out as particularly good trees for fuel and fire-wood.

Acacia brachystachya, also called the umbrellamulga, turpentine mulga or false bowgada. This isactually a large bush which grows up to 7 meters tallwith multiple trunks. It grows in the Australian inte-rior in very arid conditions, mostly in areas wherethe temperature does not drop below freezing butmay reach as high as 58o C. The wood of the tree ishard and heavy and the foliage can be eaten by stock.Seed production is irregular, but the seeds are edible.Some related species of similar potential are:

Acacia mangium, a very fast growing species fromAustralia's tropical edge, which is also a good timbertree and can reach a height of 15 meters in threeyears,

Acacia lysiophloia, also a large shrub from areas withvery poor soil, the wood burns hotly, but the stickyleaves make unpalatable forage and,


91

Acacia holoserica, a small tree which needs moreabundant rainfall, at least 500 mm, but has abun-dant seeds and matures quickly.

Acacia cambagei, also know as the Gidgee or theStinking Wattle. This is a very tall, open habited aca-cia with pungent gray-green foliage. It is found inwestern Queensland and New South Wales. It has anextremely heavy wood which burns so hotly green ordry that it is usually mixed with less flammablematerials. The wood is also known for its dense grainand resistance to termites. The areas in which thistree thrives have relatively low rainfall but the tem-peratures rarely rise above 35o C and the tree seemsto grow well in hilly areas.

Acacia cyclops, this tree is extremely tolerant of salt,salinization and salt spray. It is a dense evergreenmultiple stemmed shrub which spreads out laterallyand forms and dense mat of roots. Because of thishabit, the tree is often planted to stabilize coastalareas or dunes. While the tree is native to Australia,it has been used in many other countries for coastalplanting and land reclamation projects. While thelogs rarely exceed 20 cm in diameter, the wood burnsgreen or dry and is considered a superior wood forcook stoves and kilns. The foliage is browsed bystock and wildlife and the seeds are often eaten bythese animals and dispersed by birds. The tree sur-vives in areas with as little as 200 mm rainfall, buthas high light requirements and while tolerant ofslight frosts, it is unhappy in areas with regular tem-peratures above 40o C.

Acacia nilotica, also called the Egyptian thorn or thebalbul, is a very valuable source of timber, fuel, fod-der, tannin and honey. It can grow to a height of 20meters in good conditions, but its size is usually lim-ited by available water. In arid areas, it may notexceed six meters in height and in extremely dry


92

zones it may resemble a shrub. Acacia nilotica is dis-tinguished from other acacias by its extremely fra-grant, bright yellow flowers and the paired whitespines at the base of each leaf. The trees are also verythorny.

It is believed Acacia nilotica was the earliest com-mercial source of gum Arabic. The ancient Egyptiansused the tree for boatbuilding. The wood is veryheavy, resistant to termites and suitable for carving,making bowls, plates, cutting boards and eatingutensils. The tree is native to Africa and found insemi-arid and arid zones from Egypt to Botswana. Itgrows in a variety of soils, from alluvial to heavyclays, and develops considerable resistance to frostas an adult.

A subspecies Acacia nilotica indica is propagated bydirect seeding and used extensively for fuel, building,and grazing in Pakistan and India. This is a verythorny and difficult to handle tree which should onlybe introduced to areas critically in need of firewoodor reclamation.

Acacia salinga, this is an extremely adaptable andrugged tree which has naturalized itself in some verydesolate areas. A dense busy shrub or small tree, itsdrooping branches are graced with golden flowersand bluish smooth leaves. The tree's full height isreached in five to six years. In areas with little rain-fall, the tree will stay small unless its aggressive rootsystem gets into the ground water. While its wood is“sappy,” light, and burns quickly, the tree has otheruses. It is an excellent dune fixer, windbreak, andfodder tree. Its gum, exuded freely from damagedbranches is useful in pickling. The tree toleratesbrief periods below freezing. It has a remarkableability to compete with weeds, however it can beinvasive and hard to eradicate.


93

Acacia senegal, this tree is the source of gum Arabic.It is not a fast growing tree, but it is so hardy it isplanted in land reclamation projects in the mostchallenging desert areas. While the tree is usuallysmall and thorny, in the right conditions, it can reacha height of 13 meters. The tree lives for 25 to 30years and tolerates both browsing from wild anddomestic animals and coppicing by human popula-tions. The wood of the tree is hard and heavy. Thismakes it excellent for firewood, but also good forpoles, carving, and in the manufacture of agricul-tural implements. Its root fiber is woven into fish-nets or twisted into rope. The tree's most valuableproduct is gum Arabic, used in making medicines,confections, baking, arts supplies and electronics.The seeds and pods of the tree are suitable forhuman consumption, the twigs and leaves are a goodsource of fodder and like all acacias, Acacia senegal isa nitrogen fixing plant, excellent for stabilizingsandy soil and dunes.

Acacia seyal, is a resilient, drought tolerant tree ofthe dry areas of Africa, which is particularly resis-tant to grass fires and forest fires because of itsthick, greenish yellow bark. With the bark removed,the cured wood of this tree is prized as some of thebest fuelwood and smokewood in Africa. The tree canreach 12 meters in height, but it is usually muchsmaller, thorny, and flat-topped, often with multipletrunks. Found in dry savannahs, it is also an impor-tant fodder plant. The exuded gum is also valuable,darker in color and generally inferior to gum Arabic,but with many of gum Arabic's qualities.

Acacia tortillas, this tree grows in some of the driestareas on the planet. It is a medium sized tree, usu-ally from 4 to 10 meters tall, although trees in someareas have reached 15 meters in height. In very aridzones, the tree remains small; its branches tangled


94

and gnarled into a flat, thorny, canopy. The dense redheartwood makes excellent charcoal. Relative toother arid zone plants, the Acacia tortillas is rela-tively fast growing. The pods of the tree are a favor-ite food of broth wild grazers and domestic animals.Grazing animals also eat the leaves and twigs of thetree. The tree favors alkaline soils and can survive inareas with less than 100 mm rainfall and long dryseasons. The wood is also used for making fenceposts and small agricultural implements.

There are many other species of Acacia trees whichare useful for fuelwood, grazing, and carving, but thepreceding Acacia species are the more common andeasily found of the Acacias.

Eucalyptus Genus of Trees Eucalyptus is another genus of trees with many use-ful members, including trees for wet, temperate, andarid zones. The best types for arid and semi-aridzones are listed below.

Eucalyptus camaldulensis, is a tall, slenderstemmed, tree with cream colored or pinkish smoothbark. The leaves are long, tough and have a bluishcast. The tree is tolerant of dry conditions, salinity,and it is reasonably hardy to heat and cold. It can befound in areas with only 200 mm of rainfall and inareas with over 1,000 mm of rain. This tree will growin a wide variety of soils, the leaves are not eaten bylivestock or wild animals so in most places where thetrees are planted, they grow quickly and withoutinterference by animal life. When young these treesdo not compete well with weeds and the plantingshould be weeded until the tree gains strength andheight. The wood produced by this eucalyptus type isan excellent fuel and valued as firewood, and formaking charcoal. The tree itself is often planted as awindbreaker, in shelterbelts, and in farm woodlots.


95

The tree is very much valued by bee keepers as thehoney produced from the flowers has a mild pleasantflavor and a fine gold color. It may be the most widelyplanted of all the eucalyptus types and has beenintroduced to the Middle East, the Mediterraneancountries, and South America. It is also regarded asthe most medicinal of the eucalyptus trees. Itsleaves, flowers, seeds, and oil are considered valuablemateria medica.

Eucalyptus citriodora, is a tall, fast growing treewith a straight bole, reddish or bluish bark and has acrown of pendulous foliage. It is much valued fortimber and may reach heights of 45 m in less than adecade in areas with sufficient rainfall. While hardyto high temperatures and light frosts, it needs morerain than Eucalyptus camaldulensis, a minimum of600 mm for health, but for optimal growth, approxi-mately 900 mm per rainy season is required. If suffi-ciently watered, a dry season of 6 to 7 months is welltolerated by this tree. Well drained soil is best forthis tree but the tree also tolerates soil with someclay. The tree can be propagated by seeds and com-petes well with weeds.

The wood of a Eucalyptus citriodora is hard andheavy, with low shrinkage during drying. It is anexcellent saw timber and used in construction, tomake tool handles, poles, posts, and heavy beams.The lemon scented leaves are pressed for a perfumedoil which is rich in citronella. The abundant flowersyield large quantities of citron flavored honey. Thetree is so beautiful it is used in ornamental plantingin appropriate areas, often to give a “canopy” to amixed planting.

Eucalyptus gomphocephala, also known as theTuart, is a tree particularly suited to sandy soils,especially those high in limestone. It tolerates tem-perature down to minus 4o C and well into the 30's C.


96

The minimum rainfall for survival is 300 mm perrainy season but the tree does well with 400 to 600mm and thrives in areas with 600 mm to 1000mm ofrain. Sufficiently watered, a dry season of six monthsis well tolerated. A tall tree with a large trunk, theTuart may reach a height of 40 meters and a girth of2.5 meters. Its trunk may be short or forked. Itsleaves are thick and shiny and the bark is fibrousand pale gray in color.

The Tuart tree is salt tolerant to some degree andtolerant of active calcium but can be killed by waterlogging. It should not be planted in very dry areas, astrees weakened by lack of water may be attacked byinsects. Also, the plantations themselves may be sus-ceptible to fire.

The Tuart trees coppice readily and produce a densegrayish yellow wood. Annual yields of 21 to 44 m3

per hectare (ha) have been obtained on good soil inMorocco but the typical plantation, planted on mar-ginal or depleted lands, usually produces 6 to 10 m3

per ha. The tree is particularly useful in land recla-mation and dune stabilization projects in semi-aridareas and has been planted successfully in Cyprus,Turkey, Greece, Israel, Ethiopia, Brazil, and Uru-guay.

Eucalyptus microtheca, also called the Coolibah tree,is a tree from the arid zones of Australia. It producesone of the strongest and hardest timbers in theworld and makes a good fuel. The tree flourishes indry areas because of its salt tolerance, resistance tohigh temperatures, and its ability to resist drought.It is tolerant of mild frosts. The tree is variable inheight. It can be as short as three meters or as tall as20. It has spreading branches with leathery, dis-tinctly veined leaves. This is one of the hardiest ofthe eucalyptus family and will grow where no othertrees can survive.


97

Coolibah is cultivated for firewood in many Africancountries and has been introduced as a shade tree inSouth America and the Middle East. The tree cop-pices well and the wood itself is considered a morevaluable fuel than charcoal made from the boles,because the charcoal has a high ash content. Cooli-bah timber is difficult to work but is strong andresistant to termites and decay. It makes good fenceposts and poles.

The tree can survive with as little as 200 mm of rainand does well in clay soil, alkaline soils, or siltyloams. The tree may be propagated from seed butshould only be planted out when the seedlings are atleast 40 cm high, not sown directly. The young treesmust be weeded since the resulting seedlings are notrobust and grow slowly through their first months.

Eucalyptus occidentalis, is tree which can be grownunder extremely dry and saline conditions. It is alsocalled the Flat Topped Yate. It has been introducedto exceedingly difficult areas in Israel, California,Iran, Sri Lanka, Morocco, and Algeria. Its growth isrelatively slow but it produces fine timber, bothheavy and strong, which can be used in constructionprojects. Used as fuel, the wood burns hot with asteady flame.

Flat Topped Yate tolerates brief periods of tempera-tures close to 0o C and can tolerate highs of 40o Cplus. The tree grows well with natural rainfallbetween 380 and 700 but can also be found in areaswith seasonal flooding and on seasonably flooded saltflats. The tree also tolerates clay, gravel, and poorlydrained areas which are highly mineralized. It iscompetitive with weeds in hot, salty areas, and canbe propagated from seed. It has not been grownabove 500 meters in altitude in any of the reportedprojects.


98

The Haloxylon Genus of TreesThe following two plants from the Haloxylon genusgrow in some of the harshest conditions on theplanet, in deserts both cold and hot and areas of dryfrosts and hyper-aridity.

Haloxylon aphyllum, also called Black Saxual, is axerophytic, halophytic tree which rarely reaches aheight above five meters but is very well adapted toharsh environments. The tree tolerates heat wellinto the 40o C range and cold to about minus 35o Cbelow 0o C. It can regulate its life processes to meet avariety of challenges found in both cold and hot des-erts. The trunk of the tree usually has a large irregu-lar base and many large trunks or branches. Thethickened leaf stalks the tree has, in place of trueleaves, have an odd jointed appearance. The foliageis used for browse and forage.

The tree has been planted in the Soviet Union andChina to halt sand encroachment. Plantations havebeen set out in areas where stabilization and waterconservation are important, but Black Saxual is nota pioneer plant and so is introduced to these areasdeliberately. Usually saplings are set out after a yearor two of development, just before the rainy season,so they will establish themselves while there isenough available water.

The wood is brittle and not usable as lumber butburns as well as brown coal and makes good char-coal.

Haloxylon persicum, also called White Saxual, ismore like a large bush than a tree with many thintrunks which regenerate well when covered bydebris from seasonal flooding or by drifting sand.This makes White Saxual a good dune stabilizer. Theplant can reach a height of seven meters in good con-ditions but usually is much smaller, gnarled, and


99

spreading. White Saxual is not as cold tolerant asBlack Saxual but is very tolerant of heat and salt,bearing temperatures up to 50o C and surviving insaline areas with only 50 mm of rainfall. It is a pio-neer plant and grows in areas disturbed by sand-storms and floods. In Israel's hyper-arid Arava valley,south of the Dead Sea, saxual is known for its abilityto “plant itself” on berms and in wadis. If a row oftrees which do not need to be irrigated is desired, thesand is piled up in a long berm and the saxual treesobligingly appear after only a few months. WhiteSaxual grows in wadis with sandy or gravelly bot-toms and on salt flats where flood waters accumu-late. Its sparse foliage is palatable for sheep, goats,and camels. The lumber is unusable but burns withthe thermal efficiency of coal and makes excellentcharcoal.

The Prosopis Genus of TreesThe Prosopis genus is an exceedingly hardy, droughttolerant, and useful family of plants with many attri-butes which make the Prosopis trees useful for sup-plying fuel, fodder, edible pods, shade, protectionfrom winds, stopping the encroachment of sanddunes, and fixing nitrogen in depleted and aridareas. Prosopis juliflora trees have been used suc-cessfully to make ethanol, low gluten flour andsyrup. In Texas wood chips and branches of the mes-quite tree are held to be the best barbecue woodaround. Other members of the Prosopis family arejust as useful.

Prosopis alba, which is native to arid zones of Argen-tina, Paraguay, and Bolivia, is extremely drought tol-erant. It is a tree with an attractive rounded crownfrom 5 to 15 meters in height which can reach onemeter in diameter. They are very useful in roadsideplantings and as windbreaks. Unlike many otherProsopis species, Prosopis alba has thornless varia-


100

tions. The young wood is yellowish in color with aslightly darker grain and brown heartwood. Prosopisalba pods can be made into baked goods and fed as ahigh protein and high sugar fodder to sheep andgoats. The wood is exceedingly hard and not easy towork but has been used in construction, cask mak-ing, and flooring. As firewood, the heavy Prosopislimbs burn with a hot steady flame. The tree is prop-agated easily by seed and may be seeded directly ifinoculated with mesquite rhizobia. Young trees toler-ate mild frost but this is a hot weather tree and win-ters best in areas where temperatures rarely fallbelow 15o C. Trees are found in flatlands and lowsierras up to 1,000 meters in warm areas.

Prosopis chilensis, also known as the Chilean mes-quite, is perhaps the most productive Prosopis treewhen evaluated for yield of biomass. Although nativeto the Pacific coast of Peru and Chile, it has natural-ized itself in California, Hawaii, Africa, and India. Inparts of Kenya it is considered an invasive tree. Thetree can reach 8 to 15 meters in height. It has a shal-low, spreading root system, greenish brown multipletrunks, and many branches. Its flowers are greenishyellow. Its seed pod is thinner than most Prosopispods. The tree is very drought tolerant and heat-lov-ing but it can tolerate mild frosts and very shortperiods of cool weather. In warm areas, it can beplanted at altitudes up to 2,900 meters but it doesbest at temperatures between 20o C and 40o C. Thetree survives with as little as 100 mm of rainfall but200 to 400 mm of rain is needed for good growth.The wood is hard and heavy, strong and suitable forcarving. It burns hot enough to fire kilns and to beused in blacksmithing.

Prosopis cineraria, locally known as “khejri,” is verythorny tree. It has a long taproot which allows it tosurvive in desolate areas with adequate ground


101

water. In areas such as these, Prosopis cineraria isoften used as a windbreak because crop plants maybe grown relatively close to this kind of Prosopis asthe tree will not steal water from the protectedcrops. The tree reaches from 5 to 9 meters in heightand has an open crown. Prosopis cineraria trees arefound in the dry central parts of India, as well as, dryareas in Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the Arabiapeninsula. The purplish wood is heavy and veryhard. It is useful in making handles, posts, joints,and frames. As a fuelwood, it burns steadily andhotly, and makes excellent charcoal. The tree is frosthardy to -6o C and heat tolerant to 50o C. Soakedseeds sprout readily. The tree can also be propagatedby suckers. The tree grows with as low as 75 mm ofrainfall, even in areas with long dry seasons.

Prosopis juliflora, also commonly known as the Mes-quite, is esteemed for its shade, wind breaking, anddune stopping ability. Truly a multipurpose tree, it isalso highly valued as food and fodder for animals, asa fuelwood, as a source of biofuel, and for its edibleproducts for human consumption. It originated inCentral America, spread to the American southwest,and has since spread to Africa and India. This treecan reach ten meters in height under the right condi-tions but more often is a large, green bush. It flowersabundantly in the spring and the flowers are goodsources of nectar and pollen for bees.

The leaves of the Mesquite tree are dark green andthe pods are straw colored when ripe. The wood ishard, heavy, and light in color with dark veins. Itburns steadily. The wood is very durable and used fordoor and window frames and for making posts. Mes-quite trees are very heat tolerant and can bear tem-perature of over 50o C. Most mesquite variations arefrost tolerant to -3o C, but there are mesquite typeswhich are damaged at temperature close to 0o C. The


102

tree's deep roots penetrate the soil in all direction insearch of moisture. For healthy mesquite growth,150 mm of rain is enough; however, the trees will tol-erate areas with 750 mm of rainfall if the areas arewarm. Direct seeding of the plants is possible as longas the seeds are scarified or soaked in boiling water.Mesquites grow quite quickly and aggressively, sothis is a tree which should be introduced cautiouslyto other arid areas.

Prosopis pallida, known as the American carob, is aProsopis type so salt tolerant it can be irrigated withwater half as salty as seawater. It is heat tolerant,yet only mildly frost tolerant. The tree can reach 20meters in height under good conditions but usuallyonly achieves between 10 and 15 meters in areaswith rainfall over 250 mm. The leaves are grayishgreen when dry, somewhat olive-like when green andgrowing. The tree is native to the drier regions ofPeru, but it has spread to Columbia and Ecuador andhas been introduced to Puerto Rico, Hawaii, India,and Australia. It is propagated by seeds and shouldbe inoculated with mesquite rhizobia. The charcoalmade from the tree is very useful, but in hot aridregions it is most important as a fodder tree, dunestopper, and windbreak. The lumber is rather brittleand not resistant to beetles or termites, so it is rarelyused in construction. Pallida's pods are sweeter thanthose of most other Prosopis. Syrup and sweets canbe made from them.

Prosopis tamarugo, commonly known as the Tamar-ugo, is a tree which survives on the salt flats ofnorthern Chile's cold deserts. It is tolerant of colddown to -12o C and survives occasional heat wavesinto the 40's C. It grows from sea level to up past1,500 meters. The Tamarugo originated in an areawith very small, irregular amounts of rain and vastexpanses of salt crusted earth. Large, spreading, and


103

deciduous, it can reach 15 meters in height withtrunks which are 80 cm in diameter under good con-ditions. In very arid areas growth is slower, but theTamarugo has many special adaptations to aridityand salinity. The tree is able to absorb atmosphericwater and establish a subsurface reservoir of mois-ture in the lateral root zone by exuding the moistureinto the earth and reabsorbing it as needed. Rootsalso exude a natural herbicide which keeps otherplants from growing near the Tamarugo. The woodis heavy and difficult to work, but burns well andmakes good charcoal. The pods are edible and attrac-tive to animals as is the browse and the youngshoots.

Tamarugos shows promise as reforestation trees forvery saline areas in other parts of the world, butmany desolate areas in Chile have already been suc-cessfully replanted with Tamarugo trees.

The Tamarix Genus of TreesThese trees are among the most salt tolerant plantson earth, some hardy enough to be irrigated with seawater. Tamarix, also known as Tamarisk, taxonomyis difficult and usually can be accomplished only byexperts. The plants vary widely in growth habits.Some Tamarix are bush like. Others are largespreading trees up to 20 meters tall. In general, tam-arisks have fine, almost feathery looking, foliage cov-ered with tiny scale-like leaves. The wood is heavy,hard, and durable and very slow to catch fire. Smallbranches and fallen leaves are too impregnated withsalt to be used as kindling.

A well known hazard of areas with Tamarix trees isthe tendency for the tree to salinize the area's soil bythe constant drip of salt from glands in the leaves.The trees extract all available salts from the soils,excrete them on their leaves, and then return the


104

salt to the earth in leaf litter. Another hazard inareas with large trees is falling branches, which peeloff the trunk in high winds and may be both largeand heavy.

These trees are especially important in erosion con-trol and in stopping sand encroachment. Many milesof desert highways have been planted with tamarisksto keep dunes from swallowing up the pavement.Tamarisks have been planted in shelter belts in verysaline areas all over the world and are used as fire-breaks, because the trees and their litter are toosalty to catch fire. They are not very useful as browseor fodder trees as only camels will nibble at theirsalty shoots, but as apiary trees, they are a generoussource of pollen and nectar and they flower copi-ously.

The Zisiphus (or Ziziphus) Genus of TreesAnother genus of useful trees is the Zisiphus, thethorn plums. The fruits of these trees resemble smallapples. Sometimes, they are mealy when green, butwhen they are dried, they are sweet, chewy, and easyto preserve. The wood of the trees is hard, dense,flexible, and burns with much heat and little smoke.

Zisiphus trees are among the most drought tolerantplants in the world, but they do not reach greatheights. They are spreading and open-crowned inform and inclined to multiple trunks. Their wood ishard, flexible, and reddish in color. Leaves and smalltwigs burn well. The two species most suited for fire-wood are Zisiphus mauritania and Zisiphus spin-ichristi.

Zisiphus mauritania is sometimes called the Chinesedate. It has the best fruit of the Zisiphus family witha sweet dark flesh which can be used dried, pickled,made into spreads, juiced, or simply eaten fresh. Thetrees produce fruits copiously. The tree is not sensi-


105

tive to soil types and is extremely heat tolerant andfrost tolerant. It is the most robust species of theZisiphus family with a thick trunk, fast growth, andvery heavy wood which burns fiercely and makesgood charcoal. The tree coppices well, but sustain-able harvesting usually is done by pruning off thelower branches and letting young wood bear fruit.

Zisiphus spinichristi is a small spiny desert treefound in very dry areas. The tree survives wherewater gathers in wadis and small depressions inareas with less than 100 mm of rain. The fruit iswidely variable in form, but usually is round, small,and mushy when just ripe, but of excellent flavorwhen dried on the tree. In the Middle East, it is afavorite of hikers, animal herders, and soldiersbecause it remains edible for many months. Sheep,goats, and camels enjoy fallen fruits and youngshoots of the plants. The wood is naturally termiteproof. It is used for handles of tools, posts, andhousehold utensils. It burns hotly and makes goodcharcoal. The tree can be found from West Africa tothe Red Sea. It is also found in Israel, Jordan, Tur-key, Iran, and the Saudi Arabian Peninsula.

The aforementioned trees can be planted in some ofthe hottest and most desolate places on earth to pro-vide shade, fruits, browse, fodder, and fuel as well ashelping to restore damaged soils and ecosystems.The fuel needs of the earth's poorest people can bemet while restoring and reviving the places wherethey live.

106

Chapter 7Arboreal Pastures

One of the more absurd notions about widespreadhunger in the world is the idea that everythingwould be all right if we all stopped eating meat anddrinking milk. Production of meat and milk, the rea-soning goes, uses up scarce grain resources whichcould be fed instead to the poor. The methane fromthe animal waste products is helping to heat up theplanet and cows are the “Hummers” of the agricul-tural world”. Supposedly vegetarians leave a smallercarbon footprint on the earth. Therefore, continuingthe thought, we all ought to be vegetarians. This, ofcourse, is a totally unreasonable notion for severalreasons.

First of all, only wealthy, overdeveloped, nations feedtheir livestock grain. Everywhere else the livestockeat grass, hay, straw, food scraps, agricultural waste,wild browse, and fodder.

Secondly, it is debatable whether the methane fromthe digestive systems of most animals is fueling cli-mate change since grass fed cows burp out much lessmethane than do cows fed on corn and soybeans.(Most of the methane actually does come out of thefront end of the cow.)

Lastly, a vegetarian diet actually requires moreprime cropland and sweet water than a diet whichcontains meat and milk.

If one leaves out the extravagant folly of feedlotsteers, battery birds, bovine growth hormone satu-rated cows, and pigs raised in crush pens and if onereturns to traditional forms of food production, it ispossible to see the farm animals not only improve

Chapter 7: Arboreal Pastures

107

the diet of the farmer and the farm family, but alsoutilize food resources which the human inhabitantsof rural areas cannot. These animals are also criti-cally important to the nutrient cycling which keepsfarmland productive. Indeed, the scantier and moredifficult the area, the more likely it is the people wholive there will have and keep domestic animals formilk and meat, hair, hides, and manure.

Examples can be found on every continent: theLapps herd and follow the reindeer, the Bedouin andthe Tuaregs keep goats, sheep, and camels, theNavaho herd sheep and the Ma'asai make their livingfrom African cattle. In the Andes, guinea pigs areimportant sources of protein while llamas, vicunas,and alpacas supply fibers, hides, and meat, and alsoassist in transportation. In Tibet and Nepal the yakis the most important domestic animal. At the top ofthe world, the musk ox is a source of fiber and food.

If these animals were such a burden to the local foodsupply, why would people from such challengingenvironments keep them? The answer is simple:Only the unsustainable practices of modern animalhusbandry pit animals against people in a competi-tion for food and grain. Only the unsustainable prac-tices of the feedlot turn animal manure, a precioussource of renewed fertility, into toxic waste. Only thepractices of modern animal husbandry turn healthysources of nutrition, such as meat and milk, intoclogged arteries and damaged hearts. Sensible, tradi-tional methods of animal husbandry feed animals onsubstances unsuitable for human consumption anduse the animal products and the animals themselvesfor a great variety of purposes.

The people of marginal areas and challenging envi-ronments cannot conceive of life without their ani-mals. One of the most successful poverty mitigationprograms of all time, Heifer International (http://


108

www.heifer.org/), in recognition of the great value ofanimals to farms and to agrarian families, has as itsmain purpose the distribution of calves, sheep, goats,chickens, ducks, and geese. The people of HeiferInternational see the gift of these animals as a wayto help people out of abject poverty. This amazingprogram gives encouragement to very poor ruralfamilies by providing training in animal care andpairs of breeding animals. The only condition is someof the offspring from these animals must then begifted to other local families.

How irritating then, is the chorus from the overfednations of the west, preaching vegetarianism as away to stretch the world's food supply when it is nosuch thing.

The first and easiest way to stop the competitionbetween domestic animals and the world's poor is tostop feeding the animals grain. Grain- fed animalsare generally unhealthy animals because they weremade too fat too soon, and crowded into nightmarishfeeding lots, then dosed with antibiotics and chemi-cals just to keep them alive until slaughter. Domesticanimals, even chickens and pigs, are much healthierwhen put to pasture and can spend most of theirlives and get most of their food from a good mixedpasturage. Traditionally an animal was only con-fined and fed a richer diet for a short period beforeslaughter. Therefore, competition between theworld's poor and domestic animals for staple foodslike wheat, rice, soybeans and corn is a very recentdevelopment.

New ecologically minded animal feeding operationshave returned to the practice of grass feeding domes-tic animals with truly encouraging results. Forexample, the Polyface farm, described by MichaelPollen in the Omnivore's Dilemma, is a successfulrotational grazing operation. Recognizing the fact


109

the simplest way to capture the sun's energy is togrow grass, and then use the grass as a feedstock fora variety of endeavors, the owner of the farm, JoeSalatin, rotates cows, pigs, turkeys, rabbits, andchickens through a series of electrically fenced pad-docks and pastures. He also raises tomatoes, sweetcorn and berries. When asked what kind of farmer heconsiders himself to be he says, “I'm a grass farmer”because grass is the basis of an intricate food chain.

The animals mentioned consume the grass directlyor indirectly but they also aid in the regeneration ofthe pastures. For example, hay will be cut from afield already grazed by beef cattle and then pickedover by several hundred chickens brought to the pas-ture in a movable coop. The chickens perform sev-eral important ecological functions including eatingflies and fly larva from the cowpats, spreading themanure, and picking up other insects. They also eatgrass and deposit their own high nitrogen manure onthe pasture. All the while, the chickens are gainingin weight and producing eggs. After the first cut ofhay and a few weeks respite from grazing animals,the pasture will be used again by beef cattle. Hay willbe cut again at the end of the summer. The hay willbe stored over the winter and fed to a variety of ani-mals. By the end of the year, the grasses will havebeen transformed into beef, pork, broiler chickens,rabbits, eggs, and turkeys, all with no loss of fertilityto the pasture.

This is not a surprising outcome. Natural grasslandsare kept in balance by the presence of herd animalsand cannot regenerate without the animal's fecesand urine to return fertility to the soil and the actionof the animal's hooves to tread in the seeds of wildplants and grasses. Land fenced off in African wild-life reserves in a 1995 experiment did not recover itsvegetation. Grass did not regrow and trees and


110

bushes did not begin to sprout until the herd animalswere allowed to pass through the area. Grasslandsneed grazing animals as much as the animals needthe grass.

Biomimicry of grassland ecologies in the new grassfeeding farms, like Polyface Farm, allows the land tobenefit from the nutrient recycling of the grass fedcreatures and their natural proclivities such as graz-ing, rooting, and insect eating. So pigs are encour-aged to root up paddocks and chickens are used formaggot and fly control in areas where cattle havebeen grazed.

Joe Salatin's book about pastured poultry, PasturedPoultry Profits, published in 2008, explains the sys-tem in detail and outlines the great benefits con-ferred by farming animals in pastures on some of the450 acres of his farm. Polyface Farm produces all ofits many products with a grass diet and a minimalinvestment in off farm inputs. It can be a model formany temperate zone farms as it was developed onreclaimed land, it is profitable, it is sustainable, andit is based on a system which requires careful man-agement and ingenuity instead of expensive fertilizerinputs.

If domestic animals are to be returned to pasture itmust be done in a way which increases the amount offood for animals without putting more strain on agri-cultural systems. In marginal areas, often used forgrazing, it is possible to put problems together tomake solutions. This is the case with arboreal pas-tures; trees planted with the dual purposes of con-trolling erosion and regenerating depleted land andproviding food, shade, and browse for domestic ani-mals.

Tree forages can contribute biomass of high qualityand high digestibility. They can supplement a nutri-


111

ent deficient diet and enhance the microbial growthand action in the rumen, supply supplemental pro-tein, contribute vitamins and minerals not presentin the basal feed resources and so reduce or elimi-nate the requirement for expensive purchased con-centrates. All this, of course, allows for a decrease inthe cost of feeding the animals. Arboreal pasturesare particularly effective in arid, saline, marginal,“worked out,” deforested, and depleted areas wherepeople who have little but their animals must maketheir living from what remains of the indigenousvegetation.

In the deserts, mountains, and marginal areas of theworld, different groups of people often compete forthe same resources, especially relating to grazingrights. Such a conflict, known as a “shepherd's war”has often led to serious violence, blood feuds, andmurder. The story of Cain and Abel may be the earli-est recorded account of such a dispute, but in therecent past of the US there were violent conflictsbetween cattlemen and homesteaders, and cattlemenand sheep herders. In many areas where resourcesare scarce, feuds and conflicts over water and vegeta-tion still occasionally break out into violence. In theend, these rivalries center on use of water resourcesand access to areas of natural vegetation where ani-mals can graze.

The conflict over water can usually be resolved bymutual agreement as to when and where the flocksmay drink from natural water sources. However,vegetation, lush in the spring, becomes sparse andthin in the summer, absent in the winter, and may bedestroyed totally by overgrazing. To this end, the useof runoff, flood, and non-sewage waste water to pro-mote the growth of indigenous wild trees for grazingand to enhance the quantity of native perennialplants with value as fodder can increase the resource


112

base and thereby engender cooperation and ease ten-sions between communities. This type of agrofor-estry is dependent on efficient use of previouslyuntapped water resources, regional cooperation, andthe planting of hardy native perennials chosen fortheir usefulness as reclaimatives, browse, and fodder.Programs to plant trees to serve as arboreal pastureplants have been successful in Mali, Niger, Kenya,Ethiopia, and Israel.

In these successful programs, tree species were cho-sen for their hardiness, the type and amount of foodthey supply for the flocks, their ability to regenerate,and often for their soil building qualities such asnitrogen fixation. Early experimentation allowsresearchers to discover the number and type of treesper head which are needed to support domestic ani-mals. The animal herders are taught to move theflocks often to allow the trees to regenerate. Plant-ings are mixed to avoid problems with the “ration.”Mixed plantings allow animals to choose the foodand fodder most appealing to them at that time andseason of the year. This avoids the problems of over-feeding of specific plant materials which can resultin problems with fertility (from overfeeding carobpods and leaves) to sore mouths (Prosopis pods andfodder) to digestive problems (overfeeding on oakmast). In mixed plantings these problems do notoccur as the animals will instinctively vary theirdiets if the opportunity presents itself.

In some very dry areas in Niger, local people arebeing taught to think of Acacia trees not as rawmaterial for charcoal production but for their valueas pasturage for their traditional flocks of sheepgoats and camels and also as feedstock for a newdomestic animal, the silkworm. Further south on theAfrican continent are programs which encourage the“mini pasturage” of snails and mopane worms on


113

native trees. There is even a chickenfeed tree project,using the fruit and flowers of a Croton megalocarpusspecies.

One interesting project, an example of dryland agro-forestry, in Israel near the Bedouin village of Huraand sponsored by the Nevada based InternationalArid Lands Consortium (IALC) has planted hun-dreds of trees on a farm owned by the Abu Rabiafamily. Receiving only 200mm of rain, the areasnearby tend to be severely degraded due to the over-stocking of poultry and sheep. Largely unused areasof hills and valleys, suitable for terracing and waterharvesting, and following natural watersheds weredammed for water collection. After this, a variety oftrees were planted including Prosopis species, olives,acacias, carobs, arganias, cassias, pistachios, and var-ious drought tolerant fruit trees. (The project is fullydescribed in the journal Management of Environ-mental Quality Volume 19, no. 3, 2008. See AppendixII of this book.) A tenfold increase in fodder isexpected as well as supplies of fruit, firewood, nuts,poles, and mulching material. This greatly increasesthe farm's productivity and brings in much neededincome from the increased amount of milk andcheese produced by the herd animals.

This type of project could be of great value in the dryand marginal areas of the world. Degraded drylandsunder well planned rehabilitative planting strategieshave the potential to produce immense amounts offood and biomass and store vast amounts of carbon.Such strategies would help the marginalizednomadic peoples of arid areas to regain their inde-pendence and safeguard their traditional ways of lifewhile mitigating their poverty and increasing thecarrying capacity of these depleted areas.

In high altitude grazing areas tree forages alreadyform a high percentage of food for ruminants. The


114

use of tree forage is widespread in tropical areas aswell. In these places there are well established sys-tems of animal farming which integrate seasonallyavailable grass, agricultural waste, and tree fodder tosupport the flocks and herds year round.

In order to determine which plants and shrubs aresuitable for use as components of the animals' diets,the local vegetation of a given area must be investi-gated and evaluated. Some of the considerations are:the capacity of the plant to regenerate when grazed,the feeding behavior of the animals, voluntary intakeof the fodder under different conditions, the nutri-tive value of the foliage, and the year round avail-ability of forage. Before fodder trees are introduced,it is wise to evaluate the imported candidate trees forweedy characteristics, determine the pH and soilrequirements of these new trees, and determine ifthe growth pattern of the trees fits well with the sea-sons and the cycles of other trees and crops. The useof introduced species is sometimes necessary butusually there is sufficient variety, even in relativelysparse ecosystems, to find and develop suitable graz-ing trees.

Trees for a Variety of Climates and ZonesBelow is a list of the most popular grazing trees inthe hills of Nepal, an area both cold and seasonallyquite dry.

Albizia julibrissin var. mollisArtocarpus lakoochaBauhinia purpureaBuddleja asiaticaCastanopsis hystrixCeltis australisDalbergia sissooDendrocalamus strictus


115

Erythrina arborescensEurya acuminataFicus nemoralisGrewia oppositifoliaGrewia tiliaefoliaLitsea polyanthaMachilus odoratissimaMichelia champacaPrunus cerasoidesQuercus lamellosaQuercus semecarpifoliaSalix spp.Saurauia napaulensisSchima wallichiiUlmus wallichiana

Some of these trees are familiar trees of the temper-ate zones, put here to another type of use. If Quercusspp. (the oak trees), Salix spp. (the willow trees),Prunus spp. (the wild almond trees), and Ulmus spp.(the elm trees) are suitable and hardy for grazing inNepal, then perhaps they should be candidate spe-cies for tree-based fodder in reclaimed areas in thetemperate zones.

Other Temperate Zone Fodder TreesThere are many suitable fodder species in temperatezones, most of them abundant enough to make a dif-ference in the available ration if managed properly.Tree leaves are generally far richer in dry matter,nitrogenous matter, and particularly trace mineralsthan grass or alfalfa. However, their high lignin con-tent, their tannin content, and sometimes theirastringent properties make leaves less digestiblethan most cultivated fodder plants.


116

It is also a fact that tree fodder (leaves, pods, andsmall twigs), if fed exclusively, can be problematic fordomestic animals. As examples of the range of issues,exclusive feeding on carob leaves and pods severelyinhibits animal fertility. Feeding exclusively on Pros-opis spp., despite the high quality of the protein richpods and high quality browse, may lead to soremouths and digestive problems. The leaves andsmall branches of Salix spp. (willows), Alnus spp.(alders), Castanea spp. (chestnut trees), Aesculusspp. (buckeye or horse chestnut trees), and Oleaeuropaea (olive trees) are difficult to digest and areunappetizing to cattle as a rule, but more suitable forsheep and goats. Coniferous needles are absolutelyindigestible and unappetizing. Populus nigra (Blackpoplar) leaves are toxic. Juglans spp. (walnut trees),Laburnum spp. (Golden Chain laburnum), Cytisusscoparius (scotch broom), Taxus spp. (yew), andBuxus spp. (boxwood) leaves are very poisonous foranimals (and humans, for that matter). Feeding oliveleaves in quantity gives a very bad taste to the milkof ruminants and can cause liver problems in sheep.

Because of issues like these, tree fodder from a vari-ety of trees is more beneficial than depending on asingle local species. The exceptional richness of fod-der leaves from the better local species compensatespartially or even completely for their lack of easydigestibility. Varying the type of tree fodder elimi-nates the other problems.

The leaves from fodder trees can contain as much as0.35 Feed Units per Kg (One FU per kilogramequals.78 pounds of digestible material) of greenmatter and 18 to 20% of nitrogenous matter whichcombine to give a nutritional value of completenitrogenous proteins almost twice as high as cloveror alfalfa. However, alfalfa proteins and those of clo-ver are absorbed more easily by cattle than those of


117

most tree fodders. Careful planning may be requiredto balance nutrition and digestibility in the rationand to allow the instincts of grazing animals to drawthem to the more suitable feed.

Although the nutritional value and digestibility oftree leaves varies with different species, some speciesgive fodder of high nutritional value which is partic-ularly appreciated by cattle, for example Ulmus spp.(elm trees), Morus spp. (mulberry trees) and Sam-bucus spp. (elder trees) which furnish excellent leafmaterial. There are other trees, such as Betula spp.(birch trees) and Quercus spp. (oak trees), which aremuch relished in the spring but are not as pleasingto the animals in the summer and fall, probably dueto the rise of tannin content. The leaves of Fagusspp. (beech trees), Populus spp. [poplar trees, exceptPopulus nigra (Black Poplar) which is toxic], Corylusspp. (Hazelnut trees), Sorbus aucuparia (EuropeanMountain Ash), Betula pendula (Silver birch), Tiliaspp. (linden trees), Ficus spp. (Fig trees), andChamaecytisus proliferus (Tree Lucerne or Taga-saste) have sufficient nutritive value to serve as fod-der for cattle, sheep, and goats as well beingattractive to the animals through most of the year.

Oak and evergreen oak leaves are appropriate forsheep and goats but allowed only in very small quan-tities for cattle. Feeding these leaves reduces themilk production in cows. They are toxic because oftheir high tannin content. Oak leaves in quantityshould only be fed to dry sheep and never to milkproducing animals. However, oak acorns are good forlivestock because of their richness in feed units atthe end of autumn and during winter. Oak mast(leaves and acorns) is the traditional forage food forfattening pigs. Also, acorns may be crushed androasted for feeding some fowl.


118

Ash is another attractive leaf forage plant. The ashtree's dried leaves were used as reserve winter fodderin the mountains of Laucaune (Montague Noire,southern foothills of the Massif Central) where someruminants seem to prefer it to hay.

European Marine Gorse (Ullex galli)is an interestingfodder plant for temperate zones and has greatunrecognized potential. This leguminous plant pro-duces a green fodder of high nutritional value whichlivestock prefer to hay. It gives peak fodder produc-tion from the end of November to the end of Febru-ary which can be harvested just in time to replacethe biomass from exhausted autumn pastures. Tra-ditional livestock feeding in Brittany and Wales wasbased on gorse. Sheep, goats, cattle, and horses werefed on ground or chopped gorse sprouts during theentire winter period. The entire three to four meterhigh plant was cut to the ground every two years andallowed to regrow. The top of the plant was used forfodder. The rest of the plant was used as animal bed-ding or firewood. Records show the plant yields anaverage of 50 to 100 tons of Dry Matter material perhectare per year. Because its maximum yield is in themiddle of winter, just when the pastures have noth-ing to give, gorse culture could constitute an impor-tant link in the fodder chain. Gorse is a leguminousplant which is valuable for developing sandy andacidic soils, reclaiming depleted and uncultivatedland, and can be wildcrafted from very rough areasunsuited for cultivation where it produces an aver-age of 15 tons of Dry Matter per hectare per year. Itis a valuable feed since 12 kgs. of gorse equals 8 kgs.of hay and 4 to 5 kgs. of oats.

Other small tree/shrubby species for rough areasinclude European buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica)which is suitable for cool montane rocky areas, andHippophae rhamnoides (common seabuckthorn)


119

which is suitable for very dry areas, and also Ericaspp. (heather) which are suitable for cool, wet, andacidic soils. European buckthorn has become inva-sive in North America so it is a plant that should behandled with care.

An interesting paper by Sabrine Karg of the nationalMuseum of Denmark describes the uses of heather inBronze Age societies with heather plants being cutand stored like hay for winter feeding of animals andheather sods used for building. This pattern of useestablished itself in northern England, Scotland, andIreland and also other areas with acid soils. Often, aperiodic burning off of the heathland was done toeliminate less desirable plants and to allow theheather to renew itself.

The nuts of Aesculus spp. (buckeye or horse chestnuttrees), often called conkers, are traditionally used asreserve food and fodder and are digestible if crushedor ground. Many domestic animals were kept alivethrough the very lean years of WWII in Europe bybiomass gleaned from the horse chestnut.

The genera Gleditsia or Robinia should not beneglected as some of the best tree forages come fromthem. Gleditsia triacanthos (Honey locust) is per-haps the best of them with nutritious leaves andpods full of sugar and protein which are irresistibleto many domestic animals.

Leaf forage can be used as fodder condimentsbecause it is rich in trace minerals which are broughtto the surface by the deep roots after dissolution ofthe bedrock. That is why tree leaves are much richerin trace elements than grass. So a regular distribu-tion of a small quantity of leaves can be very good forthe livestock's health. Leaf fodder can be very usefulfor stretching out hay reserves during winter. Thuselm leaves were sometimes collected into dryleaf fag-


120

gots for sheep and goats in the Massif Central and inItaly. Finally, forage trees can serve as reserve fodderwith a view to filling a gap in summer, as well asemergency pastures in case of heavy droughts. Itdoes not make economic sense to cut hay in springonly to feed it to the livestock in summer and so bedeprived of good quality feed during the seasons theanimals need it the most.

NFT-Nitrogen Fixing TreesNitrogen-fixing trees, useful for land reclamationand animal feeding, are suitable for many challeng-ing environments. Many of them are multipurposespecies, producing timber, firewood, syrup, oil, andwood for making tool handles or carving.

Here are some examples for consideration:

Acacia aneura - a fodder tree for sandy hot des-ertsAcacia auriculiformis - a multipurpose tropical wattle, fodder, firewood, and timber Acacia gerradi - shade, timber and livestock food for hyper-arid zones over 600 mAcacia koa - Hawaii's most valued native tree Acacia leucophloea - shade and fodder for live-stock in arid environments Acacia mangium - an important multipurpose tree for the tropic lowlands Acacia nilotica - pioneer plant for dry lands; salt tolerant Acacia radiana - shade and livestock food for hyper-arid, hot zonesAcacia saligna - for dryland fodder and soil stabi-lization; can be invasive


121

Acacia senegal - gum tree with promise for agro-forestry and grazing Acacia seyal - multipurpose tree of the Sahara desert, also produces gumAcacia tortilis - fodder tree for desert sands at low altitudes Adenanthera pavonina - an underutilized tree of the humid tropics Albizia odoratissima - shade tree with soft palat-able fodder and podsAlbizia procera - for reforestation and agrofor-estry Albizia saman - pasture improvement, shade, timber, and more; for warm zones Alnus acuminate - valuable timber tree for tropi-cal highlands Alnus nepalensis - a multipurpose tree for the tropical highlands Andira inermis - a beautiful ornamental tree with value as food and fodderCasuarina equisetifolia - use regularly for wind-breaks and land reclamation Casuarina glauca - a hardy tree with many attri-butes Casuarina junghuhniana - a highly adaptable, edible tropical Casuarina Chamaecytisus palmensis - hardy, productive fod-der shrub Dalbergia latifolia - the high-valued Indian rose-wood multipurpose species Dalbergia melanoxylon - valuable wood from a neglected tree


122

Enterolobium cyclocarpum - the ear pod tree for pasture, silage, fodder, and wood Erythrina edulis - multipurpose tree for the trop-ical highlands Erythrina poeppigiana - shade tree gains new perspectives Erythrina sandwicensis - unique Hawaiian NFT Erythrina variegata - multipurpose tree Faidherbia albida - particularly suited dryzone agroforestry Gleditsia triacanthos - Honey locust: widely adapted temperate zone fodder treeGuazuma ulmifolia - widely adapted tree for fod-der Hippophaë rhamnoides - an NFT valued for cen-turies; produces edible fruit; pioneer plant in cool arid areas Inga edulis - a tree for acidic soils in the humid tropics Juliflorae acacias - new food source for the Sahel and other degraded grazing lands Leucaena diversifolia - fast growing highland NFT species Leucaena leucophyla - an important multipur-pose tree with a soft palatable fodderOlneya tesota - a potential food and fodder crop for hot arid zones Ougeinia dalbergioides - a multipurpose tree for sub-tropical and tropical mountain regions Pentaclethra macrophylla - a multipurpose tree from Africa with potential for agroforestry in the tropics


123

Pongamia pinnata - a nitrogen fixing tree with valuable oilseeds Pithecellobium dulce - sweet and thorny Prosopis alba - subtropical semi-arid fuel, food, and fodder tree Prosopis chilensis - subtropical semi-arid fuel, food, and fodder tree Prosopis cineraria - a multipurpose tree for arid areas, food, fuel, fodder, and dune stabilizationProsopis glandulosa - Honey mesquite: a multi-purpose tree for arid lands Prosopis juliflora - mesquite, suitable for arid areas with poor soil Prosopis nigra - multipurpose species for hyper-arid zones at altitudeProsopis tamarugo - cold saline desertsPterocarpus indicus – the most majestic nitrogen fixing tree Robinia pseudoacacia - temperate legume tree with worldwide potential and exceptionally hard wood Sesbania sesban - widely distributed multipur-pose NFT, very adaptableSesbania grandiflora - NFT for beauty, shade, food, fodder and soil improvement Ziziphus spina-christi - fodder and edible fruit for arid, saline zones

There are many tree species with which to work.Appropriate species can be grown in just about anyclimate. Tree forage can sustain and nourish muchof the world's population of meat and milk animals.This can be accomplished without taking as much asa single mouthful of grain from a hungry child.

124

Chapter 8Trees for Edible Oil

Edible oil is considered a necessary staple food. InBiblical times if one had grain for bread, wine tomake the heart merry, and oil to make the faceshine—one was considered a fortunate and well fedperson. The nutritional value and the food energysupplied by oils and fats are often misinterpreted orundervalued in the human diet. Also undervalued isjust how necessary edible oils are in the preparationof other kinds of food.

Modern ideas about fats and oils are often faddishand trendy. Animal fats are made the scapegoats fora host of diet related diseases of the modern erawhen they are no such thing. Worse, potentially dan-gerous “transfats” are escaping scrutiny and arebeing sold as miracle substances.

Inexplicably, while some traditional oils, such asolive oil, are enjoying resurgent popularity, at thesame time, other traditional oils are being replacedby soya, corn oil, and rape seed oil. All three of thesereplacement oils are problematic for the ecosystemand the human body when produced and consumedin quantity. More disturbing than this are the orga-nized efforts to destroy local edible oil industries,which use local and ecologically appropriate oilseeds, and replace them with inferior commerciallymade oils. In too many places the efforts are success-ful. Now areas of the world which were once self-suf-ficient in edible oil have become dependent on theglobal market for the all-too-common corn, rapeseed, and soya oils.

The most disturbing trend of all is the invention ofsubstances such as “Olestra“which acts like a lipid

Chapter 8: Trees for Edible Oil

125

but cannot be utilized by the human body. As itpasses through the digestive system, it picks up min-erals and vitamins, resulting in the first recordedinstances of “negative nutrition.” In other words,someone invented a “food” which impoverishesrather than nourishes the body.

Rather than enter into the controversies of the “oilwars” between scientists, nutritionists, and other inter-ested parties, this chapter will examine the idea ofincreasing the edible oil supply by providing more oilfrom arboreal sources, as well as increasing the diver-sity of available edible oils available on the market.

Old FavoritesThese are tried and true edible oils with manyadvantages over modern commercial oils and manyspecial qualities.

Walnut OilWalnut oil is pressed from the nuts of a large decidu-ous tree which grows in the temperate zones of theworld and at high altitudes. The large green hullssplit into four segments when the nut is ripe. Thehulls are sometimes used to dye cloth. Walnut oil wasone of the earliest oils used in painting but in the lastcentury, it has been used mostly in food and cosmet-ics preparations and occasionally in carpentry tostain wood. The English or Persian walnuts are themost popular sources of walnut oil, although the wildBlack walnut’s resinous oil has also been used forcooking. Roasted walnut oil is prized for its richtopaz color and its delicate flavor but unroasted oil isconsidered to have desirable anti-aging properties.Walnut oils often have different profiles dependingon where the trees are grown but generally the oilcontent is 50% to 70% with the major fatty acidsbeing Oleic 14-21%, Linoleic 54-65%, Palmitic 6-8%,and Stearic 1-3%.


126

Almond OilThe Almond tree is deciduous with green and silverleaves 3 to 6 meters in height and bearing a smallfruit which looks like a green peach. Almonds arefound in temperate and Mediterranean zones allover the world. The outer layer of the fruit is thin,tough, and inedible. The fruit splits open when it isripe but the pit contains a large kernel. Almonds canbe divided into two types, sweet almonds and bitteralmonds. Almonds are also divided into hard shelledand soft shelled types. Sweet almonds are widelyused as food, either as whole nuts or ingredients incooked or processed foods. They are generally toovaluable to be pressed for oil but their cold pressedoil is sometimes sold as a gourmet item for baking orcooking and its intense coconut like flavor is highlyesteemed. This product is sold as Food Grade SweetAlmond Oil. Sometimes almonds are roasted beforepressing into edible oil, producing oil with a very dif-ferent taste. The nutritional content of Almond oil is78% fats, 12% protein, and 10% carbohydrates.

Bitter almonds contain Amygdalin and enzymeswhich cause its hydrolysis to glucose, benzaldehyde,and hydrocyanic acid. It is these almonds which arepressed to produce both Sweet Almond oil, a fixed oilused in cosmetics, and the steam extracted volatileoil of Bitter Almonds.

Sweet Almond oil is used in many cosmetic products.The oil cake after extraction contains between 37%and 47% protein and at least 10% oil. This oil cake isused in animal feed. The major fatty acids in almondoil are as follows. Palmitic acid 7.5%, Stearic acid1.8%, Oleic acid 66.4%, Linoleic acid 23.5%.

Olive OilOlive trees, originating around the Mediterranean,are now grown in warm and dry climates all over the


127

world. Recently, the trees have been planted inAfrica and South America as well as Australia withan estimated total of 800 million cultivated olivetrees worldwide. In Greece, 60% of the arable land isdevoted to olive orchards. The best olive oil in theworld still comes from the countries around the Med-iterranean Sea. Pressed from the ground-up fruitpulp and seed pit, olive oil is one of the most stableoils. The pure oil rarely becomes rancid and can bekept for many years in cool dark places. It is consid-ered the best of the monounsaturated fats and is aprime component of the “Mediterranean Diet” con-cept. It is one of the few oils which can be consumedas it is freshly pressed. Indeed, the first press of theoil, low in acid and high in Vitamin E is highlyesteemed and sold as virgin and extra virgin olive oil.

Olive oil is “healing” oil, both inside and outside ofthe human body. Inside, it lowers bad cholesterol inthe bloodstream, heals gastric problems, protectscardiac health, and reduces cancer risks. Outside,Olive oil soothes chapped or sunburned skin and isnon-drying in soaps, lotions, shampoos, and creams.Because Olive oil tastes strongly of the fruit fromwhich it is pressed, it is sometimes considered toopungent for frying. However, it is the most popularoil for salads and it is often combined with otheringredients to make sauces, salad dressings, and gra-vies. The major fatty acids in Olive oil are: Oleic andPalmitic acids.

Edible Olive OilsVirgin, Extra Virgin, Ordinary Virgin:what are they talking about?

Virgin Olive Oil is oil obtained only from the olive,using solely mechanical means which do not alterthe oil. It has not undergone any other treatmentbesides washing of the fruit and the decanting, cen-


128

trifuging, and filtering of the oil. No heat or solventsor chemical means of oil extraction have been used.Virgin olive oil has a free acidity expressed as Oleicacid of not more than 2 grams per 100 grams.

Extra Virgin Olive Oil is a sub-class of Virgin Oliveoil which has a free acidity expressed as oleic acid of0.8 grams per 100 grams. This is the best grade ofolive oil with the finest taste. It is used for soups,stews, and “dipping,” which is, eating bread with theOlive oil. Extra virgin olive oil accounts for the best10% of the virgin olive oil produced.

Ordinary Virgin Olive Oil is pure but with more acid-ity, about 3.3 grams per 100 grams and a strongtaste. Ordinary virgin oil is excellent for cooking andfrying but considered rather harsh for salads anddipping. It is used in soap making for the bettergrades of olive oil soap.

Refined Olive Oil has an acidity of about 0.3 gramsper 100 and this has been achieved by filtering by theuse of charcoal and other chemical means. No sol-vents have been used for extraction.

Olive oil (with no qualifier) is usually a mixture ofcheap refined oil and virgin olive oil, blended to givethe inferior oil some flavor. The acidity averages outto 1 gram per 100 grams.

Inedible Olive OilsOlive Pomace oil is extracted from the olive wasteand not fit for human consumption being usedmostly in soap making and industrial processes.

Lapante Virgin Oilve oil is Virgin Oil not fit for con-sumption because of high level of acidity (3.3 gramsper 100), impurities, etc. It will be refined or usedindustrially.


129

Pine Nut OilPine Nut oil is made from the seeds of several speciesof pine including Stone pines from Europe, Koreanpines and Chilgoza pines from Asia, and Pinyonpines from North America. Pine Nut oil is an excel-lent preservative. It is also a valuable medicinal oilwhich suppresses the appetite, reduces LDLs, andhelps heal ulcers and gastritis. Pine Nut oil has a lowsmoke point, however, it is generally not used forcooking, but it is added to cooked food to finish it andto keep it fresh. In Siberia, a handful of pine nuts ora tablespoon of Pine Nut oil was taken with a slice ofbread when food was scarce to induce a feeling ofsatiation. Pine nuts are used in many foods worldwide, being added to rice, fish, meat, or vegetabledishes. Pine nuts are also eaten roasted and/orsalted. They are often used in baking and desertmaking, being added to chocolate or being ground-upand used with pistachio nuts in Baklava. The majorfatty acids of pine nut oil are: Linoleic acid 49%,Oleic 24%, Pinolenic acid 17%, Palmitic acid 6-7%,Stearic acid 2.5%

Hazelnut OilThe hazelnut tree, sometimes called the filbert tree(Corylus avellana) is cultivated in Italy, Spain, Tur-key, Portugal, Greece, and France though most of theHazelnut oil on the market is from the first threecountries. A very healthy oil, it is often recom-mended to people who suffer from problems withcholesterol. It has a distinct, pleasant and delicateflavor. It is made by cold pressing shelled hazelnuts.While the oil is considered dietetic and medicinal, itis also used in baking and candy making. The majorfatty acids in Hazelnut oil are: Myristic 14%, Palm-itic 16%, Palmitoleic 16%, Margaroleic 17%, Stearic18%, Oleic 18%, Linoleic 18.2%.


130

Apricot Oil Apricot oil is similar to Almond oil. Since it is muchcheaper than Almond oil, it is sometimes used to cutAlmond oil and sold to be used in the making of cos-metics, soaps, and perfume. It can be used on thescalp to improve the health of the hair and skin. andis considered one of the more soothing oils forchapped and broken skin. It is cold pressed fromapricot pits, which contain 40% to 50% oil. Its majorfatty acids are Oleic and Linoleic. The Apricot oil,while considered edible by some, is usually not usedin food because of variable levels of toxicity from thepresence of Amygdalin which imparts a residual bit-terness of taste to the oil.

Avocado Oil Avocado trees grow well in subtropical, tropical, andsome temperate locales. They are well known fortheir large green and brown skinned fruit, a fruitwith buttery flesh and a large seed. Avocado oil ispressed from fruit which has been left to ripen on thetree instead of harvested green for human consump-tion. The trees may reach 20 meters in height andproduce fruit from five years of age to 30 years ofage. The oil produced from the fully ripened fruit hasbeen traditionally produced by mashing the pulp andseeds thoroughly, rendering the resulting slurry, andskimming off the oil. Then the oil is whirled in a cen-trifuge until the oil separates from any remainingimpurities. Avocado oil is sometimes refined furtherby filtration. The resulting oil is a high grade edibleone, but avocado oil is used increasingly in cosmeticsand as sunscreen, where it is particularly effective.Avocado oil is not used for cooking as it becomes bit-ter when heated but it is used as a superior salad and“finishing oil.” Avocado oil composition variesaccording to race and variety of the Avocado tree, but


131

the major fatty acids involved are Palmitic 7.2% to26%, Oleic 64% to 80%, and Linoleic 6.3% to 11%.

Lost CropsThese oils, once highly valued, were replaced bycheaper industrially produced oils or became rare asstands of the trees used to produce the oil dimin-ished. Several of them are making a comeback.

Cashew Oil Cashew oil is pressed from grade B cashew nuts.Both oil and nuts are excellent food containing manytrace elements. These popular edible nuts, usuallysold pre-roasted and salted, are actually the “tail”end of a fruit called the cashew apple. These soft redand purple fruits are pressed for juice which is soldfresh and sweetened or fermented into liquor. Thenuts themselves contain a large amount of anacardicacid, and they must be dried and roasted to be safefor consumption. The large tropical Cashew tree(Anacardium occidentale) which produces both nutsand fruit, is a relative of the Mango (Mangiferaindica) and the Marula (Sclerocarya birrea). Allthree trees are in the same tree family: Anacar-diaceae. The major fatty acids in Cashew oil are:Oleic 73.3%, Linoleic 7.67%, Palmitic 0.89%, Stearic11.24%, Lignoceric 0.15%.

Macadamia OilMacadamia oil was once a rare locally hand pressedoil in Australia. Now, commercial Macadamia oil ispressed from two species of the hard-shelled nuts(Macadamia tetraphylla and Macadamia integrifolia)which are mostly sold as a high quality and highpriced edible nuts. Macadamia nut oil is one of thefinest oils for cooking as it is stable and does not gorancid easily, while imparting the taste of whole mac-adamia nuts to the food which is cooked in it.


132

The Macadamia tree is native to the coastal rainfor-ests of Queensland but is now cultivated in manycountries in Africa and Asia. The trees are mediumsized with dark bark and slightly prickly dark greenleaves. The trees cannot tolerate frost and do bestwhere there are alternating wet and dry seasons.Veteran plantations of Macadamias exist in Australiaand Hawaii, which are where most crop research istaking place. Trees begin to bear after 6 to 7 years.Most commercial trees are of the second species M.intergrifolia. Nuts develop slowly and fall 215 to 230days after flowering. This occurs between Augustand February in the northern hemisphere andbetween March and September in the southernhemisphere.

Macadamia nuts are gathered on the raked groundby hand, or are allowed to fall into nets or spreadcanvas, or they are recovered after they fall by trac-tor-powered recovery systems, including vacuum col-lectors. The husks must be removed immediatelyand the nuts dried to prevent spoilage. Nuts shouldbe dried where there are temperatures under 40Cand good air circulation. The shells of the nuts areused as mulch and fuel, while the oilcake is fed tonon-ruminant animals after pressing. Hull powder isuseful as filler in the plastics industry. The crackednuts are graded and the best are sold as edible nuts.The other nuts are ground and oil is extracted bypressing and expelling. The major fatty acids of mac-adamia oil are: Myristic acid 0.7%, Palmitic 9.1%,Palmitoleic 21.9%, Stearic 2.2%, Oleic 59.9%, Lino-leic 1.9%, Arachidonic 1.8%, Eicosenoic 2.0% makingit one of the richer and more complex edible oils.

Argania OilArgania oil is one of the harder oils to obtain. It is arich, golden oil from a little known tree fromMorocco. The Argan tree (Argania spinosa) is also


133

called the Ironwood tree. These trees grow wild inabout 700,000 ha of southwest Morocco and also inthe Atlas and Anti-Atlas mountain ranges. The Ber-ber people have a long history of trading Argania oil,producing wildcrafted Argania oil, Argan wood andhoney in the Argan forests. The tree is long lived,has exceptionally hard wood, and olive-sized fruitwhich fall after they turn yellow. Inside each fruit isa seed containing from one to four white, bitter, oil-rich kernels. It is from these kernels Argania oil ispressed. Argan trees can survive prolonged heat,moderate frosts, and prolonged drought. The tree isalso a source of forage for sheep, goats, and cattle.The timber is used for carving, handles for tools,poles, and as fuel. The tree, which was unsustainablyharvested for timber and fuel in the 20th century, isnow protected in Morocco and has been replanted inareas which were clear-cut fifty years ago. These newplantings of Argan trees are interspersed with Caperbushes.

In Israel, the meager yield of nuts from wild Argantrees of 8 kilos per tree per annum has beenincreased to yields of 70 to 100 kilos in domesticatedstrains. These higher yielding strains are now grownin orchard formats. The Argan tree has also beenintroduced to Spain and the Canary Islands for refor-estation. In irrigated format, the trees produce nutstwice a year but during long periods without water,an Argan tree may not produce nuts at all.

The nuts fall off the branch when they are ripe. Usu-ally, they are dried in the sun on the ground. Theouter pulp contains approximately 20% sugars, 13%cellulose, 6% protein, and 3% fat. The kernels areseparated from the nuts after the nuts are peeled ofpulp. Traditionally, the nuts are then roasted andground to a paste. Tepid water is added to the pasteand the oil decanted as it floats to the surface. In


134

more modern methods the nut is cleaned of the driedpulp by being squeezed between rollers. Then thenuts are cracked mechanically. The oil-bearing ker-nels are separated by a centrifuge. The kernels arecold-pressed after roasting. The first press producesthe finest oil and the second pressing yields a slightlyinferior grade which is used for cooking. Argania oilis also used in cosmetics and is very good for the skinand hair. The oil is especially soothing on burns andstabilizes lipid metabolism in people who suffer fromhigh levels of cholesterol. In its native range, it ismade into two local foods. The oil is mixed withground almonds and honey to produce the nut-but-ter “Amalou.” Argania oil is also mixed with wheatgerm and honey into a breakfast gruel called “Sema-tar.”

The major fatty acids in Argania oil are: Myristic4.3%, Palmitic 13.5% to 14%, Linolenic 4.6%, Ster-acic 5.6% to 5.7%, Oleic 45.2% to 47%, Linoleic31.5%.

Oils For the FutureHere are some suggested oils for the future. Theseare all underutilized oils, some which can be har-vested from wild trees today. These oils will becomemore important as agricultural systems move towardsustainability and diverse plants come into a widercontinuum of human usage.

BaobabThis huge, water-storing, African tree (Adansoniadigitata), is often the only island of shade in itsnative landscape of dry grass and brush. Baobabtrees produce a large, egg-shaped, and down-coveredfruit which is full of oil-rich seeds imbedded in whitepulp. The pulp is rich in vitamin C and has a sharp,pleasant taste. It can be eaten or dried to make alemonade-like drink. The pulp is sometimes added to


135

porridge or used to curdle milk for cheese-making.The seeds themselves are the source of Baobab oil.Once separated from the pulp, they are usually fer-mented, pounded and crushed into a paste fromwhich the oil is extracted by pressing. Sometimes theseeds are fried, ground, fermented, and formed intobutter-like balls which are used to flavor soups andstews.

These are much localized uses of the Baobab seeds,which are underutilized relative to their oil produc-ing potential. Very little research has been done onthe composition of Baobab oil except in relation to itscosmetic properties. The oil is a semi-fluid, golden oilwhich contains nearly equal amounts of saturatedand monounsaturated and poly-unsaturated fattyacids. The saturated acids are Palmitic 18% to 30%,Stearic 2.0% to 9.0%, and Arachidic 2.0%. The unsat-urated acids are Oleic 30% to 42%, Linoleic 20% to35%, and Alpha-linoleic 1.0% to 3.0%.

Balanites Balanites trees (Balanites aegyptica) are long-liveddesert trees. They are spiny and green-trunked withsucculent green leaves. They live in wadis and plainswith deep sandy soils and tap into shallow groundwater or drink up floodwaters which seasonallywater the sands. They are found in these types ofareas all over the Middle East and North Africa.They are not tolerant of frost. The trees bear gener-ously producing fruits which outwardly resembledates. However, the pulp is sticky and bitter. Theinternal seed is very large. The fat content of theseed is high; 40% to 48% of it is edible oil. The ker-nels are freed from the pulp by sawing the fruit inhalf. The hard pulp and shell can be used as charcoal.Sometimes, the pulp is separated for making sweetsand fermenting to alcohol. The sap of the tree is fullof Saponins and used as an herbal remedy for Schis-


136

tosomiasis, also known as, Bilharzia. The oilcakeremaining after pressing has 36.8% protein.

Balanites oil is sometimes called Zycum oil after theArabic name for the tree. Balanites oil is stable,golden in color, and prized for cooking. The majorfatty acids in Balanites oil are: Oleic acid 31%, Lino-leic acid 43% to 45%, assorted saturated acids 24%.

Balanites trees, which grow in great stands in poor,arid countries like Sudan, are underutilized. Theycan be a new sustainably-managed source of edibleoil and other products, which would greatly benefitthe population of these very arid areas.

Marula The Marula tree (Sclerocarya birrea) is related to theMango and the Cashew. It is a huge, wild tree with alight gray trunk and bluish leaves. The Marula treetowers over the African bush. They fruit copiouslyand drop within a few weeks giving a year’s crop ofjuicy yellow fruits with large pits. The fruits aredevoured by wild animals, gathered by villagers,eaten fresh, made into beer or brandy-like liquors,dried into fruit leather, and cooked into marmalades.The large seeds can be pressed into a superior cos-metic and cooking oil. Each pit contains two smallnuts which are round and resemble hazelnuts. Plac-ing a Marula nut on the coals of a fire makes thefibrous exocarp brittle and easier to crack. Oncecracked out of the shell, the nuts can be cold pressedfor a light, yellow, nutty-smelling oil with a large pro-portion of monounsaturated acids and natural anti-oxidants which make the oil very stable. The oil isused on the skin to heal and to cleanse, in food as acooking oil, to treat leather, and to preserve meat.The major fatty acids in Marula oil are: Oleic 70% to78%, Linoleic 4.0% to 7.0%, Alpha-linoleic 0.1% to


137

0.7%, Palmitic 9% to 12%, Stearic 5% to 8%, Arachi-donic 0.3% to 0.7%.

Tallow Nut The Borneo Tallow nut tree (Shorea stenoptera)grows wild in the tropical rainforests of South EastAsia, Indonesia, and Borneo. The tree grows in freshwater swamps, marshes, along river banks, in shal-low peaty soils, and alluvial soils. This large treebears a generous crop of egg-shaped, winged, woodyfruit about 4cm long and brown or black in color. Thefat content of the fruit varies from 45 to 70%. The oilis a substitute for cocoa butter. It is also used in soap,cosmetics, candles, and medicines. Fruits are gath-ered as they fall from the tree or they are trapped inbamboo baskets as they float downstream. The fruitsmust be dried to prevent germination. If left in wetor damp conditions, they will sprout. One method ofextracting the oil depends on the seed spouting tosplit the hard shell, then removing the kernels byhand and sun drying them before pressing to extractthe oil. Another method is that of kiln drying, whichloosens the shell. When the kernels are removed theycan be cold pressed or pressed traditionally betweentwo hardwood boards. The major fatty acids in Tal-low nut oil are: Palmitic 18%, Stearic, 43% to 44%,Arachidic 1.1%, Oleic 37% to 38%, Linoleic 0.2%

Mowrah Butter Mowrah butter also called Illipe butter comes fromtwo related species of trees from India, Maducalongifolia and Maduca latifolia. (The binomial namesof these trees are also spelled Madhuca longifolia andMadhuca latifolia.) These trees have very differentneeds and growth patterns, one is quite tropical inhabit and found in monsoon forests while the othergrows in Northern India’s montane forests and istolerant of frost. Both trees are drought tolerant andgrow in marginal areas unsuitable for farming. Wild-


138

crafted trees bear 10 to 45 kg of fleshy fruits between2.5 and 5 cm long. Each contains 1-4 seeds. Theseseeds contain 55% to 60% fat. The kernels are notedible and neither is unrefined Mowrah butter whichis sometimes used for candles and soap, also to pre-pare wool for spinning. The refined oil is used verymuch like other edible oils, in cooking and makingvegetable ghee.

Owala Butter Owala butter is a solid fat extracted from the seedsof the Pentaclethra macrophylla, a West African tree.The fat is considered suitable for cooking and can befermented to produce a strongly flavored condimentfor soups and stews. The potential usefulness of thistree is being investigated by the Food and Agricul-ture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) andthe World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF).

Kange Butter Allanblackia oleifera seeds are processed locally inCentral Africa into kange butter and Allanblackiastuhlmannii is processed into a similar substancecalled makani fat. Both products are used locally.Trees of the Allanblackia family bear large fruits upto 12 inches long with approximate 50 seeds in each.The seed kernels amount to 60% to 80% of the seed’sweight. Grinding and pressing the seeds produces anoil which quickly solidifies. These substances areunusual in the fact they are almost totally composedof oleic and stearic acids. Currently these fats areused in soapmaking but further refining produces anedible butter.

Dika Butter An edible fat called dika butter is made from theseeds of the Irvingia gabonensis. These seeds canalso be ground into flour. Little is known about dika


139

butter except it is also considered a soothing cos-metic oil as well as an edible one.

Brazil Nuts/Paradise Nuts Brazil nut trees (Bertholletia excelsa) and Paradisenut trees (Lecythis ollaria) are found in the Amazonbasin on well drained alluvial soils. Unfortunatelythese huge trees with their excellent timber areoften cut first when virgin forest is cleared and wild-crafted material is not as abundant as it once was.This is also true of the Paradise nuts which seem tobe a larger subspecies of the Brazil nut. Neverthelessnuts are still being harvested from approximately500,000 trees. The nuts are contained in pods 1.5 to2 kilos in weight containing between 12 and 20 nuts.Understandably, Brazil nuts are not gathered onwindy days because of the danger of being hit by afalling seed pod from a tree 50 meters in height, anaccident which can be fatal. Most trees produce 100to 300 fruits per year but trees tend to alternatebearing.

Plantations of Brazil nut trees are rarely successfulbecause of the long period between germination andnut bearing, a minimum of 12 years and an equallylong period until the tree bears enough nuts to beprofitable (24-30 years). This is one of the few eco-nomically important plants which are exclusivelyharvested in their natural rain forest habitat. As itturns out, Brazil nut flowers require a certain spe-cies of bee for pollination! The bees in turn require acertain species of orchid to survive. Male bees mustacquire the fragrance of this particular orchid inorder to attract female bees. If the forest is damagedby clearcutting, the orchids disappear, along with thebees and the Brazil nuts.

Most Brazil nuts are sold for export as whole nuts.However, broken or damaged nuts are converted to


140

oil which is very much a secondary product of thenut collecting industry. The pods have to be dried,and then cut open with a machete-like knife. Nutsare soaked for 24 hours, boiled for five minutes, andthen hand cracked. After cracking the nuts have tobe dried and kept cool to avoid rancidity. The oil isused much as butter would be, in baking, cooking,and confectionary. Sometimes the Brazil nut is calledthe “butternut,” which should not be confused withthe nickname of a wild North American forest treewith the same nickname.

The major fatty acids in Brazil nut oil are: Myristic0.6%, Palmitic, 15.4%, Stearic 6.2%, Oleic 48% to49%, Linoleic 29.8%.

Babassu Palm The Babassu palm (Orbignya martiana also Orbig-nya oleifera) is native to areas with high tempera-tures, fertile soils, and generous rainfall. Oil ispressed from the 1-4 bunches of seeds produced eachyear by Babassu palms. The individual fruits arebetween 8 and 15cm long. A bunch may be composedof many hundred of individual fruits and weigh 90kilograms. The fruit contains between 3 and 8 ker-nels with an oil content of 60% to 70%. The fruit hasseveral layers including a hard outer shell. Theseshells must be cracked by using a club or an ax or by1 ton of pressure from a commercial crackingmachine. The shells are used as charcoal and fuel.The next layer, the mesocarp, is ground for animalfeed. However, the oil rich kernels inside the meso-carp are roasted and mashed. The oil is floated off byhot water. It is similar to coconut oil, mild in flavor,colorless, and does not easily go rancid. It is cur-rently raised for margarine production, but also as asalad oil and for cooking and food processing. Oilcake is added to cattle feed. The main fatty acids inBabassu oil are: Caprylic 4% to 8%, Capric 6% to 7%,


141

Lauric 44% to 46%, Myristic 15% to 20%, Palmitic6% to 8%, Stearic 3% to 5%, Oleic 12% to 18%, Lino-leic 1.4% to 2.8%.

Caryocar Oil Caryocar oil is produced from up to 15 related spe-cies of rainforest trees found in the Amazon Basin.The trees are mango like in appearance with broadleaves, large yellow blossoms and large round fruitscontaining edible kernels and layers of oil-like fat. Itis this fatty layer which is extracted and used forcooking. The kernels are difficult to crack but alsocontain an oil which is even more prized by localsthan the oil from the fatty layer. Kernels which arenot eaten are usually roasted lightly and pressed.Processing of both oils should be done quickly afterharvesting the fruit to prevent rancidity. Processedoil is kept in cool places in tightly closed bottles untiluse. The major fatty acids in caryocar oil (from themesocarp) are: Myristic 1.5%,Palmitic 41%, Stearic0.8%, Oleic 53.9% and Linolenic 2.6%. The majorfatty acids in Caryocar Kernel oil are: Myristic 1.5%.Palmitic 48.4, Stearic 0.9%, Oleic 53.9, Linolenic3.3%.

The aforementioned oils all come from trees. This isan alien concept to many people. However, excellentoils can be obtained from a wide range of plants.Many are easier to cultivate and more thrifty ofwater and other resources than corn, soya, and rapeseeds. Some such as grape seed are the unwanted by-products of a crop cultivated for other purposes.Some are common garden plants. Just to name a fewpossibilities: safflowers, poppies, grape seed, flax,pumpkin seeds, calabash seeds, musk melon seeds,mustard seeds, watermelon seeds, sunflowers, ses-ame seeds, oyster nuts, many, many bean types, adozen grains, and many interesting semi-wild plantslike buffalo gourds are easily found sources of edible


142

oil. All produce excellent edible oil in commercialquantities which can be produced using simple andreadily available technologies.

Why then, does the industrial agricultural businesscomplex place their emphasis on soil-destroying,water-use intense crops such as corn, soy beans andrape seed?

Are they truly “easier” to cultivate?

143

Chapter 9Cloth That Grows On Trees

In areas of the world which had no cotton plants, nofiber bearing animals like sheep, goats, or llamas,and no silkworms, a different kind of cloth wasmade. This special cloth is “barkcloth,” the cloththat grows on trees.

Barkcloth is a non-woven fabric made in tropical andsubtropical countries from the soft inner bark of cer-tain trees. It has been made and used in parts ofAfrica and India, the Malay Peninsula, Samoa, theHawaiian Islands and the Fiji Islands, and thePacific Northwest. In Polynesia and parts of CentralAmerica, barkcloth, perhaps reached its highest per-fection.

Lengths of branches of species with long fiberedinner bark, primarily, trees of the Moraceae family,such as the fig (Ficus carica), the breadfruit (Arto-carpus altilis), or the paper mulberry (Broussonetiapapyrifera) are selected and cut off the source tree.Alternatively, young stems are cut from those treeswhich are of small diameter. The outer bark isremoved. The inner bark is cut in narrow strips andthen alternately soaked and beaten with a grooved orcarved wooden mallet until the fibers are well mat-ted and become thin and flexible sheets. Thesesheets of soft inner bark are pounded on woodenanvils to further soften and expand them.

Sometimes the sheets are joined together to makehuge cloths used as carpets or ceremonial hangings.Smaller pieces, sometimes waterproofed, are used asclothing. The barkcloth is usually bleached in thesun, then worked by hand into even softer sheetswhich are then finished into a variety of items. Many


144

texts which mention “paper” clothing in Polynesiaare actually referring to barkcloth.

This barkcloth is neither spun nor woven but dura-ble and beautiful nonetheless. The barkcloth can beprocessed to a paper thinness, felted together tomake tapestry-like hangings, waterproofed with thesap of other plants or painted and stamped withdesigns. It is versatile and produced from renewableresources: trees planted especially for the purpose.

Barkcloth is made into clothing, rugs, wall hangings,tents, shrouds, shoes, and ceremonial costumes andceremonial gifts. In tropical regions around theequator and on many islands, people still makeclothes and ceremonial textiles from barkcloth.

Barkcloth can be decorated by free-hand painting, bystencilling, tie dying, or by rubbing it over carvedpattern-blocks. The dyes used to decorate the clothare derived from the other local plants which areavailable so color, style, and design vary greatly fromplace to place and island to island.

Barkcloth has been belatedly recognized as asupreme expression of folk art. To quote a 2006UNESCO bulletin: “KAMPALA, Dec. 3 (Xinhua)—Uganda’s barkcloth has been named as part of theworld’s collective heritage recognized by the UnitedNations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi-zation (UNESCO).”

Augustine Omare Okurut, head of the UgandaNational Commission for UNESCO, is quoted as say-ing, “The proclamation of the art of barkcloth mak-ing in Uganda as a masterpiece of the world’sintangible heritage is an honor to Uganda and a rec-ognition of the indigenous textile production skills ofUganda craftsmen.”

Chapter 9: Cloth That Grows On Trees

145

Making Barkcloth in UgandaLately, the cloth which grows on trees has becomebig business in Uganda. The barkcloth describedbelow is made by the Baganda people of Uganda (andcalled “masaka“), from the inner bark of the mutubatree

Ficus natalensis©iStockphogo.com/Christophe Cerisier


146

A skilled barkcloth producer always carves his own“merit,” the wooden mallet with which he beats thebark. With this merit he beats the bark for severalhours, long enough to give the cloth the right thick-ness and size. The sound of the beating is unique andcan be heard over long distances

Another grade of barkcloth is made from the longfibered outer bark of the Ficus natalensis or Natalfig. The farmer uses a natural “knife” made from thestem of a banana leaf to remove the living bark. Thisway he will not damage essential parts of the tree.

After the bark is harvested, the tree is wrapped inbanana leaves to protect it from the sun. This waythe tree immediately starts developing new bark.The better the tree is taken care of, the higher thequality of the material and the more quickly the treerecovers.

Bark cloth from Mali©iStockphogo.com/Roberta Bianchi


147

The Ficus natalensis tree can be stripped once a yearover a period of at least 40 years. This makes bark-cloth a very sustainable and environmentallyfriendly material, as compared to cutting a tree fortimber (which requires a thirty year investment ingrowth.)

Another quote about barkcloth, this time from thenews bulletin of Art Nature Design (AND):

“AND (www.ArtNatureDesign.nl) is a companywhich has a special interest in connecting “povertyreduction” to “environmental issues” in third worldcountries. Through the “African skin” project Euro-pean designers developed new products out of thesustainable material ‘barkcloth’ for the internationalmarket. Essential to these designs is the productionhas to take place in Uganda to generate income forUgandan people and to improve local environmentalaspects at the same time.

“In Uganda, for centuries local farmers manufacturea beautiful textile like material called ‘Barkcloth.’The most remarkable thing about this material isthe tree from which the material comes has the prop-erty to withstand complete removal of its bark. Thisaspect makes barkcloth an extremely environmentfriendly material. The value of the material bark-cloth on the European market is high.

“AND has a business partner in Uganda which iscapable of producing high standard quality products.AND sends designers to Uganda to teach the womenhow to produce office supplies, design bags, and gifts.AND also sends machinery to this company toincrease production and quality.”


148

Barkcloth in SamoaBarkcloth has, of course, as many names as it hascolors and styles. In Samoa, one of the centers forthis craft, the cloth is called “siapo.”

Manufacturing barkcloth in Samoa is a very ancientcraft, probably one of the oldest ways of makingcloth, and it has been practiced on Samoa and sur-rounding islands and refined for thousands of years.Hence the tapa cloth of the Pacific Islands is consid-ered the most advanced and varied of barkcloth artand is perhaps the most colorful.

A Tongan tapa artist and her cloth©iStockphogo.com/gprentice


149

In Samoa, tapa cloth, or “siapo,” as it is known in theSamoan language, is still considered a major artform and an important symbol of Samoan culture.Tapa cloths have been used for many purposesthroughout Samoan history, from regular traditionalclothing to burial shrouds, and ceremonial items.Tapa cloth items are still commonly used in Samoafor traditional purposes as well as for everyday use insuch ordinary items as bed coverings, wall hangings,room dividers, and household decorations. Otheritems are produced especially for the tourist trade.

Tapa from Samoa©iStockphogo.com/Victor Ioramo

The bark used to make tapa cloth comes primarilyfrom the mulberry family (Moraceae). The tree stalkis carefully pruned and tied so it grows straight withvery few lateral branches. The tree is harvested onceit reaches one-to-two inches in diameter and has anunblemished surface. The bark is stripped off thestalk in one piece. From the stripped bark the softest


150

inner layer, called the bast, is separated from thetough outer layer which is preserved and used fortinder.

The inner layer, or bast, is scraped clean with anedge of a clamshell to clean away any remnants ofthe outer bark. The scraping also softens andspreads the wet fibers. The narrow strip of bast isthen placed on a wooden anvil and pounded by awooden beater while more water is added to keep thefibers from drying out. This beating process causesthe bast to flatten and spread to become wide, thinpieces of cloth. This rather stiff, unfinished cloth,called u’a, is weighed down with stones so it cannotcurl to be dried and bleached by the sun.

To make cloths of various sizes, strips of u’a arepasted together with arrowroot paste, called masoa.Holes in the cloth are patched with u’a and masoataking care the edges of the patch are flush with theedges of the imperfection. The cloth is dried andmade flexible by handling and working with the fin-gers. Once the cloth is both dry and flexible, it isready to be decorated.

The traditional design elements used in siapo deco-ration are plant or animal motifs, sea based designs,or other images from Samoan life. Common exam-ples include shells, starfish, pandanus leaves, frondpatterns, and wave patterns. Some traditional motifscan be traced back to the beginnings of the Polyne-sian migration in Asia. Other patterns are muchmore recent, such as the use of lettering incorpo-rated into the designs to spell out names, events, ordates. Design motifs are typically presented within agrid created by rectangular or oblong sections ofcolor.


151

Three techniques are used in creating designs: therubbing method, the freehand method and a methodresembling tie dying.

The rubbing method uses a design board to imprintdesigns on the bark cloth. An unfinished cloth isplaced on a design board which has been coveredwith dye. The top surface is then rubbed to transferthe design from the board to the cloth.

In the freehand method, each design image is handpainted on the surface of the cloth. These freehanddesigns are sometimes embedded in geometricshapes of contrasting color.

With the third method, wax or oil is used to preventdye transfer to well defined areas of the cloth as thecloth is rubbed over a flat board covered with dye.

The dyes used in decorating tapa cloth are derivedfrom plant sources. O’a, which is extracted from thebark of the blood tree (Bishofia javanica), is a browndye which is the base for all other dyes. As it ages, itdarkens from a pale beige to a dark rich brown.Black dye, or lama, is made by burning the nut of thecandlenut tree (Aleurites moluccana), a particularlybeautiful local tree with maple-like leaves. The char-coal of the nut is collected and mixed with o’a tomake lama. Loa is a bright red dye made from seedsof the lipstick tree (Bixa orellana) mixed with o’a.Yellow dye, ago, is extracted from turmeric roots(Curcuma longa) which look like small soft carrots.This strong yellow dye is a popular color but oftenfades from older cloths to a pale gold. Purple color-ing, soa’a, comes from the sap of the banana plant(Musa sapientum). This dye is no longer usedbecause collecting its sap for the dye’s manufacturedoes too much damage to the banana plant and theceremonial uses of this odd, twilight colored, clothhave become unfashionable.


152

Barkcloth in FijiFijian barkcloth, “masi,” in the Fijian Islands is theonly barkcloth which is made exclusively from thebark of the paper mulberry tree (Broussonetia papy-rifera). Other suitable raw materials exist but arenot generally used. Masi has many forms, thick-nesses and design styles. At the time of the firstEuropean contact with Fiji, by far, the greateramount of masi was plain, finely made, bleachedcloth used for clothing and household items.

The majority of masi pieces in museum collections ispatterned and colored in a variety of ways. There aremany styles appropriate to different island groups,some influenced by population movements or tradefrom other communities such as Tonga and Samoa,which also have long traditions of highly colored andskillfully dyed bark cloth.

Masi is normally made and decorated by women,except in the highlands of Viti Levu, the largestisland, where the decoration is undertaken solely bymen.

A distinctive way of decorating found only on Fijiuses stencils which were traditionally made ofbanana or pandanus leaf, but more recently fromexposed x-ray film, cardboard, plastic sheets or otherappropriate material. The most usual colours areblack and red or dark brown. The design is built upfrom the border, in which a limited number of motifsis used repeatedly making a well planned pattern.This kind of cloth is called “masi kesa.”


153

Bark cloth from Fiji©iStockphogo.com/elianadulins


154

The most popular style is associated with theCakaudrove District of south-eastern Vanua Levuand the neighboring large island of Taveuni. Thecloth is crisply and repeatedly folded, the edges beingmarked with black dye. Once unfolded, the outlinedpanels are infilled with dye using different colors anddesigns. Edging bands of stencilled decoration arealso incorporated into the design and the result isunusually striking and distinctive.

Masi has always been an important trade itembetween Fijian communities, not all of whom madetheir own, but may have specialized in other goodssuch as a fine matting or pottery, or elaboratelycarved wood. This type of trade also took placebetween Fijian islands and Tonga and Samoa. Vastamounts of masi were produced for ceremonial giftexchange between chieftain families, as well as, forinter-island trade, both within the Fijian islands andthroughout western Polynesia. More recently, aswith other Pacific island groups, the needs of thetourist trade for items made of this traditional com-modity have become pre-eminent, influencing formand designs.

Barkcloth in the North American, Pacific North WestCedar bark textile was used by indigenous people inthe Pacific Northwest region of modern-day Canadaand the United States. Historically, most items oftheir clothing were made of this type of barkcloth.The name is a confusing misnomer, as cedar barktextile is made from material taken from WesternRedcedar (Thuja pilatica) and Yellow Cypress (Cal-litropsis nootkatensis) bark, not true Cedar bark, astrue cedars are actually Old World trees, not natu-rally found in North America.


155

The red cedar tree©iStockphogo.com/Erik Odegard

After bark from a Western Redcedar or from a YellowCypress was peeled in long strips from the trees, the


156

outer layer was split away, and the flexible innerlayer was shredded and processed by the wetting andpounding of their long fibers. The resulting feltedstrips of bark were soft and could be plaited, sewn, orwoven into a variety of fabrics which were eitherdense and watertight, or soft and comfortabledepending on the length of the pounding process andwhat had been added during the processing. One wayto make the barkcloth waterproof was to add pinegum during the processing of the cloth. Sometimes,to soften the fibers, the bark strips would be soakedin sea water.

Women wore skirts and capes of soft redcedar bark-cloth, sometime adorned with feathers while menwore long capes of barkcloth into which some moun-tain goat wool was woven for warmth and decorativeeffect. Bedding and wall hangings of barkcloth werenot unknown in the Pacific Northwest, neither weresacks and bags of this material. Still the primary usefor barkcloth in the Pacific Northwest was for arti-cles of clothing.

Barkcloth in New Guinea Barkcloth is made in New Guinea for ceremonial cos-tumes and exchanges as well as for sale. Designs arespecific to clans. Individuals may reinterpret tradi-tional designs or create new ones. The rights to adesign are often owned.

Since Barkcloth making was widespread throughoutPolynesia and parts of Oceania the craft was spreadby contact between islanders, probably reachingNew Guinea over a thousand years ago. In NewGuinea, the art of making barkcloth hats and cere-monial costumes reached its peak, a fact which beliesthe widespread anthropological idea that NewGuinea natives were on the very end of the culturaltelephone, primitive and slow to adapt. Now store


157

cloth has replaced barkcloth for daily use, but it con-tinues to be made for ceremonies and for sale.

Most barkcloth made for sale comes from Oro Prov-ince. Usually they are geometric patterned pieceswhich are sold in 1-2 yard (1-2 m) squares, framed aspaintings or inset into coffee table tops, folio foldersand other decorative items.

A barkcloth pattern from the Asmat region of New Guinea ©iStockphogo.com/Øystein Lund Andersen

Cultivated paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera)is the preferred bark, although breadfruit (Artocar-pus altilis) and other forest trees are used if theyhave suitable thick, fibrous inner barks. In NewGuinea, damp pieces of bark are soaked in freshwater or sea water, over-lapped, and beaten togetherto form large sheets. Sheets are folded and beatenout, refolded and beaten out yet again and again tomake a uniform cloth without holes. Early explorersin New Guinea wrote about villages resounding with


158

groups of chanting women beating out barkcloth andabout the natural clays and minerals formulating thedyes with which they were decorated.

New Guinea Tapa can be made as thin and fine aslace or layered into lengths with the consistency ofthick felt. Plain tapa, sometimes bleached to purewhite, was often important in traditional ceremo-nies, but it was seldom interesting enough to be col-lected by outsiders. Pattern books of tapa made inthe colonial period were very popular. Patterned tapais still the choice for commercial sale.

Patterns, whether traditional or contemporary, addmeaning to barkcloth beyond decoration. Alfred Gellwrites in Wrapping in Images: Tattooing in Polyne-sia (Oxford University Press, 1993), both barkclothand tattoo designs are seen as an additional layer ofskin wrapped around the individual.

Tapa patterns are created elsewhere by staining,painting, stamping, and stenciling. However, in NewGuinea, the designs are exclusively hand painted.Traditional colors are somewhat different as well asthey come from locally available clays, minerals, andplants, as well as, charcoal.

Barkcloth in JapanIn Japan a totally different tradition and method ofmaking barkcloth emerged from the ancient Ainuculture. Elm or linden trees are the source of thethread for the Ainu’s woven textile.

The Ainu, who are distantly related to the Austra-lian aborigines, are not oriental but archaic Cauca-sians. How and when they arrived on the fourIslands of Japan is unknown but they have appar-ently been there for a very long time.


159

They produce one of the finest and most astonishingbarkcloths in the world. It is not a pounded or feltedsubstance but one which is actually woven from ayarn which is made from the fibers in elm bark orlinden bark sometimes blended with the fibers of thecommon thistle. This strange textile has to be seenand touched to be believed. Needless to say the pro-cess was very labor intensive.

Elm trees©iStockphogo.com/Stephen Shockley


160

“Attus,” the garments made of this odd cloth areusually made from the bast fibers of a Japanese elmtree (Ulmus davidiana var. japonica) which is nativeto Hokkaido. First the tree is cut down and the barkis removed. The fibers, taken from the inner layersof the bark, are soaked in water to soften, bleachedin the sun, and then split into fine, fibrous strands.The strands are joined together into thread and thisthread is woven into cloth. The finished product is athick, stiff cloth of a brownish color, like the barkfibers from which it is produced. This cloth is thensewn into an attus garment. The cloth itself is called“attush.”

Attus which were worn for everyday wear, did nothave much decoration, but those made for ceremo-nial wear, were decorated on the back and aroundthe sleeves with patterns in navy and black applique.This unique pattern “ ,” like a parentheses on itsside, is repeatedly embroidered on the appliqué.

Royal Ainu dress ©iStockphogo.com/Alexander Gatsenko


161

This pattern is worn to keep away evil spirits andbad luck. It is found not only on attus but also ondark blue cotton garments with similar patterns, andon garments with white applique on dark cotton,called “kapara amip.”

The applique and embroidery work was always doneby women. From mother to daughter, this uniquetradition was handed down from generation to gen-eration. By making these traditional garments suchas the attus, Ainu women not only clothed their fam-ilies, but in their eyes, actively protected them fromevil as well.

Basho-fu: Cloth from Banana trees, a unique Okinawan art form

Thread banana trees©iStockphogo.com/luxxtek

Banana fiber cloth is made of fibers of a special spe-cies of banana called a “thread banana” plant (Musabalbisiana). Though similar to the plants which pro-


162

duce edible bananas, “basho” (or more specifically,“ito basho,” or “thread banana” plants) are remark-able for their fibrous stems instead of for their fruit.Basho plants grow into “trees” of about two metersin height. (Banana species include some of the larg-est herbaceous plants in the world, most largeenough to be considered trees.) The fibers in the“trunks” of basho plants basho can be split into finestrands, tied together into thread, and woven intocloth. This cloth is called “basho-fu.”

These trees can be found in numerous locationsacross the Ryukyu islands and the cloth made fromthem was used as tribute payments to the Okinawanroyalty. In those days, basho-fu was worn by every-one from kings to commoners. Basho-fu has longbeen favored for the crafting of summer kimonosbecause of its airiness and smooth, crisp surface.Like linen, hemp, ramie, and other long vegetablefibers, basho-fu does not stick to the skin in hotweather, making it perfectly suited to the hot Oki-nawan climate.

In the old days, bolts of plain-colored, striped andkasuri (ikat) basho-fu were woven in many villages.Nowadays, however basho-fu is a luxury cloth whichis made only in the village of Kijoka, on the island ofOkinawa. Making basho fu is almost a lost art.

Cloth from Dead Sea FruitSurely the most exceptional raw material for clothmaking comes from Dead Sea fruit, the fruit of thehuge tree-like desert herb Calatrops procera.

Its curving branches, large rounded leaves, strikingpurple and white flowers and huge elliptical fruit arecommon sites in arid and saline areas in the middleeast and Africa. However it is very poisonous andapart from a few obscure medicinal properties of the


163

milky sap the plant is considered useless andregarded as a noxious weed. “Dead Sea fruit” in Eng-lish is an expression for something which is assumedto be of great value but turns out an illusion, to bedust and ashes.

Dead Sea fruit in an Israeli gardenPhoto by the author

The big green lush looking fruit of the Dead Seaapple is not edible and filled with long white fibersand dry seeds which float away on the wind when theskin of the fruit dries and is broken. These dry snowwhite fibers were once collected and woven into clothin Biblical times, probably for use of the priestlycaste, in the strangest example yet found of the“cloth which grows on trees.”

164

Chapter 10Vitamin Trees

The stories of great sea voyages and of the explora-tion and the colonization of new lands are often sto-ries about great hardship and suffering. The firstcolonists of European origin in North America,whether it was the English colonists in Jamestownand Roanoke or the Spanish colonists in Los Ange-les, literally died of want, even though native peoplearound them continued to thrive. Sailors on long seavoyages often perished from scurvy despite the factthey had adequate supplies of stored food. In the goldrush to Alaska that started in 1887 and continuedthroughout the 1890s—more people died fromscurvy than actually found any significant amount ofgold, even though veteran settlers and native Alas-kans never suffered from this ailment.

Between 1910 and 1912 British explorer RobertScott and the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsenwere locked in a race to be the first to arrive at theSouth Pole. Amundsen, who had planned his expedi-tion carefully and packed extremely concentratedfood supplies, brought his expedition to the SouthPole and back safely. He depended on his high pro-tein, high vitamin, and high fat rations to keep theexpedition party healthy and depended on teams ofsled dogs for fresh meat and transportation.

Scott reached the Pole 33 days after Amundsen. Hehad depended on Manchurian ponies and man-haul-ing sled power to get to the South Pole and had setup supply depots at various points to help him getthere and then back to base camp. Unfortunately,the ponies were useless in the snow and had to beshot. The stored rations were lacking in the concen-

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoprotein




Chapter 10: Vitamin Trees

165

trated nutrition needed to support men doing theheavy physical work of hauling sleds over the icefields and could not keep Scott and the other mem-bers of the expedition healthy and strong. (A Britishteam, attempting to recreate Scotts’ trek and usinghis rations, clothing, and methods of travel, lost somuch weight on the journey the experiment wascalled off after they reached the pole. They were air-lifted back to base camp.) Amazingly, the differencein the vitamin content of the foods used respectivelyby Amundsen and Scott may have made the differ-ence between life and death.

Vitamins had not been discovered at the time, butAmundsen says quite clearly in his account of hissuccessful journey to the Pole, “The packing oftinned provisions is of enormous importance to apolar expedition: it is impossible to give too muchattention to this part of the supplies. Any careless-ness, any perfunctory packing on the part of the fac-tory will as a rule lead to scurvy.”

In order to stave off scurvy, Amundsen added driedvegetables to the traditional food pemmican, gener-ally a mixture of meat and fat. He said, “The pemmi-can we took was essentially different from thatwhich the former expeditions had used. Previouslythe pemmican had contained nothing but the desiredmixture of dried meat and lard. Ours had besidesvegetables and oatmeal, an addition that greatlyimproves the flavor and as far as we can judge makesit easier to digest.”

Further additions to the food for the expeditionincluded canned fruits from California, whortleberryand cloud berry preserves, fruit syrups, and driedfruits. The expedition team was also supplied withfresh meat in the form of seals hunted on the Antarc-tic coast, and dog meat from culled sled dogs. Eventhe specially-made hardtack biscuits for the expedi-



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungus

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusarium_venenatum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusarium_venenatum

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quorn#cite_note-cspi-1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quorn#cite_note-cspi-1


166

tion were fortified with powdered milk and oatmeal.In his account of the voyage, Amundsen also men-tions as good sledging food, dried fish, chocolate,malt, “middlings,” and sugar.

Amundsen, who was not trained in nutrition or med-icine, had learned from the native peoples of the Arc-tic that staying well fed and warm in such a frigidclimate meant staying alive. He even bought 250reindeer hides and had craftsmen copy Eskimo cloth-ing, with three sets of anoraks and trousers for eachmember of the expedition of varying weights, water-proofed, and with the fur inside. No one fromAmundsen’s expedition suffered from scurvy and hisentire expedition team returned safely from theSouth Pole.

In contrast, Scott’s expedition to the South Poleended in disaster. Scott’s expedition members woreclothing of wool and canvas, although their bootsand mitts were made of reindeer hide and beaverpelts. Scott’s “man-haulers,” who would have neededabout 7,000 calories per day per man during the longarduous trek over the ice, were seriously underfed aswell as vitamin deficient. His rations were mostlycomprised of biscuit, traditional pemmican, cocoa,butter, sugar, and tea with no vitamin food at all. Aration for a day’s haul was 450 grams of biscuits, 340grams of pemmican, 85 grams of sugar, 57 grams ofbutter, 20 grams of tea, and 16 grams of cocoa.Scott’s expedition died to the last man in their tent,11 kilometers from a food depot suffering fromunhealed wounds, frostbite, malnutrition, andtrapped by bad weather.

The unhealed wounds, general weakness and loss ofweight Scott reported in his diary were as likely tohave been symptoms of vitamin C deficiency as theywere to be consequences of the hardships theyendured. He could not have known this, of course, as

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonym_%28taxonomy%29#Botany


167

the prevailing medical opinion at that time wasscurvy was caused by improperly preserved food.However, the lack of vitamins in Scott’s rations prob-ably made the difference between life and death.Certainly the vitamin content of the food of thestarving settlers, the sick sailors and the dying pros-pectors was a critical factor.

Too late for the early colonists, sailors, and explor-ers, vitamins were only discovered in early 20th cen-tury after it became known scurvy, pellagra, andmany other mysterious illnesses could be induced bythe prolonged consumption of a limited diet. Vita-mins are complex substances vitally important formetabolic functions. A severe lack of vitamins can bedebilitating or fatal.

The diseases caused by vitamin deficiencies at theirworst seemed as merciless as biblical plagues and thefact no one knew what caused them was terrifying.Besides the most damaging and most common defi-ciency diseases, such as scurvy, “beri-beri”, and pel-lagra, there was also “rickets” which bowed the legsand curved the spines of generations of children andwas caused by a deficiency of Vitamin D. The twenti-eth century was well underway before it was discov-ered rickets could be cured by sunlight and cod liveroil.

In modern times the worst deficiency disease may bethe cluster of symptoms caused by a lack of VitaminA, or the failure of proper immune system function-ing which it is thought to be a result of a deficiencyof Amygdalin, which some call Vitamin B17. This lat-est theory is very controversial with proponentsclaiming the astounding increase in cancer ratesaround the world is caused by a deficiency of Amygd-alin in the modern diet and opponents counter-claiming Amygdalin is a dangerous, potentially toxicsubstance which has no effect on cancer whatsoever.


168

As in most controversial research, the veracity ofclaim and counter-claim will only be clear as evi-dence accumulates and is analyzed objectively.

Discovering the Cause of ScurvyEarly clues to the existence of these substances werenoted by a surgeon of the British Fleet, Dr. JamesLind, in the mid 1700s. He was aware thousands ofBritish sailors were crippled or killed by scurvy,which was then thought to be a contagious infection.However, he had heard of the story of a seamandying of scurvy who was abandoned on a desolateAtlantic island. The deserted man ate the freshspears of grass he found and regained his strength.He was picked up by a passing ship and returned tohis home telling the tale of how he had survived byeating grass like a beast.

Dr. Lind began to treat his scurvy patients withgreens, oranges, and lemons, assuming some neces-sary element was present in these foods which wasabsent from the navy’s rations. Eventually despiteridicule and official opposition he managed to makefresh lemon and lime juice part of the official rationsof the British navy, leading to the British sailors tobe nicknamed “Limeys“.

In 1905, a Dutch scientist, Professor Peklharing,found milk also contained an essential substance andmice supplied with plenty of grains and fats woulddie if they were not supplied with milk as well.

In 1906, an English biochemist, Sir Fredrick Hop-kins, discovered certain food factors among the cere-als were important to health. Investigating anepidemic of beri-beri, which affects both the nervoussystem and the digestive system, he came to the con-clusion those whose diets consisted mostly of pol-ished rice (white rice) were much more likely to have


169

beri-beri than those who ate brown or unhulled rice.His conclusion was there were elements in the ricehulls which prevented beri-beri. This was confirmedby the work of Dutch scientist Christiaan Ejikman,who gave chickens beri-beri by feeding them pol-ished rice and restored their health by returningthem to a diet of brown rice.

The word “vitamine” was first used by a Polish sci-entist named Cashmir Funk to refer to a group ofcompounds considered vital for life. It was thoughtall these compounds contained a nitrogen based com-ponent called an “amine.” When it was discoverednot all of these important factors contained nitrogenand not all of them were amines, the final “e” wasdropped and the word came into common usage.Soon many scientists were investigating vitaminsand trying to isolate them, some with an eye to syn-thesis and others to simply understand where theywere found and why they were important.

In 1915, Dr. Joseph Goldberger began to suspect pel-lagra was caused by the lack of a vital element in thediet of poor rural people in America’s south. Pellagrahad become an epidemic with more than 10,000 peo-ple dying that year and many thousands more show-ing the dreaded symptoms which include weakness,lethargy, tremors, dry skin, and the tell tale “butter-fly rash.” He attempted to give himself pellagra byexposing himself and several volunteers to the bodilyfluids of victims. This did not lead to infection. Dr.Goldberger also attempted to “catch” the disease bystaying in insane asylums, which were often crowdedwith apathetic, confused, and sometimes violentlyinsane “pellegrans.” It was there he noticed theinmates might be very ill, even dying of the diseasebut the staff never had it. Finally he induced pella-gra in convict volunteers by keeping them on a dietof rice, fatback, grits, cornbread, and sorghum syrup,


170

the common food of the poor people in the Americansouth. This proved pellagra was a deficiency disease.

Dr. Goldberger then proceeded to cure pellagranswith fresh milk and meat and yeast extracts. He wasnever able to isolate the exact element which curedthem. The B-complex vitamins and the dietaryessential niacin or B3 (without which the rest of theB-complex vitamins cannot function), were onlyidentified in 1937. Vitamin D was soon discovered asthe missing element in cases of rickets and the lackof Vitamin K was identified as a cause of clotting dis-orders.

The suffering caused by vitamin deficiency diseaseshas mostly been forgotten in the modern world.Scurvy causes loss of weight, shortness of breath,pallor, hemorrhages under the skin, and the loss ofteeth and hair. The victims sometimes convulse orlapse into delirium and usually die from internalbleeding. Beri-beri starts with depression, fatigue,and stiffness of the lower limbs. It may end withswelling of the limbs, paralysis, and burning pain inthe extremities. Pellegra‘s symptoms are manifestedon the rough, discolored skin, in the patients’inflamed mouths, and terrifying neurological symp-toms which may include twitching, tremors, anddelusions. Extreme cases may literally “foam at themouth” like victims of the rabies virus.

The terrible consequences of dietary deficienciesshould not be forgotten nor should the means bywhich these diseases may be cured. Lemon juicesaved the British sailors from scurvy. The unfortu-nate seaman abandoned on a deserted island wascured by eating grass. Sufferers from beri-beri sick-ened and died with their cures all around them inthe fields and markets of their villages. Rickets crip-pled children in well to do families while the cure fortheir ills streamed outside the windows of their


171

houses in the form of sunlight containing ultravioletB light, which human skin cells use to produce vita-min D. The goldrushers to the chilly north some-times suffered and died with sources of vitamin C allaround them in the form of the spruce tips and pinetips, wild berries, and in the livers of game animals.If they had known how to utilize these food sources,they could have cured themselves with a few goodmeals.

Among the common trees of the world there arethose which can supply vitamins in sufficient quan-tity and quality to prevent vitamin deficiencies.Knowing where to find these essential dietary ele-ments may not be a matter of life and death just now,but it is very useful knowledge. Some tree productsare so packed with nutrition, the trees which bearthem should really be designated as “Vitamin trees.”

Vitamin A is a vitamin necessary for sight. It alsohas influence on hormonal functions. The conse-quences of severe Vitamin A deficiency can be seenin areas where the population cannot grow enoughgreen leafy vegetables, carrots, or yams and does nothave access to fish or liver meats. The most commonsymptoms of Vitamin A deficiency are loss of colorvision and night vision, blindness, susceptibility todisease, and skin eruptions. Liver, carrots, yams,peppers, and cabbage are common sources of Vita-min A. What is not generally known is mangoes(Mangifera indica), apricots (Prunus armeniaca),thorn-plums (Ziziphus spp.), sea-buckthorn berries(Hippophae rhamnoides), Prickly pear cactus padsand fruits (Opuntia spp.) are also good sources ofVitamin A. Another extremely rich source of pre-Vitamin A is the Moringa tree (Moringa oleifera),which also contains various B vitamins as well asVitamins C, E, and K.


172

Vitamin C is present in most green vegetables butpeppers, broccoli, peas, tomatoes and cauliflower areespecially rich in this vitamin and in emergency situ-ations even young spears of grass or the tips ofspruce trees will do. The symptoms of Vitamin Cdeficiency have already been described. All citrusfruits such as lemons (Citrus limon), limes (Citrusaurantifolia), grapefruitss (Citrus × paradisi), andoranges (Citrus × ?sinensis) are rich in vitamin C.Other good fruit sources are guavas (Psidium gua-java), kiwifruit (Actinidia deliciosa), marulas (Sclero-carya birrea), papayas (Carica papaya), andpineapples (Ananas comosus). The common potato(Solanum tuberosum is also a good source of vitaminC, a happy accident which kept scurvy at bay amongthe poor in the cool countries of Europe. The ancientChinese navy fed its sailors dried fruit and spoutedseeds to maintain good health. Edible sprouted seedsof all kinds contain as much C by weight as lemonand lime juice.

Vitamin E is actually a group of fat soluble com-pounds which influence the body in the same man-ner. A lack of Vitamin E may cause sterility,neurological problems, anemia, and the wasting ofmuscle tissue. The most common sources of VitaminE in the diet come from oils. Dietary Vitamin E isusually obtained from wheat germ, unrefined cornoil, or fish such as salmon, tuna, and sardines. Whatis less well known is many products of trees andother perennials contain Vitamin E in sufficientquantity to replace the common oils and the fattyfish if those sources are not available. These includeolives and olive oil (Olea europaea subsp.), blueber-ries (Vaccinium spp.), papayas (Carica papaya),hazelnuts (Corylus avellana), kiwifruits (Actinidiadeliciosa), pine nuts (Pinus pinea and other Pinusspp.), mangoes (Mangifera indica), and almonds(Prunus dulcis, syn. Prunus amygdalus). Most nut

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus_aurantifolia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrus_aurantifolia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_name


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psidium_guajava

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psidium_guajava

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonym_%28taxonomy%29#Botany


173

oils, such as walnut oil (genus Juglans), black walnutoil (Juglans nigra), pine nut oil (Pinus spp.), arganoil (Argania spinosa), and macadamia nut oil (Maca-damia integrifolia and Macadamia tetraphylla) arehigh in Vitamin E, also.

Vitamin K denotes a group of lipophilic, hydrophobicvitamins which are needed for the posttranslationalmodification of certain proteins, mostly required forblood coagulation, but also a number of other pro-teins which chelate calcium ions and are involved inbone and other tissue metabolism. The lack of vita-min K may cause clotting disorders including uncon-trolled bleeding from the nose, bleeding gums,debilitating menstrual periods, internal hemor-rhages, easy bruising, and wounds which do not heal.Lack of vitamin K can also cause brittle bones andlead to stress fractures. Green leafy vegetables arethe best source of Vitamin K and luckily most placeson the planet have vitamin K rich edible plantsamong the domesticated crops or the local wildplants. However, Vitamin K deficiency can appear inpeople who live in climates with long or severe win-ters because leafy fresh foods are then not available.The traditional remedy for a lack of fresh greenfoods is to add to the diet pickled and lacto-fer-mented foods such as kimche, sauerkraut, pickledcucumbers, or other preserved green foods such askale or Brussels sprouts put up in brine. From thetree crops comes one of the best sources of Vitamin Kand the easiest to preserve. Plums are excellentsources of Vitamin K. Oddly enough both lacto-fer-mented green food and dried plums contain moreVitamin K than do their fresh counterparts. Othergood sources of Vitamin K can be found in avocados(Persea americana), tangerines (Citrus × tangerina),kumquats (Citrus japonica), kiwifruits (Actinidiadeliciosa), cherry plums (Prunus cerasifera), and

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macadamia_integrifolia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macadamia_integrifolia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macadamia_tetraphylla

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipophilic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobic

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamins

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posttranslational_modification



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coagulation





174

plums (Prunus spp.) (which are also known as“gages” in some areas).

The B vitamins are a crucial cluster of eight relatedwater soluble vitamins which are very important tocell metabolism. They were originally thought to beone substance, which became known as Vitamin Bbut later it became apparent the original B was actu-ally eight different vitamins with niacin or B3 as an“enabler.” A lack of any one of these vitamins canhave serious consequences but a lack of Vitamin B3,as in the case of the pellagra outbreaks in Europeand the US, was often deadly. Since pellagra onlyappeared where maize had been adopted as a staplecrop it was once assumed there was something in thecorn which caused the disease. Pellagra was some-times called “the corn infection” and identified bythe “Three D’s,” dermatitis, diarrhea, and dementia.

After Dr. Joseph Goldberger proved the connectionbetween pellagra and diet it was asked why therewas no pellagra in the predominantly corn eatingsocieties in Mexico and South America. This was dueto the traditional milling of maize foods with lime, ornixtamalization, which made the niacin in the cornavailable to the human metabolism. It was onlywhen corn was adopted as a staple crop, but the nix-tamaliztion method of preparation was left behind,that the disease appeared.

Good sources of B3 are chicken, fish, beef, carrots,milk, and brewer’s yeast which became the standardtreatment for pellagrans after Dr. Goldberger used itto cure his patients. Other good sources of niacin aredates, avocados, mangoes, pears, and most tree nuts.Oddly enough there was a high niacin food availablein the American south: the humble peanut. “Goobereaters” were almost never pellagrans nor were thepeople who habitually ate wild game. Regrettably,the pieces of this puzzle were not put completely


175

together until the 1950’s when it discovered why theniacin in corn was not available to some corn eatingpopulations.

The other B vitamins are:

B1 or Thiamine

B2 or Riboflavin

B5 or Pantothenic acid

B6 or Pyridoxine

B7 or Biotin

B9 or Folic acid

B12 or Cobalamin

The B vitamins together support the entire humanmetabolism, maintain skin and muscle tone, pro-mote cell growth, prevent anemia, enhance theimmune system, and help prevent disease. Most Bvitamins have to be replenished regularly, the excep-tion being vitamin B12 which is stored in the liver.

The lack of B1 or thiamine deficiency is the culprit inoutbreaks of beri-beri. This disease affected popula-tions whose staple food was polished rice. Soybeanproducts, liver, whole grains (including unhulledrice), whole potatoes, dairy products and “Quorn” (Ameat substitute mainly marketed in Europe. Themycoprotein used to produce Quorn is extractedfrom a fungus, Fusarium venenatum, which is grownin large vats.) are all excellent sources of B1. Almostall tree nuts, as well as, oranges and most citrusfruits are very rich in B1. It is sadly ironic both pella-gra and beri-beri, two of the worst of the deficiencydiseases, are caused by mishandling an inherentlynutritious staple food. In the case of maize, themaize is not treated to make its vitamins available tohumans who eat it. In the case of rice, the rice is pol-


176

ished to extend its storage life, and the processgreatly decreases its food value.

Vitamin B2, riboflavin, is essential for the health ofthe skin and mucus membranes. It is relatively com-mon in whole foods such as dairy products, wholecereal products, broccoli, wheat bran, and leafygreen vegetables. It is found in tree nuts and theseeds of leguminous plants including Acacias (Acaciaspp.), Moringas, Mesquites (Prosopis spp.), Carob(Ceratonia siliqua), and most common beans.

Vitamin B6, pyridoxine, is necessary for healthyblood, circulation, and fluid balance in the humanbody. A lack of B6 can cause hypertension, waterretention, and anemia. Luckily there are many goodsources of Vitamin B6 including sunflower seeds,spinach, oatmeal, fish, beef, pork, chicken, wheatbran, seafood, peanut butter, soybeans, and limabeans. In the tree crops the bananas, plantains, andwalnuts are the richest sources of B6, followedclosely by avocados, leguminous tree crops, othertree nuts, and mulberries. B6 is found in mushroomsand edible fungi of all kinds including the bracketfungi and forest mushrooms which grow on livingand dead trees.

B7, also called biotin, is a commonly available vita-min. Deficiencies are rarely problematic in adultseven though biotin plays a vital role in human bio-chemistry, especially in maintaining blood sugar andusing the energy of carbohydrates. However, biotindeficiencies can be very serious in children andinfants as a lack of biotin can delay development,stunt growth, and even cause mental retardation.Biotin is commonly found in red meat, seafood, eggs,mushrooms, soybeans, beans, cauliflower, milk,whole grains, breads, organ meats, molasses, andpeanuts. In tree crops it is found in bananas (Musaspp.), chocolate (from the cocoa, Theobroma cacao),


177

cashews (Anacardium occidentale), filberts (Corylusmaxima), almonds, (Prunus dulcis, syn. Prunusamygdalus) and Brazil nuts (Bertholletia excelsa).

B9, folic acid, is essential for manufacture of newcells and so is crucially important in the develop-ment of the human embryo. A lack of folic acid in amother’s diet can lead to serious birth defects. Luck-ily, it is found in useful amounts in almost all greenleafy vegetables, most fish, and many root crops suchas beets, turnips, parsnips, root celery, and also inliver and organ meats. B9 is found in many fruitssuch as grapefruits, oranges, avocados, pomelos (Cit-rus maxima or Citrus grandis), and bananas, in ber-ries such as mulberries, raspberries, strawberriesand in tree vegetables like the leaves of the Moringatree. Due to folic acid’s importance in preventingbirth defects and promoting healing many grainproducts, breads and cereals are “fortified” with folicacids.

B12, a vitamin necessary for mental health, goodmemory and a healthy nervous system is one of thefew vitamins not easily found in the plant kingdom.Good sources of B12 are red meat, milk, pork, fish,seafood, cheese, eggs, yogurt, and whole milk. Vegansand vegetarians are often deficient in Vitamin B12.The vitamin is also found in yeast, beer, and maltedfoods with yeast being the richest source. There areno known reliable sources of Vitamin B12 among thetree crops and few in the plant kingdom. Because ofthis vegans and vegetarians must be very careful toseek out and eat Vitamin B rich foods.

In naming the sources of various vitamins a clearpattern emerges. There are some plants which arenamed again and again. The bananas and the plan-tains are powerhouses of nutrition. Tree nuts areexcellent storable sources of much of what is neededfor health. The avocado, unjustly criticized for its fat


178

content, contains as many vitamins as a multivita-min pill. The leafy vegetables are vitamin power-houses. The Moringa tree “towers” among themwith its broad spectrum load of vitamins, making it aserious contender for the title “Vitamin Tree.”

There are many things which do not grow on trees,but vitamins, with the exception of the elusive B12,most definitely do.

179

Chapter 11Trees and Their Names

It is very important, when working with trees, tolearn the trees’ Latin or scientific names. Many treesshare a family name, but the behavior, habit, and/orrequirements of the individual species may be verydifferent. Because of this, it is important to identifypositively the tree with which one is working and tobe very sure research colleagues and other interestedparties are referring to the same species and variety,and not some entirely different plant with similarcommon name.

The modern system for naming plants, usuallyknown as “binomial nomenclature,” was invented byCarolus Linnaeus, a Swedish botanist. He inventedthe system to end centuries of confusion amongfarmers, scholars, herbalists, and doctors about theplants they grew, studied, or used. This was a veryimportant development in the science of botany asplants were known only by their local names, manyvery similar, before the Linnaean system came intouse—and it was very difficult to describe or defineexactly which plant was being referenced.

The Latin name or scientific name of a plant can nowbe used all over the world with generally accurateresults. Though scientific names of plants sometimeschange with new knowledge and new discoveries it isusually possible to find out the names and propertiesof specific species of trees and to avoid the kind ofmix-ups which happen when different plants sharethe same common names.

To explain briefly how the system for naming livingcreatures works, it is best to start with the most


180

commonly accepted five broadest categories of livingcreatures, the “Kingdoms.”

These are:

Kingdom Monera: prokaryotic, microscopic crea-tures without membrane-bound nuclei or cellorgans. Examples of such organisms are bacteria,cyanobacteria and spirochetes. Most are unicellular,but some organisms form chains and others havemulti-celled phases. Nutrition is absorbed throughcell walls. Prokaryotes generally have a single loop ofDNA rather than chromosomes.

Kingdom Protista: eukaryotic organisms with mem-brane bound cell organelles, nuclei and chromo-somes. Examples from this Kingdom includeorganisms which straddle the plant/animal dividesuch as amoebas and odd, difficult to classify, organ-isms such as giant kelps. Nutrition is by ingestion,absorption, or synthesis, so this is sort of a catch-allkingdom for organisms. It is difficult to categorize.Also some of the included organisms are motile.

Kingdom Fungi: non-motile organisms which formmycelia or hyphae and take their nutrition fromdead and decaying material. Examples from King-dom Fungi include molds, yeasts, mushrooms,blights, and mildews.

Kingdom Plantae: non-motile organisms whichmake their own food by photosynthesis and containchlorophyll. Examples from Kingdom Plantaeinclude trees, bushes, grasses, and algae.

Kingdom Animalia: organisms including mollusks,arachnids, insects, fish, reptiles, amphibians, birds,mammals, and humans. What these diverse crea-tures all have in common, besides being eukaryotes,is they are all capable of movement and they all

Chapter 11: Trees and Their Names

181

ingest their food because they are not capable of syn-thesizing it.

The kingdom we are most interested in of course isthe plant kingdom or Kingdom Plantae. This King-dom is divided into two groups, the angiosperms andthe gymnosperms. The gymnosperms contain ninefurther divisions called “Phyla.” Plants such as coni-fer trees, ferns, mosses, gingko, cycads, and “livingfossils” such as the Dawn Redwood (Metasequuoiaglyptostrboides) and the Wollemi pine (Wollemianobilis), are all gymnosperms which literally means“naked seeds.” Most gymnosperms have needle likeleaves, are evergreen, and their seeds form in cones.A few like the gingko and the bald cypress do droptheir leaves but these are the exceptions rather thanthe norm.

The second group, the angiosperms, has only onephylum. Angiosperms generally have seeds enclosedin fruit, broad leaves, and a spreading habit. Most ofthe crop plants on which people depend for food areangiosperms. The single phylum, called Angiosper-mophyta is divided into two classes, the Monocotyle-donae (or “monocots“) and the Dicotyledonae (or“dicots“).

Monocots have seeds with one seed leaf, leaves whichare narrow with parallel veins, flower parts whichusually occur in multiples of three, and no wood pro-ducing cells of which to speak. They tend to growfrom the inside out, in the manner of these familiarmonocots; grasses and palm trees.

Dicots have seeds with two seed leaves, broad leaveswith central midribs and branching veins, flowerparts in multiples of four or five, large colorful flow-ers, sometimes woody stems, and tend to grow in abranched habit, in the manner of these familiardicots; oak trees and apple trees.


182

Each class is further divided into orders and thenfamilies. Sometimes it is easy to confuse these divi-sions, since both order and family names often endwith the letters “ae” or “eae.” There are many plantsin which the order name and the family name arevery similar, as in the case of the Welsh onion:

Kingdom: PlantaePhylum: AngiospermophytaClass: MonocotyledoneaeOrder: AsparagalesFamily: AlliumacaeGenus: AlliumSpecies: fistulosum

Each family is divided into genera, the singular ofwhich is genus. In this way plants which are relatedcan be described by the name of the genus, then bytheir species and finally by their variety, which issometimes a natural variation and other times a“named cultivar.”

Thus a taxonomic structure for classifying plants isborn.

A date tree of the Deglet Noor variety for instancewould be described as:

Kingdom: PlantaePhylum: AngiospermophylaClass: MonocotyledonaeOrder: ArecalesFamily: ArecaceaeGenus: PhoenixSpecies: DactyliferaVariety: Deglet Noor

So the binomial name of the date would be takenfrom the genus and the species names and this date


183

plant is named Phoenix dactylifera with the name ofthe genus being capitalized and the species namewritten in all lower case letters and the usual customis to italicize both the genus and species names.Plants described by three names are usually specificvariations, or cultivars, the last name being thename of the variety, which may also be the name of aperson or place or characteristic. For example, theRed Delicious apple’s scientific name is: Malusdomestica var. Red Delicious.

Inter-species hybrids may be indicated by an “x” or amultiplication sign between the two parent species.Thus the commercial strawberry, which is a crossbetween Fragaria chiloesis and Fragaria virginianais sometimes described as Fragaria x ananassa orFragaria chiloensis x virginiana. Rarer inter-generichybrids may have a combined genus name with an“x” before it. An example of this is the grain croptriticale, an inter-generic hybrid of wheat (Triticumspp.) and rye (Secale cereale). Triticale is thusnamed × Triticosecale.

A graft-chimaera may be indicated with a plus sign,the name of the scion being written after the plussign. An example of this is Ziziphus spina-christi +mauritiana for an Indian thorn plum scion graftedon a wild relative’s rootstock.

There are several books which can help with scien-tific names and taxonomic structures and rules. Oneis the “Macropedia” volumes of the EncyclopediaBritannica. Another is The International Code ofBotanical Nomenclature. Hortus Third: A ConciseDictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United Statesand Canada published in 1976 by the Macmillanpublishing house, is also a valuable resource.

It is also useful to remember the family names ofsome of the more important species of trees, such as


184

Acer (the maple family), Plantanus (the Plane treefamily), Pinus (the pine tree family), Malus (theapple tree family), Juglans (the walnut tree family)and so on.

It is important to know the walnut tree is related tothe pecan tree, and the nectarine tree is related tothe plum tree, the peach tree, the cherry tree, theapricot tree, and the almond tree. Not only does theknowledge of the relationship encourage the treeplanter to try related species after successful plant-ings, but the relationships between species are nec-essary knowledge when top-working crop trees. Innursery propagation of trees a well marked saplingwould have a colored tape or sign attached to it withthe genus, species and varietal names of a fruit tree.Labeled in this manner the addition of the Latinname keeps mistakes from being made and time,effort and money wasted.

This system is by no means perfect, of course. Thereare still plants which have two or more scientificnames as it has not been decided exactly where theplants belong in taxonomic terms. Sometimes thescientific name of the plant is changed and thechange is slow in getting into textbooks and data-bases. This is why older plant designations are usu-ally included when describing a plant in taxonomicterms. For example, the rare desert fig, Ficus psue-dosycamorus, was recently renamed. The sub-speciesof this plant with lobed leaves has been designatedFicus palmata and the sub-species of this plant withthe simple spade-shaped leaf has been named Ficuscordata.

Unusual plants and recent discoveries, such as theWollemi pine (Wollemi nobilis), which qualifies inboth categories being very unusual and discoveredonly a few years ago, sometime require the creationof a new genus. In the case of the Wollemi nobilis,


185

this is because all the other species which might havebeen placed in this genus have been lost to time. Allof the close relatives of this remarkable tree lived inthe time when all the continents were connected toeach other.

There are even some scientists who would like to addanother Kingdom to the five which are currently thebasis of the classification of all living things on earth.Many creatures live far below the surface on theocean’s bottom next to volcanic vents. These organ-isms do not directly or indirectly receive energy fromthe sun (unlike almost every other living organism).They get their energy from chemicals in the heavilymineralized and super heated water. Because of thisdissimilarity, it has been proposed they be placed intheir own Kingdom with other extremophiles. Thegiant tube worm for instance relies on bacteriainside its body to make organic molecules from oxy-gen, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrogen. This process iscalled chemosynthesis and is vastly different fromthe way most other living creatures receive theirfood.

This discussion is current and the creation of a newKingdom of living things would truly be exciting.However, there is no guarantee such a change willoccur. The entire subject is complicated by the factthese organisms are comprised of creatures frommany different kingdoms, phylla, families and gen-era and include animals, plant-like and fungus-likeorganisms, and a vast amount of new micro-life.

There is also a movement to split the Kingdom Mon-era into two different kingdoms, the Eubacteria(true bacteria) and the Archeae bacteria, which couldaccommodate many of the extremophiles found indeep sea vents, hypersaline environments, frozenenvironments, and chemically harsh environments.


186

Does the ultimate source of their life energy makethe newly discovered life forms so different they can-not be sorted out into the existing taxonomic king-doms? There are convincing arguments on both sidesof the question and the discussion will certainly con-tinue as more extremophiles are discovered andresearchers try to fit them into the classificationswhich may have to strain bit to contain theirstrangeness and diversity.

Thanks to Linnaeus though, at least we will be ableto name them.

Five Kingdoms of LIving ThingsGraphic by Sarit Rosenfeld/AIES

The Five Kingdoms of Living Things (and the possible sixth)

187

Chapter 12Sugar Trees

Sugar crops such as cane, beets, and corn are waterintensive crops, only suitable for cultivation in gooddeep soil and relentlessly destructive to the soil whengrown as monocrops. Since these crops are not onlybeing used to produce edible sugars but are nowbeing converted into biofuels, the amount of hectaresplanted in these crops grows and grows while thecompetition between man and machine for the har-vests becomes more acrimonious and controversial.So far in the competition for sugar crops betweenhumans and the automobiles, the automobiles seemto be winning.

This is ridiculous, of course, as diverting all the grainand sugar crops grown in the world could not fill theenergy needs of the millions of internal combustionengines—and if it did who would be left to drivethem? It is estimated the sugar and grain crops usedto produce a tank of ethanol would feed an adulthuman being for 14 months. It may be some timebefore the cruelty and futility of this policy becomesapparent and sugar and grain crops are crossed offthe lists of sources of ethanol and other biofuels.Meanwhile permaculturalists and orcharders shouldpromote the planting and cultivating of “sugartrees,” which are much less demanding as to waterand soil and can be grown on marginal and depletedland and actually help regenerate these areas whileproducing delicious and usable sugars.

Maple Trees (Acer spp.) Certainly one of the most delicious products of thesugar trees are the syrups and sugar produced by the


188

maple tree. Of the one hundred species of maple inthe world most will yield a good tasting sugar orsyrup. The exceptions are the ornamental mapletrees whose milky sap is not suitable for syrup orsugar production. Sugar and syrup are most com-monly made from the maples which have the highestpercentage of sugar in their sap. These are the sugarmaple (Acer saccharum), the red maple (Acerrubrum), the silver maple (Acer saccharinum) andthe Manitoba maple or boxelder (Acer negundo).

Maples are easy to identify because of their symmet-rical branching habit, the shape of their leaves, andtheir unique winged seeds called “samaras.” Maplesare large deciduous trees which grow in moist deepsoil in temperate areas of the world. The sugar con-tent of the sap varies a good deal from tree to tree,type to type, and area to area. Sugar content of thesap can also vary by the time of day.

In the later days of the summer and fall the mapletrees stop growing and begin to store excess starchesin specialized cells called ray cells. This excess starchremains stored during the cool months of the winter.When the weather warms above 40o F the starcheschange to sugar, mostly sucrose. These sugars passinto the sap. At temperatures at or above 45o F, sug-ars are no longer produced. So the season to collectmaple sap is short, the sugary sap only flows in earlyspring when the temperatures are between 40o Fand 45o F.

The rising temperatures also create pressure insidethe tree. When holes are bored into the tree the sapdrips out. Trees are “tapped” in this manner whenthey reach about 10 inches in diameter. At that pointa tree can bear one tap. Trees 20 inches in diametercan sustain two taps and trees over 25 inches indiameter can sustain three. No tree should havemore than three taps or it would be damaged by hav-

Chapter 12: Sugar Trees

189

ing too much of its sap extracted. Trees with largespreading crowns are usually the best producers.

Fresh tap holes are made each spring and the tappertakes care not to drill near an old tap hole and not tobore more than 1 and a half inches deep. The tapholes are made with a sharp bore bit to minimizedamage to the wood and done at a slightly upwardangle so the sap can flow freely. The bore bit shouldbe the size of the spouts chosen for the tapping proj-ect. In areas where manufactured taps are not avail-able tree tappers often hand-carve wooden spouts.

The spouts are tapped into the bored hole so tightlyit is not possible to extract them by hand. Taps areinserted on slightly warmer days when there is nodanger of splitting the tree. A bucket or container isthen hung under the spout. The bucket should havea cover to keep out rain, snow, and other unwantedmaterial.

A taphole in a healthy tree may yield 5 to 20 gallonsof sap. Ten gallons of sap must be boiled down andreduced to yield one quart of maple syrup. This isusually done outside or in well ventilated areasbecause the sap, as it is reduced, lets off a lot ofsteam. The sap should be collected every day andkept cold before it is boiled as it can sour in the heat.The syrup is finished when it reaches 66-67% sugar.The syrup should be canned hot. Open containers ofsyrup must be refrigerated. If the reduction processcontinues the sap is reduced to the point where itmakes granules when cool. At this point it can be putin molds to make solid bars of maple sugar.

This method of taking sap has been used for manyyears and means hundreds of buckets have to be col-lected and brought to a central point. This hasalways been hard work in challenging conditions. Inthe 1950’s the first experiments in collecting sap by


190

vacuum tubing were set up and proved to be effec-tive. One taphole was made per tree and a plastictube was attached which led to a central collectionpoint. In the 1960’s low vacuum was applied (up to15” Hg) through the tube. This level of suctionallowed sap production to double with no harm tothe tree and has been used for over four decades inthe US and Canada. There are still many areas, how-ever, where sap collection is accomplished in thedescribed traditional manner.

The maple trees themselves have great value as tim-ber producers, elements of erosion control, land rec-lamation in rocky areas, soil enrichment for coolareas, and for their stunning autumn coloring andtheir symmetry. They are among the most beautifultrees in the landscape.

Birch Trees (Betula spp.)Birch trees are deciduous, extremely cold tolerant,flexible, and wind-hardy trees found in the northernlatitudes and temperate zones. Birch trees yield won-derful syrup with a distinctive caramel-like spici-ness. It is consumed much the way maple syrup is, insauces, in glazes, on pancakes, and it used to flavorsoft drinks, beer, and ice cream.

Birch sap is fundamentally different than maple sapin its composition, being mostly fructose and glucosewith a small amount of sucrose and galactose. Birchsyrup is harder to make than maple syrup as there isless sugar by percentage in birch sap. Eighty liters ofsap may become one liter of syrup. Reverse osmosistechniques are sometimes used to remove the waterin the sap and thereby concentrate the sugars as it iseasy to scorch the delicate and varied sugars in thebirch sap during the reduction process.


191

The opportunity for tapping birch trees is evenshorter than the one for maple trees because bircheslive primarily in colder areas than maple trees. Thebirch trees are tapped a few weeks before the leavesappear commonly in the beginning of April. Birchtrees are tapped closer to the ground than mapletrees. Usually only one or two taps are placed, evenin the largest trees, as birches have a lower root andtrunk pressure than maples. Most commercial birchsyrup is produced from Paper Birch tree (Betulapapyrifera), Alaskan Birch trees (Betula neoalas-kana), and Kenai Birch trees (Betula kenaica). Otherspecies of Birch are tapped in Scandinavia and Rus-sia.

Birch trees are also valued for their timber, withies,their useful and flexible bark, and the value as a landreclamation tree in cold and windswept areas.

Hickory Trees (Carya spp.)The shagbark hickory tree (Carya ovata) can betapped as well, though the yield of syrup is usuallylow and the syrup collecting window is rather short.A more popular way of making hickory syrup is boil-ing bark or nutshells from the shagbark hickory intoa smoky tasting liquor, then sweetening with sugarand reducing it to syrup consistency. This unusuallocal syrup is also whipped up into a spreadable “but-ter” and is surely one of the most unusual productsof the sugar trees. Oddly enough, the leaves andtwigs of the hickory trees have been boiled and theresulting liquid dried to make a substitute for tablesalt. So it might be said the hickory tree is both a saltand a sugar tree.

Poplar Trees (Populus spp.)Poplar bark, once a flavoring for spruce beer andsometimes used as a stimulant for the heart, is used


192

to prepare poplar syrup, in a manner very similar tothe use of hickory bark. This essentially means pop-lar bark is the flavoring for a type of sugar syruprather than a source of sugar. Still the syrup hasbecome popular as a gourmet item and some experi-mentation has been done without notable successwith taping poplars for sap. There does seem to beusable sap in some kinds of poplar but currentlythere does not seem to be an efficient way to collectit.

Other Nut Trees Walnut trees (Juglans spp.), black walnut trees (Jug-lans nigra), and pecan trees (Carya illinoinensis) canalso be tapped in areas with the proper seasonality,allowing a sugar collecting period in the spring.Yields are also low with these trees but the resultingsyrups are very flavorful. Black walnut syrup is con-sidered to be superior in taste even to maple syrupwhich is more popular and available by far. The lowyield and delicate flavor of these syrups have led tomany experiments in Reverse Osmosis treatment ofthe sap which removes water by forcing it thoughpermeable membranes, leaving the syrup behind andthickening it without heating it.

Carob Trees (Certonia siliqua) The carob has been food for humans and animalsaround the Mediterranean Sea area since prehistorictimes. It is an evergreen tree with glossy leaves. Car-obs are tolerant of aridity and salinity but sensitiveto frost. Sometimes the carob tree is the only tree liv-ing in steep, dry, and arid areas and so, the onlysource of food. Luckily the pods of the carob arehighly nutritious and with other vegetation can pro-vide the basis for feeding sheep, goats, horses, andeven cattle. Carob trees copiously bear brown, woodypods with small seeds of amazingly regular size and


193

shape. Even trees grown in extreme conditions regu-larly produce fifty kilos of pods. Trees in wellwatered, richer soils produce literally hundreds ofkilos of pods.

As can be imagined, since carob trees are legumi-nous, and also so very resistant to challenging condi-tions and so very good for the soil, they have nowbeen planted in poor and marginal areas all over theworld. In addition to the carob’s value as a reclaima-tive, anti-erosive, and fodder providing tree, the podscan be made into delicious food for human beings.Bread made with 25 percent carob flour, carob cake,candy, and syrup have all made their appearance inhealth food shops. It is actually the tissue betweenthe hard seeds which is ground to powder and used achocolate substitute or milled into flour. Baked goodsmade with carob flour are rich and nutty tasting.The yield of carob syrup is very impressive. Afterslow cooking of the whole pods, the yield of syrup isalmost a kilo of syrup per kilo and a half of pods. InTurkey this is the most popular local sweetener afternative honey.

In folklore the carob is a symbol of longevity but thecarob’s reputation for a long juvenility period, fortyyears before the carob bears fruit, is totally unde-served. Carob trees, given a reasonable amount ofwater and care, flower and bear fruit in the fifthyear, like most other fruit trees.

Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos)This is another leguminous tree from southeasternUnited States which is both useful as a stock feedand has great untapped potential as a sugar tree. Itdoes not do well in truly arid areas but can be grownin marginal soils, poor soils, rocky soils, and soil con-taining clay. The tree grows steadily under most con-ditions. It is tolerant of low temperatures, dampness,


194

and short periods of drought. It is also tolerant ofalkalinity. While a honey locust tree does not exhibitthe root nodes of another promising tree in the samefamily, the black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), thehoney locust is associated with both nitrogen fixingsoil symbionts and beneficial fungi.

Because of the tree’s extreme hardiness the honeylocust tree was chosen in 1934 for Franklin D.Roosevelt’s great Shelter Belt project, a very largetree planting project carried out on 33,000 farms toprotect the soil and mitigate the heat and droughtconditions of the “Dust Bowl” years. Of the treesplanted, which included black locusts, Siberian elms(Ulmus pumila), and cottonwoods and poplars (Pop-ulus spp.), the honey locust trees had the highestrate of survival.

As a fodder tree the honey locust is very productive,bearing on average a hundred kilograms of pods pertree which are very attractive to most farm animals,especially pigs and cows. Chickens can be fed withground or crushed pods. Sheep, goats, and horseswill reach over fences and push through hedges toget to the fallen pods.

In the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, NorthCarolina honey locust pods were made into meal andadded to baked goods instead of sweetening. Groundpods of this tree make an excellent flour extenderand can be added to bread, cakes, and muffins. Chil-dren often eat the sweet pulp in the pods. The yieldof syrup is not as high as the carob but at least ashigh as the mesquite with less of an astringent edgeand more of a honey like flavor.

The black locust tree exhibits some of the qualities ofthe honey locust. It is a hardy tree, with excellenthard wood, a nitrogen fixer which exhibits the nodesof a legume on its extensive root system, a valuable

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinia


195

shade tree, and a possible sugar source as some blacklocust pods contain up to 30% sugar. It has one cau-tionary point however; the pulp in its pods contains avariable amount of toxins making them generallyinedible. This makes it, at present, not a reliablesource of sugar nor a reliable fodder as there is toomuch of a chance of utilizing the products of a treewith high toxicity. Breeding and selection could solvethis problem.

Surely the potential of both these locust trees shouldbe investigated and these trees integrated intoperennial agricultural formats as soon as possible.

Mesquite Trees (Prosopis spp.) The hardy mesquite tree, famous for the density andquality of its wood and its nitrogen fixing and soilimproving qualities is also a “sugar tree.” Mesquitetrees produce pods full of protein and sugar. Thesepods are crushed and boiled to yield syrup or groundto yield sweet gluten-free flour. The three most com-mon mesquite species yield useful pods, the honeymesquite (Prosopis glandulosa), the Screwbean mes-quite (Prosopis pubescens) and the Velvet mesquite(Prosopis velutina). Useful pods can also be obtainedfrom the Common mesquite (Prosopis juliflora) aswell. There is some discussion about the suitabilityof pods from the Black mesquite (Prosopis Nigra) formaking syrup or meal, some of which are too bitterto be palatable as food for humans. Black mesquitepods may not be the best fodder for animals either, assore mouths and other problems are sometimes seenin areas where the black mesquite is the primary fod-der tree.

Mesquite meal is made by sorting the pods and dis-carding those which are light weight or broken. Thefull undamaged pods are then heated slowly untilthey become brown and crumbly. This can be accom-


196

plished by drying in full sunlight or placing in a lowoven. Then they are ground into meal using a tradi-tional metate or a modern food processor.

Mesquite molasses is made by adding one pound ofmesquite pods, washed and sorted, to 4 quarts ofwater. The water and pods should be cooked in a cov-ered pot at low heat for 12 hours, strained, and thenthe liquid is reduced to syrup.

Palm Tree SugarsSome of the very tastiest sugars come from the sweetsap of palm trees

Quantities of sap which can be collected vary fromtree to tee and species to species. An ordinary palmmay give 5 kilos of sugary sap per day from a fewinflorescences. A high yielding tree may produce 20to 25 kilograms from multiple flower columns. Sometrees have been tapped for decades without harm aslong as they are well watered. The sap can be col-lected for several months from both male and femaletrees with generally a longer tap flow from thefemale trees.

Palm sugars are usually harvested from local treesand so have local names. In Burma for instance,sugar from the coconut palm is called “jaggery.” InIndonesia the same kind of sugar collected from thesame species of trees is called “gula merah.” Sincethe composition of the sugars vary according to thespecies from which the sap is collected (and some-times by the time of year within species), palm sug-ars are generally composed of sucrose, fructose, andglucose in varying percentages and compositions.

The importance of the sugar palms in small Asianfarms is often underestimated. In mixed farmingoperations the trees provide sugar, fruits, germi-nated seeds, juice for human consumption, and ani-


197

mal feed. They make up the green and living fencesaround households and grow on the dikes aroundflooded fields. They also provide shelter for birds andbats, which are essential for the health of the farm.Their leaves are useful as thatch or twine and wastefrom the tree is burned as fuel.

Palm sugar is widely used in Asian cooking tosweeten savory food, sweeten baked goods or to bal-ance out strong or salty flavors.

“Toddy“—or “treetap“—is the general name for themildly fermented or fresh sap of a wide variety ofAsian palms. The sap is collected in the early morn-ing by a tapper who climbs up to the crown of thepalm tree where he has set one or more taps incleaned areas on the trunk of the tree. The fresh sapis poured from the tap’s attached gourds or jars intoa covered, larger vessel, usually worn on the belt ofthe tapper or carried with a shoulder strap. It will beserved by the afternoon in a local toddy house. Mosttreetaps begin to sour in the heat and dampnessafter a few hours or are turned to alcohol by indige-nous yeasts. Toddy is rarely turned to syrup or sugarbut utilized more as a local “soft drink” in manycountries. Some treetaps are allowed to ferment andare then distilled into a truly foul tasting alcoholicdrink, much like rank tequila. But on the whole,treetaps are usually consumed within a day of tap-ping.

Tapping may continue from individual trees formany months, but taps are usually removed from thetrees before stormy and cool seasons. They arereplaced in new holes when the trees are invigoratedby rain and warmer weather. Other species aretapped by cutting into emerging flowers. When tap-ping is finished the flowers may be cut off at the baseso new flowers will grow from the leaf junction,node, or the crown of the tree.


198

A familiar tree which is tapped by cutting the inflo-rescences is the coconut, probably the most wide-spread of the palms in the tropical world and valuedmostly for its large seeds and sweet “milk.” The factthe seeds are so highly valued precludes tapping forsugar in most places, but in areas where there arecoconuts to spare, the sweet sap may be collectedfrom tapped flowers, usually for immediate use,rarely fermented or concentrated.

“Sugar palm” is the common name for several spe-cies of palm which are tapped for their sweet sap.These include the Arenga palm (Arenga pinnata),Palmyra palm (Borassus flabellifer), and the Toddypalm (Caryota urens).

The Nipa Palm (Nypa fruticans) and Coconut Palm(Cocos nucifera) both produce sugary sap. The sapfrom these trees is collected by cutting the flowerbuds or slitting the underside of the flowering col-umn and then collecting the sugary sap. The sap isboiled until it thickens. Then it is put into bambootubes or simple molds to harden. Since palm sugarcomes from a variety of sources and is processed bycottage industry there is a great deal of variability inthe color, taste and composition of the sugar.

The Arenga Palm (Arega pinnata) is a source of asugar known as gur. It is a medium sized palm grow-ing to 20 meters tall with a rough trunk covered withthe stubs of old leaves. The leaves are very large, 6 to12 meters long and 1.5 to 2 meters broad. The fruitof the tree is about 7 cm in diameter, sub-globose,green but darkens as it matures. The sap is har-vested for commercial use, made into sugar, and alsofermented into vinegar and wine. The immaturefruits are eaten in Southeast Asia and the PhilippineIslands and sometimes canned after boiling in syrup.Both raw juice and pulp of the fruits are caustic in


199

nature, while the sap is very sweet and sometimesdrunk as fresh toddy.

The Palmyra Palm (Borassus flabellifer) can reach aheight of 30 meters and live 100 years. The trunk ofthe tree resembles the coconut palm’s trunk,smoother than the trunks of most palm species butringed with leaf scars. The young inflorescences,both male and female, yield sugary sap which is fer-mented into an alcoholic beverage called “palmarrack” or concentrated into a crude sugar called“Gula Jawa.”

The fruit, borne in clusters, has a black husk andmeasures four to seven inches in diameter. The topportion of the fruit is cut off to reveal three sweettranslucent jelly-like seeds, similar to lychees, buthaving no pit. The ripe, fibrous, outer layer of thepalm fruit can be roasted, boiled, or eaten raw. Freshsap is considered a laxative. The underground stemsof sprouted seeds are eaten much like hearts of palm,as are the cooked sprouts of young plants. The hugeleaves are used for making baskets, mats, fans, hats,umbrellas, and as writing and thatching material.

Unlike most palm species, the timber from oldPalmyra palm trees is hard, heavy, black, and dura-ble, much valued for construction. This is truly oneof the most beautiful and useful palm varieties.

The Toddy Palm (Caryota urens) is sometimes calledthe “Wine Palm.” It is a rain forest palm from SriLanka, Myanmar, and India with a single trunk andrather small in relation to other palm species, usu-ally about 12 meters in height. It is also relativelyshort lived, dying after flowering and fruiting. Tocollect toddy for wine and sugar making, and also toprolong the life of the palm, the numerous inflores-cences which emerge at each leaf node are tappedand the sap is collected. The total amount of sap flow


200

from so many flowers may also lead to the death ofthe tree, but fruit formation, with the production ofthe round, 1 cm in diameter, red drupe, which is sat-urated with oxalic acid, is sure death for the palm.The palm trunks have no value as timber but theleaves are used to make wine baskets and thatch.

Date Palms (Phoenix dactylifera)These large stately palms are found all over the Mid-dle East and Southern Asia. Date palms are alsoactually among the palms tapped for sugar. A verticalslit is made in the base of the inflorescence and asmall piece of wire or wood is inserted to keep the slitfrom closing. A receptacle for the sap is hung under-neath and several liters of sap can be collected in thismanner. The sap is mostly sucrose, clear and onlyslightly sticky. This sap turns milky and begins toferment within a few hours. A more drastic form oftapping is done by clearing away many upper leavesand tapping the date trees trunk. This is not a com-mon practice with the domesticated date tree sincecareless tapping can kill a very productive fruit treeand even careful tapping of the sap reduces the yieldof a tree for 3 to 4 years until the tree recovers. Thewild date tree is often tapped for its sap using thismethod as the fruit is often of little value as food.Hundreds of tons of sugar are obtained in this man-ner from wild date trees in India where expert tap-pers extract sap from male and female trees forperiods of up to 60 days while doing little harm tothe trees.

Most date sugar and all date syrup are made fromthe fruits themselves. Thick brown syrup called “sil-wan” is made from soft desert dates. It has a honeylike consistency and a deep rich flavor.

Dates are different from many other fruits as theirsugars are too concentrated to be pressed out. This


201

means water has to be added during the extractionprocess. So silwan is made in two different manners.Both involve the use of added water.

The syrup can be made in the traditional manner, byboiling dates in water and extracting the juice fromthe boiled dates, an action which is repeated up tofour times until most of the sugar has been removed.The presscake, consisting mostly of fiber and seeds isoften fed to animals. The strained juice is thenreduced until it reaches a desirable consistency.

The modern industrial process involves crushing thedates and mixing them with water. The mixture isthen heated, cooled, and pressed. The resulting juiceis strained and reduced. More syrup is obtained inthis manner and it is of better quality, though thereare many people who prefer the traditional productbecause of its more robust taste.

“Golden sugar” is made from overripe and damageddates which are pressed for their juice after boilingand cooking. The resulting liquid is strained manytimes and the sugar obtained by reduction. Goldensugar is moist and crystalline, as is brown sugar, butit has a distinct date-like taste. Date sugars inverteasily with more and more sucrose converting asharvest time approaches.

There are other sugar trees, of course, many knownonly locally. The desire for sweet foods seems to be abasic human desire. This desire can be satisfied—and many other benefits gained—simply by plantingthese marvelous sugar-source trees on the steep,rocky, marginal, boggy, arid, worked-out, and aban-doned areas of the world.

202

Chapter 13Salad Trees, Tree Vegetables, and

Leaf Protein

Among the woody plants and trees of the worldwhich are used for food, there are some with edibleplant parts and leaves which can be eaten as saladsor vegetables.

They are generally underutilized and sometimes noteven recognized as possible food sources. Some ofthem are edible from crown to root such as the Mor-inga tree which is in a class all by itself.

Moringa oleifera is the most studied of fourteentypes of Moringa trees. They are sometimes calledthe “Never-Die Trees” and are also called the“Drumstick Trees.” The Moringa oleifera is a small,fast-growing tree which can live for up to 20 years.Its growth rate is truly amazing as it can reach 3meters in height in its first year of life. The tree hasdeep roots, allowing it to survive in dry regions. Thewood of the tree is soft, as are its small round leaves,which are tender enough to be eaten straight fromthe tree.

From the Moringa oleifera comes edible leaves, edi-ble flowers, pods which can be stir-fried when theyare green (the “drumsticks”), growing tips whichsomewhat resemble celery stalks, seeds pressed foroil when the pods are mature, plus roots for pickling.

The tree is called “Nebeday” in Senegal, most likelya derivative of the English words “never die” inreflection of the tree’s ability to withstand drought,grow quickly from seeds or cuttings, and regenerateitself even after the most severe pruning or coppic-

Chapter 13: Salad Trees, Tree Vegetables, and Leaf Protein

203

ing. It is sometimes cultivated as a living fencearound gardens. Although the tree is esteemed for itsmany medicinal uses, including control of bloodsugar and reducing blood pressure, it is not com-monly known the leaves of this tree are extremelynutritious, and the pods, flowers, and growing tips ofthe tree are also edible.

The traditional method of preparing Moringa leafsauce causes much of the leaves’ nutritional value tobe lost. Fresh leaves are boiled two or even threetimes, with the water discarded each time, in orderto remove the leaves’ somewhat bitter spicy taste.The raw leaves however, have large amounts of Vita-min A and C and contain calcium, iron, and otherminerals which may be lost by boiling and leaching.A better way to preserve the nutritive value of theMoringa is simply to dry the leaves and grind theminto powder. This powder may then be turned intosauce or added to soups to thicken them or to addtaste to staple foods.

The benefits of using the Moringa in this matter aremany. Fifty grams of dried Moringa leaf powder cansupply 80% of the protein needed in a child’s diet perday, as well as 100% of the calcium, 100% of the mag-nesium, 80% of the potassium, 100% of the iron,100% of the vitamin A and 50% of the Vitamin C.Because of this and moringa’s richness in aminoacids, the Moringa is sometimes referred to as a“superfood.” Many NGO’s are working to get Mor-inga into the food systems of famine hauntednations.

Adansonia digitata is the scientific name for thehuge Baobab Tree, also called the “Lemonade Tree,”the “Cream of Tartar Tree” and the “Monkey BreadTree.” The trunk of the baobab often reaches anenormous girth. Its odd, root-like branches and


204

spreading crown have given rise to the African myththe tree was planted upside down by God.

The baobab thrives in desolate and drought-proneplains, sometimes the only tree in the landscape andoften the keystone species of the ecology of arid andsemi-arid areas. There are five species of baobab,four in African and one in Australia. The most usefulone from the point of being accessible and edible isthe Adansonia digitata or Common Baobab.

The Baobab is a deciduous tree. Its large pendulousflowers, which are pollinated by bats, support thelives of bats, birds, and many types of insects. Ani-mals of all kinds benefit from dropped flowers, freshleaves, and baobab fruit. The fruit when ripe is alarge woody capsule, roundish and covered withshort yellowish brown fuzz. Inside, the fruit has adry powdery layer which covers hard black seedsinside a woody shell. The powdery substance is richin Vitamin C and potassium tartrate, and is some-times soaked in water by local people to make arefreshing drink. This substance has given the treesits nicknames of the “Cream of Tartar Tree” and the“Lemonade Tree.”

The Baobab contributes in many ways to the foodsystems of local people. Fresh leaves are used asingredients of soups. Edible caterpillars, an impor-tant source of protein in Africa, are fed on the leaves.Also, the hand-sized leaves and fallen flowers aregathered to feed cattle. Dried leaves are added tosauces, stews and gravies. The immature pods,which somewhat resemble green lemons, are eatenas vegetables either cooked or raw and are also driedin slices to be added to cooking foods later. Theyoung sprouts of baobab are eaten like asparagus asare the roots of young trees. Both sprouts and rootscan be pickled. The hard black seeds are ground as acoffee substitute.


205

Besides supplying the flavoring for baobab “Lemon-ade” baobab trees sometimes supply the water andthe sweetening as well. Rain water collects in thehollows made by the clefts of large branches. Thisvaluable source of water is often used by local people.Hollows in the trunks of trees are utilized by Africanhoney bees and some trees have been fitted with pegsor ladders so honey can be gathered in season. Inparticularly dry years the tips of branches or slips ofbaobab wood are also pressed or sucked for moisture.

Powdered bark and powder from the mature Baobabfruit have reputed medicinal properties and are usedto treat skin conditions and reduce fevers.

While there is apparently great variability in thenutritive value of leaves and fruit from the baobabtree, the minerals and vitamins present in all thebaobabs’ plant parts: iron, potassium, calcium, andVitamin C, make valuable additions to local diets.

Leucaena spp. are fast growing leguminous treesfrom South America. The Leucaena tree was pro-moted as a miracle tree and planted in great num-bers to produce fodder, biomass for biodieselproduction, and also to control erosion and to refor-est desolate areas. It grows especially well in warmclimates. In some places it became invasive andcrowded out native vegetation but most of the plant-ings were successful and the tree proved its value.

While it is considered a multipurpose tree with anemphasis on its importance in animal feeding andbiofuel production, this is another tree with edibleleaves and pods. Leucaena foliage is excellent fodderfor animals but the young leaves and tips are tenderand digestible for people to eat. The long green podscan be boiled or eaten raw.

While the mature pods are too tough and papery touse as food, the seeds of the Leucaena esculenta are


206

edible and can be roasted and eaten. Most other leu-caena species have pods which are mildly toxic tonon-ruminants and should not be eaten. Leucaenaleaf powder and dried young Leucaena leaves can beused in soups, stews and sauces very much as mor-inga leaves are used in Africa.

Since leucaena plantings were set out in many verypoor countries, its immediate usefulness to hungrypeople should not be forgotten.

A short list of common trees with edible leavesMost people can name ten common vegetables withedible leaves, such as amaranth, beets, collards, spin-ach, mangolds (beet greens), and arugala. Few peopleknow many common trees have edible leaves. Belowis a short list of common trees with leaves which canserve as food for the hungry. Most are plants withother uses and stripping or gathering their leaves forfood is only done in times of famine. In other cases itis simply not generally known the leaves are edible,so the local population does not eat them.

Acacia spp. (selected species): The three acacia spe-cies which have edible leaves are Acacia coccina (theSoap Pod tree), Acacia famesiana (Sweet acacia) andAcacia nilotica (Prickly acacia). None of these leaveare particularly appetizing. Young leaves taste betterthan mature leaves and the best of the lot is the“Sweet” acacia. Edible leaves have to be picked outbetween the long thorns of A. nilotica.

Albizia julibrissin (the silk tree): This tree has ratherfeathery mild tasting leaves which are easy to chew.The pods are bitter and not attractive.

Aralia elata (the Japanese angelica tree): This is alarge, deciduous, and frost tender tree. It is valued inJapan for its beauty but also because the youngleaves and shoots are edible. The first leaves and


207

shoots of the spring are blanched and eaten likeasparagus. More mature foliage is steamed orstewed.

Berberis spp. (selected species): Several members ofthe Barberry genus have edible leaves and some haveedible fruits. Berberis lyceum has rather salty edibleleaves. Berberis vulgaris leaves are astringent andchewy. Barberry plants produce berries with medici-nal value which are eaten by birds and other wildlife.They can also be used to make conserves and jellies,dried, or eaten raw after a frost, which reduces theiracidity.

Cordia spp. (selected species): There are several Cor-dia species with edible leaves, including Cordia myxaand Cordia dichotoma. It is best to carefully andaccurately identify local species before samplingthem. Inedible Cordia species have leaves which areextremely bitter and may contain anti nutritionalelements such as tannins.

Fagus spp. (selected species): Fagus is the genusname of the Beech trees. Fagus grandifolia is theAmerican beech tree. The name of the Europeanbeech is Fagus sylvatica. The nuts of the beech treeare small, easy to crack, and sweet. The new youngleaves are edible and tasty, but the older matureleaves are much harder to chew and leave one with adry mouth. Morus spp. (selected species): Morus is the genus ofthe Mulberry trees. Mulberry leaves are favoriteswith animals and insects. They are the food of themost famous caterpillar, the silkworm. The veryyoung leaves are juicy and mild tasting to the hungryhuman and a favorite food for many leaf eating crea-tures. In order to get a taste of an untouched mul-berry leaf, it is best to pick the newest leaves early inthe morning and be sure to get there before the com-


208

petition. Warning: do not eat green mulberry fruit asit can be poisonous.

Pistacia spp. (selected species): Only eat very youngleaves of Pistacia terebinthus and Pistacia chinensistrees. Prunus spp. (selected species): Only eat very youngleaves of edible-leaved prunus species, Prunus padusand Prunus tomentosa.

Ribes spp. (selected species of “currants”): Theleaves of these species of Ribes are edible: Ribescereum, Ribes divaricatum, Ribes odoratum, andRibes nigrum. Are all chewable and mild tasting, butthey should be scalded and rinsed well before eatingas they are also the favorites of local insects.

Sambucus nigra: The leaves, flowers and berries ofthe elderberry, Sambucus nigra are all edible. Thevery young leaves can be eaten raw. The flowers aredelicious fried in batter. The berries can be eatenfresh, turned into jellies and conserves, or made intosyrup and wine.

Spondias spp. (selected species): The leaves of theyellow mombin (Spondias mombin), the Otaheiteapple (Spondias dulcis) and the jocote (Spondiaspurpera) are edible. However, they are not very tastyraw and I have not found any recipes for cookingthem.

Tilia spp. (selected species): The leaves of the Lindentree are large, thin, and bright light green in color.They can be eaten raw when young. They have alsobeen used to wrap other foods such as cheese andfruit. They can also be wrapped around meat orgrain mixtures and steamed somewhat like cornhusks in the preparation of tamales. However, thecooked linden leaves are tender and edible unlike thecorn husks. The best edible species are Tilia ameri-cana, Tilia japonica, Tilia x europaea.


209

Toona sinensis: Toona sinensis is a large tree nativeto Asia with edible fruit, shoots, and leaves. It is apopular ornamental tree, sometimes called the Chi-nese ailanthus. The fruits are small and sweet, usu-ally red or reddish bronze in color. The young shootscan be steamed and taste much like spring onions.The leaves can be eaten raw or cooked and are highin Vitamin A.

Vitis spp. (selected species): Grape leaves are mostoften used as a wrapping for meat, rice or fish. As thefood inside them is steamed or baked the leavesbecomes soft and edible. They can also be shreddedand added to soup. Picked when young and tender,they are sometimes preserved in oil until needed.They are also used to make wrappings for cheeses orconfections. Dolmas or stuffed grape leaves are themost common way of using these leaves.

Ziziphus mauritiana: Ziziphus mauritiana leaves aredark green on the upper sides and light silver greenon the undersides. The leaves are at their best whenboth sides are light green, usually in the earlyspring, before the characteristic fuzz forms on theleaves’ undersides. The fruit of this tree is excellent,tasting like small sweet apples when ripe and verymuch like black cherries when dried.

Leaf ProteinThere are comparatively few species of trees withleaves people can digest compared to the vast num-ber of species available as animal food. However,there are many leafy plants which when pressed andprocessed can yield useful food for humanity in theform of leaf protein. Leaf protein is potentially anabundant source of protein for humanity as there areso many sources from which to extract the proteinfrom the leaves. However, there are serious obstaclesin both the production and utilization of this food


210

source. The human digestive system cannot dealwith the sheer bulk necessary for the digestion ofmost leaves and fodder crops, which contain muchfiber and relatively little protein.

In order to overcome this physiological fact, leafycrops such as alfalfa can be pulped and their juiceextracted. This leaves most of the bulk and fiberbehind and the pulp can then be used for animalfeeding. The juice is then heated to coagulate theprotein, which is strained out and the resulting resi-due powdered. Leaf protein concentrate (LPC) is richin amino acids, polyphenols, and vitamins, andshould be a potential “superfood.”

While experiments in leaf protein production havebeen ongoing for the last fifty years, the uses of LPC(leaf protein concentrate) have been few and very lit-tle has been used as food for the hungry people of theworld. There are some very good reasons for this. Ascurrently extracted, LPC has several anti-nutritionalfactors, including high percentages of tannins,phytates, and cyanide. Removing the anti-nutri-tional factors would make leaf protein more expen-sive by the kilo than steak. So despite early promise,the promotion a Nobel Prize winner, and muchresearch, LPC remains only a potential food sourcefor people, rather than an actual one.

The early excitement for LPC is reminiscent of theperceived promise of spirulina, the blue-green algaewhich would supposedly feed the world. The use ofspirulina is limited by the human body’s tolerancefor nucleic acid. In the same manner, the use of LPCis limited by its anti-nutritional factors.

So far LPC has proved most valuable as a supple-ment in animal feeding. LPC is seen as a possiblesubstitute in animal nutrition for crops humansmight consume. However, since most animals can


211

digest leaves, grass, and agricultural waste withoutthe extraction process, the economic reasons fordoing this are at best unclear. Chickens, for instance,gain weight more quickly and are healthier, if theyare fed freshly cut alfalfa, than if they are fed LPCfrom alfalfa plants as a supplement. Undernourishedchildren in Africa gain weight and regain theirhealth much faster if they are given powdered Mor-inga leaves or whole fresh leaves as a food supple-ment than if they are given extracted leaf proteinfrom the tree.

Still the idea remains an interesting one. If edibleleaf protein could be extracted from leafy crops, treeleaves, and the by-products of harvesting, we couldrealize the vegetarian dream and literally live ongrass. A fascinating book written by Nobel prize win-ner N.W. Pirie called Leaf Protein Concentrate andits By Products in Human and Animal Feeding,Cambridge University Press; 2 edition (February 27,1987), outlines the problems and describes the greatpotential and possible uses of LPC.

212

Chapter 14 Trees That Changed the World

The Fever Tree (Cinchona spp.) And MalariaThis tree changed the world by saving millions oflives. Cinchona is also called Cinchona Bark, Jesuit’sBark, Peruvian Bark, Fever Tree Bark, and Quinine.The Fever Tree changed the world by reducing andin some cases eliminating the threat of one ofhumanity’s worst enemies: malaria. Malaria is a dis-ease which had killed hundreds of thousands, fromthe Arctic Circle to the water meadows of Italy aswell as in tropical regions. It was a real danger formost of the world’s population, taking a terrible tollon explorers, colonists, sailors and soldiers as well asindigenous populations.

The Cinchona is a tall striking evergreen tree whichoften reaches 30 meters in height when mature. Theleaves of the cinchona are flat and broad, marked offby large veins and having a shiny dark green surface.Cinchona flowers are white, pink, or red in color.They are also thickly covered all over with silky hairsand emit a sharp odor when crushed.

The name of the tree, “Cinchona,” reportedly comesfrom the name of a Spanish Countess, the Countessof Chinchon, who was treated for a fever using aremedy made from the bark of this tree while inSouth America. When she recovered, the countesssent saplings of the plant to Europe for investigationand planting in gardens of noble friends. She wasconvinced of the plants curative powers and con-vinced others to plant the tree. Because of her enthu-siasm, the plant was named after her, or so the storygoes. Unfortunately, this story is more fable thanfact. The Countess Chinchon was the wife of the

Chapter 14 : Trees That Changed the World

213

Viceroy of Peru. She died suddenly on the way backfrom Peru to Madrid and did not seem to have hadany illness resembling malaria. The Viceroy himselfseems to have had malaria several times but there isno mention of a bark or a cure in his secretary’sdetailed diaries. He even had bouts of the diseasewhen he came back to Spain. Apparently the cura-tive powers of Cinchona bark were initially revealedto Europeans by Jesuit priests who traveled to Peruin the 17th century and learned about Cinchona fromthe native peoples.

Cinchona trees thrive in rain forests at elevationsbetween 3,000 and 11,000 feet in South America.There are at least forty documented Cinchona spe-cies in South American forests. However, not all Cin-chona types are potent enough to cure malaria,though many of the lesser species are used for otherpurposes.

The Jesuits found the native people chewed on thebark of the Cinchona to prevent shaking and chillsfrom working in the harsh wet conditions of the colo-nial mines. The native peoples had traditionally usedthe bark for treating ordinary fevers and chills, boneaches, and sweating, as well as malaria. The firstmention of the tree in literature as a cure for “ague”was written by an Augustinian friar and herbalist,Antonio de la Calancha, in 1638. Another priest, theJesuit Bernabé Cobo, wrote a chapter in his work ofmany volumes, The History of the New World inwhich he describes the tree. The Jesuits first proved,then promoted the remedy and eventually CinchonaBark, renamed Jesuit’s Bark, became a very valuablecommodity, which was literally worth its weight ingold.

Malaria was endemic in Europe and around theglobe, killing and debilitating hundreds of thou-sands. It was thought to be caused by “bad air”


214

hence the name malaria. Malaria is actually causedby the protozoans belonging to the genus Plasmo-dium, which are injected into the human blood byway of the sharp proboscis of a certain type of mos-quito. The parasites attack the red blood cells once inthe bloodstream bringing on the fever and chills ofthis debilitating disease. Cinchona bark, which actedvery quickly, was therefore one of the earliest “mira-cle cures” obtained from the wild. However, themajority of European physicians still refused to usethe new medicine on their patients as the remedywas offered by Jesuit priests who were regarded withgreat suspicion in Protestant Europe. In many coun-tries with Protestant kings or queens, the entry of“Jesuit’s bark,” or “Jesuit powder,” was forbidden.This led to an intolerable situation in which the Cin-chona bark was banned in many countries in whichmalaria was causing great suffering among the popu-lation.

Jesuit bark soon became a much desired item amongthe smugglers of all nations. As it became obviousthe curative power of the bark was real, necessityfinally prevailed over prejudice. The medical commu-nity in all of Europe finally became alert to themiraculous power and curative compound found inthe bark of a dozen Cinchona species, known then as“Fever Trees.” The name was appropriate as theCinchona bark in powdered form not only curedmalaria but also reduced elevated temperatures dur-ing fevers of all kinds. The powdered bark of the Cin-chona was soon being used as a primary treatmentfor malaria in other parts of the world as well.

The compound called “quinine,” found in the bark ofthe Cinchona, is the active ingredient in the fightagainst malaria. This chemical compound’s responsi-bility for the cure is something which was discoveredin the year 1820 CE by two French scientists, Pierre


215

Joseph Pelletier and Jean Bienaime Caventou. Thesescientists identified the curative substance in theCinchona bark as quinine. The compound called qui-nine is an alkaloid; it was named by these scientistsafter the indigenous word “quina,” which is thenative Indian word for bark.

Further chemical analysis of the Cinchona bark hasrevealed the presence of many other alkaloids. Oneof the compounds among these alkaloids is the sub-stance called quinidine - mainly employed today inthe treatment of abnormal rhythms of the heart, aswell as in relieving muscular cramps, and as a rem-edy to treat severe headaches.

The demand for Cinchona during the 19th century inEurope and across the world increased to such anextent viable populations of the trees in South Amer-ica were almost exhausted and the plant was threat-ened with extinction. European colonists made aseries of attempts to cultivate different Cinchonaspecies in their colonies in tropical regions of theworld. Seeds and saplings of Cinchona trees weresmuggled and even stolen in these efforts. In theend, the most successful Cinchona farmers were theDutch colonists on the Indonesian island of Java,which turned out to have almost optimal conditionsfor growth of Cinchona trees. Currently the world’sCinchona supply mainly comes from central Africaand Indonesia, in addition to South America, itsplace of origin. Since the Cinchona is indigenous tothe mountainous tropical regions of the South Amer-ican continent, particularly the tropical area of Peru,it can also found in other countries in tropical SouthAmerica.

Cultivation of the Cinchona tree is still big business,and Cinchona plantations can be found in Asiancountries such as India as well as Indonesia. Cin-chona is also cultivated in many parts of Africa. In


216

these areas, the cultivation of the Cinchona is inten-sive and carried out on large commercial tree farms.Propagation of the Cinchona trees is done vegeta-tively from cuttings taken from the best trees late inthe spring season to insure the quality of the bark.Harvesting the product requires the removal oftrunk bark and bark from the branches and the root.The bark is only removed from six to eight year oldtrees. The collected bark is then dried in the sun.Annually, 10,000 tons of the bark is harvested fromsuch farms.

Natural stands of Cinchona species have revived inmany areas of the South American continent, a pro-cess which began when synthetic quinine wasinvented and the demand for bark decreased.

Quinine was synthesized because demand out-stripped supply, especially when large numbers ofnon-native people were working or fighting in tropi-cal areas, such as during the building of the PanamaCanal and during the jungle fighting of WWII. Indo-nesia was in the hands of the Japanese and SouthAmerica could not produce enough quinine for theAllied troops. It was simply necessary to get quininefrom other sources and, as so often happens in war-time, resources were found to solve the problem.American chemists succeeded in synthesizing qui-nine in the year 1944.

Following the success of synthetic quinine, differentquinine based medications like Chloroquine and Pri-maquine were subsequently used in treatingmalaria. These synthesized compounds were thoughtto be safer and more potent than the naturalextracts of the bark. Eventually the malarial parasitebegan to develop resistance to the synthetic medica-tion Chloroquine. This situation brought naturalquinine out onto the shelves again for use in treatingmalaria. The effectiveness of Cinchona bark and qui-


217

nine itself in the treatment of malaria has been ques-tioned by recent evidence which shows the existenceof certain sub-species of the malaria causing para-sites are resistant to quinine. The discovery of theseresistant variants of the parasite has sparked muchdebate about the real effectiveness of the whole plantover the synthetic varieties. This controversy did notlessen when the synthetic types began to losepotency against malaria, but became somewhat mootas new Artemisia based antimalarials became thetreatment of choice.

Still, it is not time for quinine to retire. It has beenused for fevers of all kinds and as a treatment forarthritis. It affects certain cancers. It is also a goodinfluence on digestive problems and problems withheart arrhythmia.

Cinchona contains alkaloids (up to 15%), mainly qui-noline alkaloids (quinine, quinidine), and also indolealkaloids (cinchonamine), tannins, bitter triterpenicglycosides (quinovin), quinic acid.

Of Oaks and HumansAn oak is a tree or shrub in the genus Quercus ofwhich about 600 species exist on earth. The genus isnative to the northern hemisphere, and includesdeciduous and evergreen species. Oaks have greatadaptability and versatility. Oaks are found in rela-tively warm and dry regions such as the coastal plansof California, in classic Mediterranean areas such asGreece, the Iberian Peninsula, and Italy, and inmuch of North American and Asia.

Oak trees have spirally arranged leaves, with a lobedmargin in many species. Some have serrated leavesor whole leaves with a smooth margin. The flowersare catkins, produced by the tree in the spring. Thefruit is a nut called an acorn, borne in a cup-like


218

structure known as a cupule. Each acorn containsone seed and takes 6 to 18 months to mature,depending on species. The “live” oaks are distin-guished for being evergreen, but are not actually adistinct group and instead are dispersed across thegenus and the landscape.

Foliage and acorns in the autumn©iStockphoto.com/Hans Laubel

Oaks were probably the first “bread” known tohumanity, as areas where no grain was grown inancient times are well stocked with ancient grindingstones, mortars, and pestles. Early human settle-ment often seemed to follow the oak forests as they


219

ebbed and flowed across the planet during warmperiods and icy ones.

The first digging sticks and plows were probablymade from oak as well as many of the first handlesfor tools and hafts for weapons. Later in history thestrength and elasticity of the Oak made it particu-larly valuable for house building and shipbuilding.

The phrase “Hearts of Oak,” refers to the statelyEnglish manor houses, for the Englishman literallymade his home from Oak. Many of the surviving oldmanor houses were constructed using huge oakenbeams. Their walls were decorated with ornate,beautifully carved, oaken panels. Large solid Oakdoors, sometimes bound with iron, secured the housefrom intruders and unwanted visitors.

The “Wooden Walls of England” is another oldphrase associated with the Oak which refers to fortsand castles constructed from Oak built around thecoast to defend England from invasion, as well as thewooden sailing ships of England’s Navy, the “shipsmade of oak,” used in England’s defense against theSpanish Armada. It is estimated it took a thousandmature oaks to build each ship. The Oaks of the For-est of Dean provided much of the material used forthis, and Philip of Spain is said to have declared: “allthe Oaks of the forest must be destroyed if victory isto be achieved.” This he failed to do, but some twocenturies later, so many of the Oaks had been felledand dispatched to naval dockyards for use in shipsbuilding, Lord Admiral Nelson drew up a specialpetition to the Crown advising the need to replant allthe forests with Oaks.

Oak was also used in the construction of churchesand cathedrals. The roof beams of WestminsterAbbey are made from huge finely hewn trunks ofSessile Oak. In some areas, it was customary to plant


220

a grove of Oak trees outside a new church or cathe-dral, so when a new roof was needed in a hundredyears or so, the material would be well grown andclose at hand.

In Sweden and Norway, Oak trees were not used bythe common people. They were considered the prop-erty of the crown. Especially straight trees weremarked and visited by royal foresters who woulddirect the royal woodcutters to trees marked forshipbuilding, especially tall, straight trees suitablefor being made into masts.

As well as its strength for building purposes, the Oakis much prized for the beauty of its grain and tex-ture, and the richness of its coloring after polishing.As such it has always been a favorite wood of carpen-ters and cabinetmakers for use in paneling, doors,and furniture. Beautiful cupboards, chests, tables,and chairs were made of Oak. Due to the wood’sdurability many of these have survived downthrough the centuries. Initially pale brown or goldenin color, Oak wood darkens with age and its grainbecomes more distinct.

Other uses of Oak were the fighting clubs of ancientman, the hammers, spears, and long boats of theVikings, and the hafts of daggers and knives madefrom its roots, a practice which was supposed to givea warrior great strength in battle. Barrels and caskswere also made from Oak and used to store liqueur,wines, and spirits, as oak wood is impervious to theeffects of alcohol and will not split or become soft.Coffins were made of Oak by using large sections ofthe trunk of the trees. These sections were splitlengthwise and hollowed out to contain the body, butthis was only done for state funerals or people ofgreat stature and importance. The shrine of Edwardthe Confessor in Westminster Abbey is of marble,


221

but his coffin, made in the year 1510 CE, is of Oak,which has outlasted the changes of some 700 years.

It is for reasons such as these the Oak is called the“frame of civilization.”

Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead—the incense treesFrankincense, also called olibanum (Arabic: lubban,Hebrew: levonah), is an aromatic resin obtainedfrom trees of the genus Boswellia. Frankincense istapped from the desert-adapted, hardy Boswelliatree which grows in rocky and arid lands around theRed Sea and the Arabia Sea. There are numerousspecies and varieties of frankincense trees, each pro-ducing a slightly different type and color of resin.Differences in soil and climate and available watercreate even more diversity of the resin, even withinthe same species. These trees are found on the Hornof Africa, on the coasts of Yemen, and the Arab Emir-ates. Some survive not by the sparse rainfall of thesedesolate regions, but by the fog which condenses onthe complex and crinkly leaves and runs down theirtrunks to water the earth about them.

There are four main species of Boswellia which pro-duce true frankincense, particularly Boswellia sacra(syn. B. carteri, B. thurifera), Boswellia frereana,Boswellia serrata and Boswellia papyrifera.

The Frankincense resin is used in incense, as well asin perfumes. Each type of Frankincense resin isavailable in various grades. The grades depend onthe time of harvesting. The resin is hand-sorted forquality. The sap is collected by incising the bark andallowing the exuded resins to ooze out and harden onthe trunk of the tree. These hardened resins arecalled tears. Frankincense trees grow in environ-ments so unforgiving they sometimes grow directly


222

out of cliffs and rock faces. The means of initialattachment to the stone is thought to be the sticki-ness of seeds of the Buseraceae family but this isaccompanied by a burl-like twisting and bulbousdisk-like swelling of the trunk which clings suctioncup-like to the face of the rocks. This odd growth atthe base of the tree prevents it from being torn awayfrom the rock during the violent sandstorms whichfrequent the regions where the trees grow. This fea-ture is slight, but present, in trees grown in rockysoil or gravel and can be seen by examining thetrunk just above ground level. The tears from thehardy rock-grown survivors are considered superiordue to their stronger and sweeter fragrance.

Frankincense tree in the mountains of Oman©iStockphoto.com/Maros Markovic

The trees start producing harvestable quantities ofresin when they are about 10 years old but even aleaf removed from a young tree will yield a drop ofmilky sap at the leaf base. The raw sap smells pleas-


223

antly of flowers, but its true fragrance is not revealeduntil the dried sap is burned. Tapping is done 2 to 3times a year with the final taps producing the besttears due to their higher aromatic terpene, sesquiter-pene and diterpene content. The thicker cloudierresins are considered the best in quality. Dhofarifrankincense (from Boswellia sacra) is said to be thebest in the world from a medicinal point of view(frankincense is a powerful anti-inflammatory),although fine resin for incense is produced moreextensively in Yemen and along the northern coast ofSomalia.

Recent studies have indicated frankincense tree pop-ulations are declining due to unwise and exploitativetapping rates. Trees weakened by tapping are morelikely to be damaged by storms and less resistant todrought. Heavily tapped trees have been found toproduce seeds with very low germination rates whileseeds of trees which have not been tapped germinateat much higher rates.

Frankincense has been traded on the Arabian Penin-sula, in the Middle East, and in North Africa formore than 5,000 years. A mural depicting sacks offrankincense traded from the Land of Punt andworkers gathering sap from frankincense treesadorns the walls of the temple of ancient EgyptianQueen Hatshepsut, who died in 1458 BCE. Themural is clear enough to identify the species of frank-incense trees depicted, a plant which is now calledBoswellia papyrifera.

Frankincense was reintroduced to Europe by theFrench Crusaders. Although it is known as “frankin-cense” in most of Europe, the resin is also known asolibanum, which is derived from the Arabic al-luban(roughly translated: “that which results from milk-ing”), a reference to the milky sap tapped from theBoswellia tree. Some have also postulated the name


224

comes from the Arabic term for “Oil of Lebanon”since Lebanon was the place where the resin wassold and traded with Europeans.

Much earlier this resin was mentioned in the Biblein Exodus 30:34, as levonah, meaning “white.”

The Greek historian Herodotus was familiar withFrankincense and knew it was harvested from treesin southern Arabia. The resin is also mentioned byTheophrastus and by Pliny the Elder in his Natu-ralis Historia and by several of the ancient Greekphysicians, who considered it something of a cure-alland included it in many medicines.

Currently the properties of Frankincense are beingtested against inflammatory disease of all kinds,sports injuries, and inflammation of the skin andcancer.

Myrrh (from Morr or “bitter” in Hebrew and Murrin Arabic) is the modern name for a fragrant sap, areddish-brown resinous material, which is the driedsap of a number of different trees, but primarilyfrom Commiphora myrrha, a tree which is native toYemen, Somalia, and the eastern parts of Ethiopia.The sap of a number of other Commiphora species isalso known as “myrrh,” adding to the confusion andmystery which surrounds this substance.

Good quality myrrh can be identified through thecolor and clarity of the resin. The best method ofjudging the resin’s quality is by judging the sticki-ness of freshly broken fragments and the scent todetermine the fragrant-oil content of the myrrhresin. The scent of raw myrrh resin and its essentialoil is sharp, pleasant, somewhat bitter, and can beroughly described as being resinous. When burned, itproduces a smoke which is heavy, bitter, and manywith a layered scent, which may be accented with aslight floral sweetness. Unlike most other resins,


225

myrrh expands and “blooms” when burned insteadof melting or liquefying into oil.

The powerful smell of myrrh can also be used in mix-tures of incense, to provide an anchoring element tothe overall scent. It has been used as an additive towine, both for taste and for medicinal purposes. It isconsidered an effective topical ointment for skineruptions and diseases. It is also used in various per-fumes, toothpastes, lotions, and other modern toilet-ries.

Myrrh was used for embalming in ancient times, as apenitential incense at funerals and cremations, andas a sacrificial material. The holy oil traditionallyused by the Orthodox Church in the Middle East forperforming sacraments of chrismation and unction istraditionally scented with myrrh, and receivingeither of these sacraments is commonly referred toas “receiving the Myrrh.”

The Ancient Egyptians imported large amounts ofmyrrh as far back as 3000 BCE. They used it toembalm the dead, as an antiseptic, and burned it forreligious sacrifice. Myrrh has been traded through-out the Middle East at least since 1500 BCE. The ori-gins of myrrh are traced to the Arabian Peninsulaand the legendary kingdom of Sheba. The collectionof the gum resins for export was initiated in Sheba.According to Herodotus (5th century BCE), “Arabiais the only country which produces myrrh, frankin-cense, cassia, and cinnamon.” Diodorus Siculuswrites, in the second half of the first century BC, “allof Arabia exudes a most delicate fragrance; even theseamen passing by Arabia can smell the strong fra-grance which gives health and vigor.” Other com-ments include those about the fragrance the“dhows” loaded with frankincense and myrrh leftbehind them as they sailed. These comments wereexaggerations, of course, as the resin being shipped


226

was well packed to save it from sea spray and there-fore scentless. Cinnamon and cassia probably camefrom India at that time and were only exportedthrough the legendary kingdom, which was too aridfor either tree to thrive. The myrrh and frankincensetrade route reached Jerusalem and Egypt from whatis today Oman (known in the past as the Dhofarregion), and from Yemen, following the Red Sea coastof Arabia and may have gone as far as Timbuktu tothe west and China to the east. The three Wise Men(Magi) carrying and delivering the myrrh, gold, andfrankincense, for the baby Jesus came from the Ara-bian peninsula, perhaps from the legendary kingdomitself or one of its lost colonies on the Horn of Africa.

Myrrh Trees©iStockphoto.com/Vladimir Melnik

In ancient history myrrh was used as a constituentof perfumes and incense, as medicine, and was worthmore than its weight in gold. The Greek word formyrrh, μύρον, came to be synonymous with the wordfor “perfume.” Today myrrh is also valued for its


227

antimicrobial properties especially in the context ofskin diseases.

In Ancient Rome myrrh was priced at five times asmuch as frankincense, though the latter was more inuse. Myrrh was burned in ancient Roman funerals tomask the smell emanating from burning bodies. Itwas said the Roman Emperor Nero burned a wholeyear’s harvest of myrrh at the funeral of his wifePoppaea. Pliny the Elder refers to myrrh as beingone of the ingredients of perfumes, and specificallythe “Royal Perfume” of the Parthians. He also saysmyrrh was used to fumigate wine jars before bottlingand sometimes added to wine. Archeologists havefound at least two ostraca from Malkata (from NewKingdom Egypt, ca. 1390 to 1350 BCE) which werelined with a shiny black or dark brown deposit analy-sis showed to be chemically closest to myrrh. TheRomans were known to use myrrh as a premier addi-tive to wine which promoted good digestion. Theyalso used myrrh to cure mouth ulcers and pack badteeth.

Balm of Gilead seems to have been a special speciesof myrrh. It may have been called “afarsemon” bythe Hebrews or by the more common biblical name“tzori Giladi.” The Gilead region is an area currentlyshared between Israel and Jordan. The tree no lon-ger survives in this area, which is much drier nowthan it was in Biblical times. Considered a medicineof last resort and given in a cup of wine to the veryill, this type of myrrh was worth one hundred timesas much as frankincense. The tree was cultivated inonly three places in the ancient world, one of them atEin Gedi where the floor of an ancient synagoguewarns, “Cursed be he who reveals the secret of ourcommunity.” The floor of the Ein Gedi synagogue ison display at the Rockefeller museum in Jerusalemwhere the inscription in Aramaic is clearly visible.


228

The production of resin, the distilling of perfumesand medicines, and the propagation and cultivationof the trees was a set of important trade secretswhich protected the Jewish inhabitants of Ein Gedifor centuries from successive waves of conquerorsand invaders after failure of the revolt against Romein 70 CE. The fortunate inhabitants of the three cen-ters of Balm of Gilead cultivation were neither killednor taken into slavery as they were needed to tendthe trees and keep up the production of the valuableproducts.

The Romans and the Sabeans fought a war over whowould control the trade in the resin from the abovementioned trees. The Sabeans lost and the Kingdomof Sheba with its many African colonies and greatnetworks of dams and canals was deprived of vitalrevenue and went into decline.

Frankincense, Myrrh, and Balm of Gilead are allbeing tested for their medicinal properties in moderntimes as they have proved to be anti-inflammatoriesand germicides and to have anti-cancer properties inaddition to their other qualities. They may becomevery important to modern medicine in the nearfuture. However, in the ancient world these treeswere important enough to set off trade wars, initiateconquests and save defeated and despised peoplefrom the worst intentions of their conquerors.

Coffee, Tea and Cocoa: the Engines of Trade These trees produce products so sought after theysparked exploration, caused plantations to be devel-oped in the far corners of the earth, and lead to popu-lations being uprooted and moved to tend to them.

CoffeeSeveral species of shrub of the genus Coffea producethe berries from which coffee is extracted. The two


229

main species commercially cultivated are Coffeacanephora (predominantly a form known as‘robusta’) and Coffea arabica. C. arabica, the mosthighly regarded species, is native to the southwest-ern highlands of Ethiopia and plateaus in southeast-ern Sudan and possibly one mountainous area innorthern Kenya. C. canephora is native to westernand central sub-Saharan Africa. Less common spe-cies are Coffea liberica, C. excelsa, C. stenophylla, C.mauritiana, and C. racemosa. They are used locallyand sometimes in the breeding process for new coffeevarieties.

Coffee tree with ripe and green beans©iStockphoto.com/Ericka Norman

All coffee plants are classified in the large familyRubiaceae. They are evergreen shrubs or small treeswhich may grow 5 m (15 ft) tall when left to obtaintheir natural height and shape. The leaves are darkgreen and glossy, usually 10 to 15 cm (4 to 6 in) long


230

and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide. The flowers are axillary, andclusters of fragrant white flowers bloom simultane-ously and are followed by oval berries of about 1.5cm (0.6 in). The berries are green when immature,but ripen to yellow, then crimson, before turningblack on drying. Each berry usually contains twoseeds, but 5 to 10% of the berries have only one.These are called peaberries. Berries ripen in seven tonine months.

Coffea arabica is predominantly self-pollinating, andas a result the seedlings are generally uniform andvary little from their parents. In contrast, Coffeacanephora, C. excelsa and C. liberica are self-sterileand require outcrossing. This means useful formsand hybrids must be propagated vegetatively toinsure quality and uniformity of harvest. The root-ing of cuttings into cloned trees, grafting valuablescions on less valuable rootstocks, and budding onstrong seedling trees are the usual methods of vege-tative propagation. These methods can be problem-atic and increase the cost of coffee cultivation. Onthe other hand, in the need for in-species diversitythere is great scope for experimentation in search ofpotential new varieties. This genetic richness under-pins the ability to breed coffee trees to meet the chal-lenges of the day.

Some types of coffee are propagated by seeds. Thetraditional method of planting coffee is to put manyseeds in each hole at the beginning of the rainy sea-son. Half are eliminated naturally, then to select thestrongest from those which sprout. With coffee typeswhich require vegetative propagation the trees arepropagated in nurseries where the scions of thedesired coffee types are carefully grafted or buddedon strong, well adapted rootstocks. A more effectivemethod of growing coffee, used in Brazil, is to raiseseedlings in nurseries for up to two years then plant


231

out trees which are large enough and strong enoughto survive. Coffee is often intercropped with foodcrops, such as corn, beans, or rice during the firstfew years of cultivation or planted with arborealcompanions called “nurse trees” which shade andprotect the young plants.

Coffee is a brewed drink prepared from roasted seedsof the coffee plant, commonly called coffee beans orcoffee berries. Once ripe, coffee berries are picked,sorted, and dried. The seeds are then roasted to vary-ing degrees, depending on the desired flavor. Theyare then ground and brewed to create coffee. Coffeecan be prepared and presented in a variety of wayswith various types of perking and filtering, and vari-ous additions of everything from sugar, to spices, tochicory, and milk.

The energizing effect of the coffee bean plant isthought to have been discovered in Yemen in Arabiaand in the northeast region of Ethiopia. The cultiva-tion of coffee first expanded in the Arab world, start-ing apparently in the more temperate areas ofYemen. Early coffee cultivation was also practiced inthe hills of Ethiopia. By the late fifteenth century,coffee drinking was widespread in the Muslim world.From the Muslim world, coffee spread to Italy, Spain,then to the rest of Europe, to Indonesia, Asia, and tothe Americas. Coffee has played an important role inthe development of trade worldwide. In Africa andYemen, it is used in religious ceremonies. It wasbanned in Ottoman Turkey during the 17th centuryfor political reasons, and was associated with rebel-lious political and intellectual activities in Europe.

An important export commodity, coffee was the topagricultural export for twelve countries in 2004 CEand it was the world’s seventh-largest legal agricul-tural export by value in 2005 CE. Some controversyis associated with coffee cultivation and its impact on


232

the environment as it requires very specific condi-tions and is usually grown in orchards formats whichare not always ecologically friendly. Coffee plantstend to be vulnerable to a wide variety of insect pestsand crop protective sprays have limited power to pro-tect them. Coffee leaf rust is the main coffee disease,sparking the development of Coffea robusta from C.canephora and the other coffee types simply becauseit was less vulnerable to the rust, the many other cof-fee pests, and grows at a lower altitude, thereforeextending the range in which coffee can be profitablygrown. Currently Coffea robusta accounts for abouttwenty five percent of coffee cultivation but Coffeaarabica remains the favorite.

There is also discussion as to whether the generalinfluence on people’s health is negative or positivewith a good deal of evidence to the yea and the nay.Due to its caffeine content, coffee can have a stimu-lating effect. It also seems to be good for cardiachealth and can be an effective laxative.

What is a fact is coffee is one of the most valuableagricultural products in the world. Coffee beans aregrown on trees in over seventy countries. Greenunroasted coffee is one of the most traded agricul-tural commodities in the world. Today, coffee is oneof the most popular beverages worldwide

TeaTea is the second engine of commerce with wholefleets from Europe dispatched to the East to acquiretea. Fortunes were made and lost depending on thequality and quantity of the tea they brought back.

Camellia sinensis is the species of plant whose leavesand leaf buds are used to produce tea. It is of thegenus Camellia, a genus of flowering plants in thefamily Theaceae. White tea, green tea, oolong,smoked tea, and black tea are all harvested from this


233

species, but are picked, processed and cured differ-ently to attain different levels of oxidation. There aretwo major varieties which characterize this species,the small-leaved Chinese variety plant (C. sinensissinensis) and the large-leaved Assamese plant (C.sinensis assamica).

Still picked by hand, fresh leaves contain 4% caf-feine. The young, light green leaves are the ones har-vested for tea production. They are shiny and slickon the top side of the leaf with short white fuzz onthe underside. Older leaves are deeper green andhave a much higher tannin content. Different ages ofleaves produce different qualities of tea, since theirchemical compositions change as the leaves mature.The tip and the first two to three leaves are har-vested and then dried and processed. Tea can bepicked every two weeks in tropical areas and is alabor intensive crop with very little successful mech-anization.

Camellia sinensis is mostly cultivated in tropical andsub-tropical climates, in areas with at approx. 130cm of rainfall a year as tea plants prefer moist, richsoil. Many high quality teas are grown at high eleva-tions, up to 1500 meters as the plants grow moreslowly and acquire a better, deeper, but less bitterflavor. Tea plants will grow into a medium sized treeif left undisturbed, but plantation plants are prunedto waist height for easy harvesting.

Tea drinking originated in China and the word tea isderived from “t’e” of a Chinese dialect. Legend hasit, tea was discovered by the second emperor ofChina when leaves blew into his morning cup of hotwater. This supposedly occurred in 2727 BCE. Herecommended it to his court and military saying thedrink was invigorating and cleared the head. Thefirst authenticated reference to tea was made in anancient Chinese dictionary revised by Kuo P’o, a cel-


234

ebrated Chinese scholar in 350 CE. This work refersto tea as “Erh Ya.” At that time, a medicinal decoc-tion was made by boiling tea leaves. The use of tea asa beverage became more common towards the closeof the sixth century. During the next centuries, teagained enormous popularity. The first exclusive bookon tea, Ch’a Ching meaning “Tea classic” by the Chi-nese tea expert, Lu Yu, was published in 780 CE. Inthe book Lu Yu described various kinds of tea, thecultivation of tea trees, and curing and storing of tealeaves in China.

Tea drinking next spread to Japan with Buddhistmonks who came to China to study, becameacquainted with the tea plants, and took seeds andsaplings back to Japan with them in 593 CE. In 648CE, a Japanese monk named Gyoki, planted the firsttea bushes in 49 Buddhist temple gardens. Tea inJapan was rare and expensive, enjoyed mostly byhigh priests and the aristocracy.

Apart from Japan, tea drinking did not spread toother parts of the world until about the middle of theseventeenth century. The Dutch introduced it toEurope. In Cantonese, tea is known as “Ch’a” andthis is the name by which tea came to be known inIndia, Russia, Iran, and the Middle East. The open-ing of a sea route to India and the East by the Portu-guese in 1497 CE allowed for large-scale tradingbetween Europe and the Oriental countries. OtherEuropean nations soon followed the Portuguese inestablishing trade centers in different countries ofthe East. The Dutch in Java established one suchtrade depot. They bought tea from Japan, packed itin Java in waterproof barrels, and the first consign-ment of tea was transshipped from Java to Europe in1610 CE. This marked the beginning of theextremely lucrative tea trade between Europe andthe East. The Dutch dominated the tea trade for


235

more than a century before finally yielding to theBritish. China was the sole supplier of commercialquantities tea to Europe till the middle of the nine-teenth century. This was accomplished almost exclu-sively by ship, though some supplies still trickledwestward over the land routes of trade through Mon-golia and Turkey.

Tea-drinking gained popularity among the affluentsections in Europe within fifty years of its first intro-duction into the continent. It was, however,extremely expensive and the tea preparation equip-ment of the day reflect its dearness in the form oflocked caddies, tea chests which look like safe depositboxes, and strainers designed to squeeze the lastdrops of liquid out of the precious leaves. In aboutanother 100 years it became a beverage of dailyenjoyments in a large part of Europe and Britain.Tea also became popular in America, which was thena British colony, and was also introduced to Canada.By 1670 CE the Massachusetts colony was drinkingblack tea. So popular did the drink become, a tax ontea in the colonies was the spark which set off theAmerican Revolution in 1776 CE.

The discovery of the Assam tea plant broke the Chi-nese monopoly on cultivated forms of tea. It is attrib-uted to Robert Bruce who is supposed to have seenthe plant growing wild in some hills near Rangpur(near present Sibsagar), then the capital of Assam,during his visit in 1823 CE on a trading mission. Hedied before he could follow up on his plans to investi-gate and develop the plant. Instead, his brother metand came to an agreement with the local chief whosupplied him some tea plants and seeds.

In 1834 CE, the then Governor General of India,Lord William Bentinck, appointed a Tea Committeeto advise on feasibility of commercial tea cultivationin India. The committee issued a circular asking for


236

information on areas suitable for tea cultivation andsent its secretary to procure tea seeds, plants, andworkers from China. The Commissioner of Assamhowever made a strong case in favor of tea cultiva-tion in Assam where tea plants were growing wild inthe forest. He also collected complete specimens ofthe local plants and forwarded them to the Govern-ment Botanical Gardens in Calcutta. When the spec-imens were positively identified as tea plants, theTea Committee recommended the indigenous plantshould be cultivated for commercial purposes, if pos-sible, instead of the Chinese plants.

Tea plantation in Sri Lanka©iStockphoto.com/Erkki Tamsalu

This was a very important development because notonly did it establish the worth of the Assam tea plantbut determined the future course of tea cultivationthroughout the world. Soon Assam type plants werebeing grown in many places in India, Thailand andSri Lanka. Today, more tea is made from the Assamtype of plants than from the China type and tea in its


237

many forms has become the most widely quaffedbeverage on the planet.

Cocoa, the Drink of the GodsThe source of chocolate in all its forms, the Cocoatree, has delighted millions around the world by pro-ducing the basic material of many confections, cakes,and beverages. It was also a sought after trade itemlike coffee and tea which initially cost so much onlyroyalty could partake of it.

The Cocoa tree (Theobroma Cacao) grows in thewarm and humid equatorial belt very close to theequator. Although the origins of the tree are dis-puted, it can be traced to the tropical regions of Ven-ezuela, Honduras, and Mexico. There is a good dealof proof which points to the ultimate origin of cocoaand chocolate in the Ulúa valley in Honduras. Todaycocoa is cultivated globally, albeit in a narrow beltaround the equator, in carefully grown plantations inthe tropical rainforests of Africa, Asia, and LatinAmerica.

The perfect environment for the cocoa tree is themoist tropical heat of the equatorial forests and theirshaded, well-watered soils. Young cocoa trees onlythrive in tropical temperatures within the protectiveshadow of tall plants like bananas or palm treeswhich shelter them from the sun and wind. Directsunlight and dryness are enemies of the delicateyoung trees.

The trees begin to bear in the fifth year of life andwill continue for another twenty years to bloom andproduce the pods of cocoa. The cocoa tree flowers intwo cycles of 6 months, in other words twice a year.Thousands of white (female) and pink (male) tinyflowers with five petals adorn the stem and branchesof the cocoa tree. Only a few hundred will be fertil-


238

ized and no more than forty per tree will develop intococoa pods. Cocoa pods resemble long green melons.

After 6 months the cocoa pods are full-grown andhave changed color from green to yellow-orange. Thepods are carefully harvested by the plantation work-ers. The cocoa pods ripen for a few days after theharvest. The outer peel is opened using long kniveswith care taken not to damage the beans. There aretwo harvests per year. The beans are then dried,aged, sorted, graded, and shipped to where they willbe processed.

Cocoa tree with fruits©iStockphoto.com/Kseniya Ragozina


239

Cocoa Tree VarietiesThere are three different varieties of cocoa tree. Thedescendants in the plantations today are usually ofthese varieties or cultivated hybrids of these variet-ies, each with their own particular characteristics:

Criollo is known as the best of the cocoa trees. Thetree produces pods with a very thin peel. The cocoaitself has a very pale color and a strong but refinedaroma. This variety produces small harvests and isalso sensitive to the weather.

Forastero is a stronger type of tree which is easier tocultivate and produces larger yields. The cocoa podshave a thicker peel and a coarser, stronger aroma aswell as a rich dark color. Cocoa from the Forasterobeans is often called bulk cocoa because it gives choc-olate a typical recognizable basic aroma. This cocoaforms the basic ingredient in most chocolates andcan often account for 80% of the cocoa mixture.

Trinitario is a cross of both types of trees and hascharacteristics of both of the parent plants. It has astrong but relatively refined aroma, and moreover, isvery easy to cultivate.

A Very Condensed Commercial History of ChocolateCocoa began as the base of a bitter drink, the treefirst cultivated by Olmec Native Americans in 1500BCE. Around 400 BCE the Mayan Native Americansbegin to cultivate the tree. From 250 to 900 CE theconsumption of cocoa beans was restricted to theMayan society’s elite, in the form of an unsweetenedcocoa drink made from the ground beans. Aroundapproximately 600 CE, the Mayans migrated intonorthern regions of South America establishing theearliest known cocoa plantations in the Yucatan, aswell as introducing many of their other domesticatedcrops. In the 14th Century the drink became popularamong the Aztec upper classes who adopted the


240

cocoa beverage from the Mayans and took cocoabeans as tribute. The Aztecs called it “xocalatl”meaning warm or bitter liquid.

In 1502 CE, Columbus encountered a great Mayantrading canoe carrying cocoa beans as cargo. He waspuzzled as to the reason for the beans value. In 1519CE, Spanish explorer Hernando Cortez recorded thecocoa usage in the court of Emperor Montezuma anddeclared the drink was wholesome and pleasingunlike many other Aztec foods which he said weredevilish. In 1544 CE, Dominican friars took a delega-tion of Mayans to visit Prince Philip of Spain. TheMayans brought gift jars of beaten cocoa, mixed andready to drink. Spain and Portugal established amonopoly on cocoa beans and did not export thebeloved drink to the rest of Europe for a hundredyears. It was during the 16th Century the Spanishbegan to add cane sugar and flavorings such asvanilla to sweeten cocoa beverages. In 1585 CE, thefirst official shipments of cocoa beans began arrivingin Seville from Vera Cruz, Mexico.

In 1657 CE, the first chocolate house was opened inLondon by a Frenchman. The shop was called “TheCoffee Mill and Tobacco Roll.” Expensive at 15 shil-lings per pound, chocolate was considered a beveragefor the moneyed classes. In 1674 CE, eating solidchocolate was introduced in the form of chocolaterolls and cakes, served in special shops and chocolateemporiums.

In 1730 CE, cocoa beans had dropped in price from$3 per pound and became more generally available.In 1732 CE, French inventor, Monsieur Dubuisson,invented a table mill for grinding cocoa beans whichmade a very fine powder suitable for baking andbrewing. In 1753 CE, Swedish naturalist, CarolusLinnaeus, a great fan of hot chocolate, was dissatis-fied with the word “cocoa,” so he renamed it “Theo-


241

broma,” which is from the Greek for “food of thegods.” In 1765 CE, chocolate was introduced to theUnited States when Irish chocolate-maker JohnHanan imported cocoa beans from the West Indiesinto Dorchester, Massachusetts, to refine them withthe help of American Dr. James Baker. The pair soonafter built America’s first chocolate mill and by 1780CE, the mill was making the famous BAKER’S®

chocolate sold in large slabs for baking, and makingcandy, and beverages. In 1795 CE, Dr. Joseph Fry ofBristol, England, employed a steam engine for grind-ing cocoa beans, an invention which led to the manu-facture of chocolate on a large scale.

In 1828 CE, the invention of the cocoa press, by Con-rad Van Houten, helped reduce the price andimprove the quality of chocolate by squeezing outsome of the cocoa butter and giving the beverage asmoother consistency. Conrad Van Houten patentedhis invention in Amsterdam and his process becameknown as “Dutching.” The process allowed the cocoato mix better with water. In 1830 CE, a form of solideating chocolate was developed by Joseph Fry &Sons, a British chocolate maker. In 1847 CE, JosephFry & Son discovered a way to mix some of the cocoabutter back into the “Dutched” chocolate, and addedsugar, creating a paste which could be molded andwould set when cooled. This was the first modernchocolate bar. In 1868 CE, John Cadbury marketedthe first boxes of chocolate candies. In 1876 CE, Dan-iel Peter of Vevey, Switzerland, experimented foryears before finally inventing a way of making themilder and sweeter “milk chocolate.” Daniel Peterand Henri Nestlé soon combined forces to form theNestlé Company. In 1879 CE, Rodolphe Lindt ofBerne, Switzerland, produced a smooth and creamychocolate which melted on the tongue. He inventedthe “conching” machine. This machine heated androlled chocolate in order to refine it. After chocolate


242

had been conched for seventy-two hours and hadcocoa butter added to it, it was then possible to cre-ate chocolate “fondant” and other creamy forms ofchocolate.

The first known published recipe for chocolatebrownies appeared in the Sears and Roebuck Cata-logue in 1910. Soon after, a Canadian by the name ofArthur Ganong marketed the first nickel chocolatebar. William Cadbury urged several English andAmerican companies to join him in refusing to buycocoa beans from plantations with poor labor condi-tions, marketing an early form of “fair trade” choco-late. In 1913 CE Swiss confectionist Jules Sechaud ofMontreux introduced a machine process for manu-facturing filled chocolates. In 1926 CE, Belgian choc-olatier, Joseph Draps, starts the Godiva Company tocompete with Hershey’s and Nestle’s American mar-ket.

And then: chocolate becomes the most sought afterand important confectionary in the world, one of themost prized products of the20th century. Not bad fora tree which originated in one valley, high in themountains of Central America.

And Finally, Kola, the Bitter Stimulating Nut of AfricaKola nut trees are most common in Western Africaand the Atlantic coast area of Central Africa. Kolanuts (or cola nuts) are the seed pods of these variouslarge evergreen trees which grow in rich, well-watered soil. Sterculiaceae Cola vera is the scientificname of the most common species. It is related to theSouth American genus Therobroma or cocoa. Theyare evergreen trees, growing to 20 m tall, with glossyovoid leaves up to 30 cm long. The tree can obtain aheight of up to 60 feet tall (about 18 meters). The


243

fruit is a heavy pod with a rough outer layer andwith many sections within.

The use of the kola nut, as with the use of coffee,cocoa, and tea has ancient origins. It was chewed inantiquity to ease hunger pains, give energy on thehunt, and to help people on long journeys. It was notforbidden to African Muslims, as was beer and wine,and so became popular with them. In many WestAfrican cultures it is used in a religious context orchewed to restore vitality. Kola nuts are an impor-tant part of the traditional spiritual practice of theYoruba culture and religion in West Africa. Kola nutsare used as religious object, gifts, good luck charms,and as a sacred offering during prayers, ancestorveneration, and significant life events, such asbirths, naming ceremonies, weddings, and funerals.

Brightly colored kola nuts are a common sight inAfrican street markets and shops in cities and vil-lages. They are often sold by street vendors at busand train depots and in village markets as well. On atrain or bus, a traveler with a kola nut will oftenoffer a piece to the other passengers much like astick of gum or a piece of candy might be offered inthe US.

Kola nuts are consumed by breaking the pod openand dividing the sections which fit closely inside thepod into pieces. Then the pieces are chewed one byone. Most people find the taste very bitter. The stim-ulative effect is similar to a very strong cup of coffee.Kola nuts are produced commercially in the Africanand American tropics. In their raw form they arerather hard to find outside these areas, although colaextracts are currently exported all over the world.

Extracts of these bitter nuts are often added toenergy drinks. Kola nuts are best known outside ofAfrica as an ingredient in cola beverages. There is


244

some evidence the first kola beverage was made byWestern Africans who mixed water with dried or fer-mented kola nuts, strained the liquid, and thenadded cane juice. Today, homemade cola drinks arevery rare in Africa, though store-bought cola drinksand homemade beers of all kinds including cola beerare very popular.

Cola acuminate nuts and glass of cola drink©iStockphoto.com/Jamie Watson

Commercially produced cola drinks were developedin the late 1800s, when chemists and inventors andmanufacturers began to use kola nuts in carbonateddrinks and tonics. The most famous of these is Coca-Cola®, which has become a truly global beverage and


245

is only lightly less popular than tea, coffee, wine, andbeer.

Recently, kola nuts and kola nut extract have becomepopular in Europe and North America as naturalmedicines. Kola nuts are often used to treat whoop-ing cough and asthma. The caffeine present acts toexpand the bronchial air passages and suppress thecough.

Kola nuts are valued mainly for their stimulant qual-ities. They were once commonly used in soft drinkssuch as Coca-Cola and Pepsi, but have now beenreplaced with artificial ingredients. The kola extractshave effects similar to other xanthine-containingplant products such as chocolate, tea, coffee, guaranaberries, and yerba maté. They have stimulant effectson the central nervous system, the circulatory sys-tem and the heart. They increase body temperature,raise blood pressure, and elevate respiratory rate.Effects may last for hours. In medicine the refinedextract is used as a cardiac and central nervous sys-tem stimulant.

Imagine the world without these trees and products.

Would the ships of the explorers even have been builtwithout the sturdy oak?

Would people have been able to live in South Amer-ica, in southern USA and many other places withouta reliable cure for malaria?

The incense trees, precious balms and perfumesfrom the past may have an even more interestingfuture……

What would the world be like without tea, coffee,chocolate, or cola?

Surely it would be a different world than the worldwhich exists today.

246

Chapter 15 Where Are the Trees?

Trees in the developed world are often conspicuousby their very absence.

City Trees Trees which once lined avenues and made urban cen-ters bearable have mostly disappeared from large cit-ies. Their shade, their ability to absorb noise, and therest they gave the urban eye is very much missedbecause cities have cut down existing trees and donot plant new ones. The reasons given for denudingthe cities of trees are unconvincing:

Trees drop leaves and dirty streets.

People run into them with automobiles and sue themunicipalities.

Tree branches get in the way of electric lines.

Traditional tree-lined street, USA©iStockphoto.com/DNY59

Chapter 15 : Where Are the Trees?

247

It is for reasons such as these “modern” cities are forthe most part “treeless” cities.

Trees are the first line of protection for the pedes-trian, shielding the pedestrian from weather, provid-ing shade and putting a barrier between the personon foot and the rushing traffic. However, the pedes-trian’s comfort is no longer considered importantbecause the pedestrian is no longer important. Whatis important is the flow of vehicle traffic. Therefore,trees have vanished and square corners have beenshaved round to allow vehicles to swoop aroundthem without slowing down. It has become steadilymore dangerous and more unpleasant to walk inmany urban areas, even in places designed for tour-ists.

The result of this eerie urban “treelessness” is a sortof artificial desert where one sees endless naked con-crete streets and buildings, outsized commercialsigns, and light glittering mercilessly on the glassand chrome of thousands of automobiles. The invol-untary signs of pain, registering on the faces of vol-unteers during stress testing, when shown a typicalurban area, must surely be an unvoiced plea forchange.

As their eyes dart from point to point of the bleakvista, it can be assumed they are looking for some-thing pleasant to rest their gaze on. They do not findit and look at the scenes of parking lots, franchises,and billboards for the minimum amount of timeallowed by the study. The same group of volunteersshown shady meadows, forests, orchards, and evennatural deserts full of Joshua trees and cacti, tend tolook at these photos for the maximum amount oftime—obviously finding something in the photoswhich is both pleasant and interesting. Their facesrelax and their gaze lingers.


248

If this is a normal reaction and we can make peoplefeel better just by lining the city streets with trees,there is so much benefit for so little investment.Where are the trees? Why aren’t we planting them?

Suburban TreesIn the suburbs one rarely sees a well grown tree, atleast one large enough and strong enough to givegood shade or provide protection from the wind. Vig-orous trees are pruned into wisps so as not to inter-fere with infrastructure or the neighbor’s view.Backyard fruit trees are a thing of the past in mostlocales for sanitary reasons. Suburban lawns areusually “landscaped by shrubs,” useless ones at that.

A road lined with trees©iStockphoto.com/Giorgio Fochesato

Why should lawns and unproductive ornamentalplants be the standard plantings of suburban areas?There should be room for productive fruit trees,herbs, berry bushes, copses, windbreaks, picnic


249

groves, woodlots, and maybe a large spreading treeover the post office or the local library, replacing thelost chestnuts of North American villages.

Rural TreesA hundred years ago when there were still familyfarms in the US and Canada, almost every farm hada woodlot and an orchard. The orchard produced thefamily’s fruit and the woodlot was a source of logsand kindling, wood chips, and forest products whichcontributed directly to the household economy. Afour acre woodlot could fill the energy needs of a 40to 60 acre farm. These wooded areas were also placeswhere moisture was stored naturally, refuges forwild creatures, islands of shade in the landscape.

One of the best examples of ecological farmingdescribed in Michael Pollen‘s book The Omnivore’sDilemma, Penguin; Reprint edition (August 28,2007), is the Polyface farm owned by Joe Salatin,which is discussed in chapter 8 of Pollen’s book.Here, in the chapter entitled “All Flesh Is Grass,”Author Pollen waxes lyrical over descriptions of thefarm, the succession of crops and animals, the farm’sgreat diversity of products; over how much is utilizedand how little is wasted.

Joe Salatin’s farming methods are explained by himin his own book, Pastured Poultry Profits, Polyface;Reissue edition (July 1996). However, the beginningof this sustainable, productive, and ecologicallysound enterprise was a vigorous tree planting pro-gram initiated by Joe Salatin’s father. Salatin Seniorplanted the acres of trees which transformedworked-out, eroded, and desolate land into forest,cooling the area and shielding it from more erosionwhile creating a microclimate his son turned into afood production system based on grass.


250

Woodlot©iStockphoto.com/Tomasz Budnik


251

Anti-Tree Developments in the WorldThe practice of replacing the trees unfortunately isthe exception rather than the rule when rural landsare developed. In the “development” of rural lands,the trees are usually the first thing to go, logged offor simply pushed up by a bulldozer and burned.Later, spindly, non-native plants will be placed atuseless intervals along the gently curving character-less streets which have replaced productive farm-lands all over North America. This deliberatedestruction is tragically the official policy in manyparts of the world.

In Australia land was claimed by “clearing thebush“—this means removing all vestiges of naturalvegetation. The result was not a healthy replace-ment set of transplanted European cultivars but adegraded landscape, in many areas increasinglyparched and saline. Australia’s flora is adapted tothe continent’s ancient and marginally fertile soils,its saline water tables (with precious fresh rainwaterfloating precariously atop the salty water) and itsextreme winds and temperatures. Australia’s floraprotected the fragile soil in a way which no importedplant could ever do. Many of the island continent’sserious ecological woes stem from the bush clearingpolicy and now some organizations are working toput the “bush” back into agricultural areas whichhave had to be abandoned due to profound land deg-radation.

In England, the source of many of the plants (andanimals) jammed “willy nilly” into the Australianlandscape, thousands of kilometers of hedgerows fullof native plants and trees were removed in the1980’s. They were considered an impediment to effi-cient land use. It was only later realized the protec-tion the hedgerows gave in rainy England to the localwater resources, wildlife, and soil was far more


252

important than anyone had believed. Their removalled to serious problems including soil erosion, gullyformation, and a catastrophic decline in Britishsongbird populations.

Our Historic Relationship with TreesOur relative cluelessness about the value of the treein the landscape is apparently a recent development.In the Bible the righteous person was said to flourishlike the date palm. Jonah, the prophet, sulking in thedesert outside of Nineveh was comforted by thegrowth of a wild vine over his bleak brush hut anddevastated when the vine sickened and died—thevisceral reaction of a man living in a treeless andshadeless desert who was starved for the sight ofsomething green.

The book of Jonah©iStockphoto.com/Stephen Orsillo


253

In Native American legends, trees had charactersand souls and spoke wisdom to humanity. Theancient Greeks believed trees were the homes ofbenign feminine spirits. Peace was made betweenwarring tribes under the sacred indaba tree in south-ern Africa, a neutral place where enemies couldmeet. The Biblical Patriarch Abraham planted tama-risks in Be’er Sheva (a name which means “sevenwells) in an expression joy and thankfulness at find-ing good grazing for his flocks

A man who knew the value of trees—Abraham, as depicted in the Dore Bible©iStockphoto.com/Duncan Walker

Village life around the world was seen to flourishunder various trees such as oak, chestnuts, and ban-yans.


254

Village in Bavaria—and trees©iStockphoto.com/Richard Schmidt-Zuper

Are There Trees in Our Future?Trees are present, then, in our histories and in ourlegends. So where are the trees in various “save-the-world” strategies? In the modern world, there are nosacred trees.

Global warming advocates have no problem with rec-ommending all roofs and streets should be paintedwhite to reflect heat back into space. They see noreason not to tamper with the upper atmosphere byfilling it with reflective particles or giant mirrors.Disappointingly, only a few geo-engineers advocatetree planting programs. When they do, they concen-trate on wild schemes to make artificial rivers ofdesalinated water run backwards into the Sahara tocreate a vast green belt to cool the planet—and bethe lungs of the world. Of course we have such aplace already—it is called the Amazon basin—and


255

there humanity, geo-engineers included, is quicklycutting the trees down!

Where are the trees in long term planning? With allthat is known about the nexus of interactionsbetween the tree and the soil, the tree and the atmo-sphere, the tree and the weather, the tree and wild-life, how is it their great value and their stupendousinfluence can be so easily ignored? Is a civilizationcapable of leveling mountains, digging tunnels underthe sea for high speed trains and putting people intospace, incapable of planting a few trees to protectwatersheds, mitigate the climate and reclaim erodedlands?

What then are trees for modern, commercial andindustrial man?

Paper and lumber.Obstacles to development.Scenery.

Tree lined bicycle path©iStockphoto.com/Marco Maccarini


256

If there was any residual respect for the trees—orany vestige of the awe our ancestors once felt—thenthe redwoods of California would not be turned intolumber for the back deck. The fantastically tallMountain Ash of New Zealand, the world’s tallesthardwood, would not be cut down and made into dis-posable chopsticks for the Japanese market.

Perhaps there are few trees in our environmentsbecause there are so few in our thoughts. Before wecan plant trees in the real world, responsibly usethem and cherish them, make peace under them, andput them back on our farms, in our cities, and in ourstories, we have to plant them back in the landscapesof our minds.

Village in India-and trees©iStockphoto.com/Steven Miric

257

Chapter 16Microstock Trees

Microstock Trees are trees used as growth habitatsfor creatures which are collected and harvested.These trees may be planted deliberately or they maybe naturally occurring wild trees. The creatures col-lected and harvested include edible insects, silk pro-ducing insects, and edible mollusks.

Edible InsectsInsects have played an important role in the historyof human nutrition in Africa, Australia, Asia, andthe Americas. Hundreds of species have been used ashuman food. Some of the more important groupsinclude grasshoppers; caterpillars; beetle grubs and(sometimes) adults; winged termites (some of whichare very large in the tropics); bee, wasp, and antbrood (larvae and pupae), as well as winged ants;cicadas; crickets; and a variety of aquatic insects.Sometimes insects are used as emergency food toward off starvation, but often they are included as anormal part of the diet either throughout the year orwhen seasonally available. Sometimes they are veryimportant sources of protein in a local diet.

In Europe, the use of insects of foods has been verylimited. Although frequently mentioned in ancientGreek and Roman literature, there are only very fewreports on the use of insects as food in later centu-ries. Only in times of starvation were insects eatenamong the general population. This is in stark con-trast to Asia and Africa where insects are frequentlyconsidered delicacies.

Recently the use of insects as food has declined inmany tropical regions, partly to increased availabil-


258

ity of “better” foods. This often includes meat andmore Western- style dishes. As insects are a verygood source of nutrients, the question remainswhether insects are not actually the better food fromthe point of view of a nutritionalist.

In Africa insects are have gone beyond being a localfood and are traded on a large scale. Industries pro-duce canned insects, dried insects, candied insects,salted insects, and insect dishes for export.

Oddly enough in the US and to a lesser extent inEurope, eating insects has increased. Not as a regu-lar food, but more as a curiosity. For example insectsare covered in chocolate or offered as sugared orcrystallized candies.

Most religions accept insects as normal food andplace no restrictions or taboos on consumption ofinsects. Jewish traditions consider only a few typesof insects as kosher, almost all of them in the grass-hopper/locust families. However, in practice, Jewsavoid eating insects deliberately, as only trainedentomologists may be able to distinguish betweenkosher and non-kosher insects. The exception to thisrule was the Jews of the Middle East and NorthAfrica who regularly ate locusts, crickets, and grass-hoppers in times when these creatures were abun-dant and damaged the crops.

In Muslim regions the use of insects is veryrestricted. Only grasshoppers are considered halal(permissible to eat) when they have died afterswarming or have been killed for food. Practically allother insects are considered unfit for food. However,in countries such as India, Indonesia, and Malaysia,many different insects are eaten traditionally, evenin nominal Islamic regions. In Arab countries onlygrasshoppers can be found on markets.

Chapter 16: Microstock Trees

259

Over 1500 different species of insects have beenreported as being consumed or edible, but the insectswith which this chapter is concerned are insects andother creatures which can be raised as microstock,with trees as their pastures/habitats.

Butterflies and Moths (Order Lepidoptera)The larvae (caterpillars) of many species of moths(and a few species of butterflies) are used as food.Adult moths and butterflies are not eaten – theirwings and bodies are clothed with small flat scalesand hairs making them unpalatable. In Africa, larvaeare a particularly important source of nutrition—protein, fat, vitamins, and minerals. More than 30species of larvae are harvested in one African coun-try alone, the Congo (formerly Zaire). Some caterpil-lars are sold not only in the local village markets, butare shipped on a large scale from one country toanother. Caterpillars are canned in Botswana andSouth Africa. In the rural countryside, they are usu-ally dried in the sun before being sold in the market.While many caterpillars are wildcrafted, some arebeing domesticated to insure a steady supply.

Caterpillars start life as eggs laid on a particularplant or tree. It is not difficult to find the eggs of theNgala species because they are laid in a pile, like atiny pyramid of white balls, on the new leaves at theend of a Kigala (Crossopteryx febrifuga) tree branchin December. This makes it easy to collect eggs andplace them on appropriate plants for development.However some species, such as the Kaba worm(Lobobunaea phaedusa), lay their eggs singly so it ismuch harder to find them. Caterpillars which hidetheir eggs will usually hatch out undiscovered and tospread them out on tree “pastures,” the tiny younghave to be moved carefully to a new plant.


260

Young of an edible species a few days after hatching©iStockphoto.com/jeridu

After the eggs hatch out and the little caterpillarsstart feeding, they grow very quickly. Most molt orshed their old skins many times as they increase insize. Sometimes they change their color and mark-ings, like the Makedi kedi caterpillar (Bunaea alci-noe), which changes from brown to red and finally tored-black in its last stage before pupation. Certaincaterpillars move down the trunk of the tree onwhich they have been feeding in order to molt, as isthe case with Ibrasia worm (Imbrasia ertli). It is atthis time, when they have reached their full size butbefore they pupate, they are usually collected for eat-ing.

Caterpillars will not appear the following year unlesssome have been allowed to live and pupate intoadults who mate and lay the eggs which will hatch inthe following year. It is normal for many caterpillars


261

to be eaten by birds. Some will be killed by ants or byparasites. It is important, therefore, to have enoughleft to give a good harvest for next year. At least halfthe caterpillars on the tree should be left to producesufficient numbers for next season.

When the caterpillar has reached its full size, itpupates. Some caterpillars pupate in their host trees,others in the earth, or on the undersides of leaves.Certain caterpillars, such as the Nkankiti worm(Anaphe spp.), form a communal cocoon in thebranches of a tree. Normally caterpillars should bedisturbed as little as possible, especially when theycommence to pupate. If there is an aggressive cater-pillar eating population of birds in the area, heavilyinfested trees may be netted to keep the caterpillarsand pupae safe. Ringing tree trunks with borax crys-tals may deter ants and refraining from plowing,weeding, and “burning off” will preserve the specieswhich pupate in the earth.

For most species the cocoon remains intact until thestart of the next rainy season when the adultemerges. After mating, the female finds a suitablefood plant and lays her eggs before she dies. Themale dies immediately following mating.

Each species of caterpillar prefers to live on certainplants. The Ngala worm is only found on Kigalatrees in Bas Congo. The Imbrasia worm lives onKimbaki (Funtumia africana), Kivinsu (Petersian-thus macrocarpus), Kinzenze (Holarrhena flori-bunda) or Kingela (Ricinodendron heudelotii) trees.It is important there are enough trees of the rightkind to provide food for the caterpillars, especiallythose which only feed on one kind of plant. Wherethey are not present they can often be planted fromseed, or young plants can be collected from the earthbeneath mature trees and transplanted to suitableareas.


262

Mopane tree©iStockphoto.com/Isabella Pfenninger

Understanding the life cycle of the caterpillar andthe life cycle of the associated food plants utilized byeach species will help in protecting and increasingthe supply of caterpillars. The Ngala worm (Cirinaforda) is a caterpillar which lives in the savannahand pupates just below the soil surface. During thedry season it is common to burn the grass in order tocontrol rodents. However, at the same time Ngalacocoons, each capable of eventually producing farmore than 50 kg of caterpillars, will have beendestroyed. Ibrasia worms molt in a mass on the treetrunks and also gather in this manner to pupate. Ifall the Ibrasia caterpillars are taken when theygather, there will be none left to produce next year’scaterpillars. If host trees are cut down during har-vesting or felled for timber the entire life cycle of thecaterpillar in the area may become untenable. Sim-ple conservation measures must be taught to avoid


263

these actions, which endanger this valuable source offood.

To quote from a caterpillar domestication programin the Bas Congo:

“A good place for rearing caterpillars is in a forest areawhich already has beehives. A good strong colony ofbees will deter indiscriminate collecting of caterpillarsand thus help to protect both the caterpillars and thetrees. In this way a permanent reserve will be createdwhere the caterpillars can be carefully managed. If pos-sible it is best to have an area of at least one ha for thispurpose. It may be possible to reserve a special area forthe beehives for the whole village and this would alsobe a suitable location for raising caterpillars.”

Latham, Paul, “Edible caterpillars and their food plants in Bas Congo” (1999)

The most popular candidate for domestication is cur-rently the mopane worm (Gonimbrasia belina). TheMicrostock Tree which is frequently the habitat ofthis insect is the Mopane Tree (Colophospermummopane). Domesticating the tree is probably themost logical starting point in efforts to domesticatethe mopane caterpillar. While other trees in thewoodlands can serve as hosts, the mopane tree is thepreferred tree for food (leaves) and the favorite treefor breeding. The Anomalous Mopane Moth (Imbra-sia belina) pupates in the earth near Mopnae trees.

The mopane worm, is considered a delicacy by ruraland, increasingly, urban populations in southernAfrica and beyond. In addition, other mopane wood-land products, such as wood for crafts, fuel, and fod-der for animals are important resources for poorfarmers and landless poor people in the region. Thetrade in mopane worms is now worth several milliondollars every year, but mopane worm outbreaks areunpredictable and of short duration and most of the


264

value is captured by mobile, large scale tradersrather than local communities.

Mopane worm on leaf ©iStockphoto.com/Duncan Stilwell

A good domestication program would limit theamount of damage done to the trees of the mopanewoodlands by caterpillar harvesters who often fellthe best trees to collect the caterpillars. Heavy infes-tations also reduce the amount of seeds set by thehost tree; sometimes by 50 or 60 percent. Spreadingthe caterpillars out among many trees when theyhatch could allow mopane worms to gain greater sizeand weight as they will be in less competition forfood on their tree “pasture.”

A similar strategy may be the best way to domesti-cate the Imbrasia worm and to protect its favoritehost trees. The Imbrasia worm is usually collectedwhen it gathers in great numbers on the light-


265

barked trunk of the Funtumia africana. The caterpil-lars descend from the foliage of the tree each timethey molt. It is at this stage they are collected foreating. They can either be eaten after roasting orboiling or else can be sun dried for later use.

A colony of caterpillars on a tree trunk©iStockphoto.com/erin vernon

Cicadas (Order Homoptera)This order includes many insects, such as aphids andleafhoppers, which are serious agricultural pests, butonly the cicadas are used widely as human food. Thenymphs of some species, known as “periodical cica-das,” spend up to 17 years underground where theyfeed on roots. After 17 years they emerge from thesoil, climb up a tree trunk or fence post and molt tothe adult stage. Periodical cicadas occur as “broods”which appear above ground only once every severalyears in any one locality. When they do appear it isoften in vast numbers. This is when they are col-lected as food even in the United States. They are


266

usually fried before they are eaten. Many cicadashave shorter life cycles, and some of them were col-lected as food by Indian tribes in what is now thewestern United States, where they were sometimesdried for food for the winter and occasionallypounded up in pemmican.

They are eaten regularly in many other countries,especially in Asia, and some are very large. A cicadafrom Malaysia has a wing span of nearly 18 cm,larger than many birds. Most cicadas are wildcraftedby people who know what kind of trees and bushesthey frequent. They pluck the cicadas off the foliageafter they have finished their molt and confine themin baskets until they are used.

All deciduous woody tree species of the easternUnited States serve as hosts for large numbers ofroot-parasitizing cicada nymphs. Periodical cicadasspend their larval lives 6 to 24 inches underground,feeding on xylem fluid from rootlets and roots. Theyemerge every seventeenth year in the north of theUS or every thirteenth year in the south of the US.Densities of cicadas underground are very great.Emergence densities of over 300 nymphs per squareyard or about 1,500,000 per acre have been reported.This represents the highest reported biomass valuesof any naturally occurring terrestrial animal.

During the adult stage, which lasts 3 to 4 weeks,cicadas mate and females lay their eggs on the twigsof deciduous trees. When the eggs hatch, the firstinstar nymphs fall to the ground to begin their slow17-yr development. The damaging effects on twigs byegg-laying adult cicadas are serious but the majoreffect of cicadas may be due to the feeding of nymphson plant roots. Feeding cicada nymphs can reducetree growth, as measured by growth rings, by asmuch as 30%.


267

Brood X, one of the North American periodical cicadas (Magicicada spp.)©iStockphoto.com/Brent Miles

Termites (Order Isoptera)Termites are most widely used as food in Africa.There are sometimes called “white ants” because ofthe color of their backs and abdomens. Termites aresocial insects with colonies divided into “castes”including workers, soldiers, winged adults, and aqueen. The queen is many times the size of a workerand lays thousands of eggs.

Colonies of some species build huge earthen moundsfrom mud, bits of plant material, wood, and a glue-like material they secrete called “termitaria.” Thesemounds may be up to 20 feet high. Periodically, thewinged adults emerge in huge swarms, mate while inflight, and then start new colonies. They are highlyattracted to lights, even candlelight, and this is oneway they are captured for use as food.


268

Termites©iStockphoto.com/Morley Read

Logs, tree trunks and wooden beams are appealingto a new colony and are sometime placed deliberatelyin an area to attract new colonies. They will break


269

down the wood as they construct their new mounds.Some species will infest the wood itself, makingthousands of interconnecting tunnels around broodchambers.

As food the collected termites are captured, theirwings are broken off, and they are fried and salted.Termites have a high fat and mineral content. Manypeople find termites delicious. The queens are con-sidered a special treat and are often reserved for chil-dren or grandparents because they are thought to beespecially nutritious and are many times the size ofthe common workers.

In general termites prefer hard woods, fruit woodsand soft woods with little tarriness. However, ter-mites will infest and utilize any source of cellulose,including books, newspapers, and piles of straw andsawdust.

Bees, Ants and Wasps (Order Hymenoptera)With bees and wasps, it is usually the bee or wasp“brood” (larvae/pupae) which is eaten. Most adultbees and wasps are not palatable, but there areexceptions. In China, adult bees are fried and dustedwith chile powder before being eaten. Canned wasps,wings and all, are sold in Japan, and rice cooked withthese wasps was a favorite dish of the late EmperorHirohito. In some cultures, bee nests are collected asmuch for their larva as for the honey. Uncappedhoney combs full of bee larva are considered a deli-cacy.

With ants, it is also the larvae and/or pupae whichare usually eaten, but adults are also sometimes onthe menu. Roasted leafcutter ant abdomens are sold,instead of popcorn, in movie theaters in some placesIn South America. Whole ants are sometimes pre-served in honey or covered in chocolate. In Mexico,certain kinds of ant pupae, known as escamoles, are


270

found on the menu in the finest restaurants. Theyare served fried with butter, or fried with onions andgarlic.

Many of the bees, wasps, and ants are wildcrafted,but all three types of insects are encouraged to buildcolonies under eaves, in trees, or in proximity tofarm buildings. This is done by placing an appropri-ate skip or hollow log in an appealing place, or in thecase of ants, leaving a trail of food from an estab-lished nest to an area where a nest of edible ants isdesired. Swarming adults are likely to choose a sitewhere an appropriate food source is nearby.

Beetles (Order Coleoptera)Larvae, pupae and/or adults of many species of bee-tles are also used as food. Usually, people do not eatadult beetles whole; the hard parts (wings, legs, andhead) are removed during preparation for cooking.The larvae (sometimes called “grubs”) are soft-bod-ied. The exception to this rule is the extremely hardshelled rhinoceros beetle [a subfamily (Dynastinae)of beetles in the family of scarab beetles (Scarabaei-dae)] whose huge grubs are a problem in lawns andtree roots in warmer areas of the world. These bee-tles are collected, roasted and ground into a spicelike preparation in many countries in Asia. Theirenormous grubs are consumed after being toasted.Many grubs are collected during cultivation of cer-tain crops and many more are discovered and har-vested when trees are transplanted. The roots ofdate trees are often infested with huge grubs.Around the roots of these trees and other palms aregood places to look when searching for grubs andbeetles. Beetles and grubs of edible types can also befound in rotting logs and under piles of leaves

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beetle

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beetle

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarab_beetle




271

Australian arlkerlatye grubs (Wichetti grubs)©iStockphoto.com/Ron Hohenhaus

Grasshoppers, Crickets, etc. (Order Orthoptera)Grasshoppers and crickets and their relatives haveplayed an important role in the history of humannutrition. Locusts, sometimes the only food left aftera swarm has destroyed the local vegetation, are anallowed food for many traditions which eschewinsect eating, such as the Jewish culture. The mostcommon way to eat locusts is by first frying them inoil. Roasting and sautéing are frequently used meth-ods of cooking, after first removing the wings andlegs. Seasonings such as onion, garlic, cayenne, chilipeppers, or soy sauce may be added. Candied grass-hoppers, known as inago, are a favorite cocktailsnack in Japan. While locusts, grasshoppers, andcrickets are attracted to certain plants, a hungryswarm will eat anything green. So far, crickets,locusts, and grasshoppers are almost all wildcrafted.Attempts at raising them deliberately on trees withabundant foliage have met with mixed success.


272

HelicultureAnother important food which is raised on trees andliving plants is not an insect but a mollusk. Snailshells have been found in prehistoric middens allover the world showing our ancestors found them aneasily obtainable food source.

It is thought water snails were first cultivated asfood in China. It is also possible that terrestrial snailcultivation originated in China and southeast Asia,utilizing the lush trees of those areas. Heliculture, asthe raising of snails is called, may have originatedthere, but it has been practiced all over the world. Inan example of the simplest type of heliculture eggs ofsnails are deliberately moved to appropriate hosttrees and the trunks smeared with charcoal to keepthe snails from descending to the ground. The snailsgraze on the trees in which they are “planted,” andare harvested when large enough to be eaten.

Sophisticated snail cultivation in Europe is a branchof agriculture/husbandry known since Roman times.The Romans loved snails. They bought them fromlocal wildcrafters and fattened them in snail gardensuntil they could be prepared as food. As the RomanEmpire’s area of influence increased, so did the dis-tribution of snails and the market for snails. Snailsshells often are found in ancient kitchen waste heapswhich have been excavated around former Romansettlements.

Other peoples used snails as food and fed them ongrass and agricultural by- products. The commonbrown garden snail was already cultivated in Celtictimes. Greeks, Phoenicians, and other pre-Romancultures in the Mediterranean region, consumedsnails and other mollusks as a regular part of theirdiet. In the Middle Ages, snails had the crucialadvantage of being neither fish nor meat, so they


273

could be eaten during the time of Lent. Conse-quently most monasteries also had a snail garden,where the monks could keep snails and fatten themon fruit tree leaves, fresh grass, and bread crumbs.At that time, though, the monks were not the onlypeople to eat snails. Snails were food for the poor too,as they could be gathered in wild areas and theywere very nutritious.

Farm snail (Helix pomatia) in garlic sauce©iStockphoto.com/ShyMan

For home consumption, it was sufficient to collectwild snails, keep them in snail gardens to increasetheir weight and then eat them. However, for a suc-cessful trade, snails had to be very large and of goodquality. Soon it became customary to feed the snailswith a diet of special foods which gave them goodsize and taste.

Chinese snails were fed with ground bean meal andspecial herbs. In Europe, snails were fattened oncornmeal and stale bread. They were transported by


274

special boats to the big cities. There the snails weresold in the markets. There was vigorous interna-tional trade with Vienna until well into the 18th cen-tury. Later the main focus of snail trade movedtowards Paris, where snails could be transportedoverland. In 1908 alone, the village of Guttensteinsold 4 million live snails to Paris.

Enclosure in a snail farm©iStockphoto.com/fotolinchen


275

Even today snail cultivation is important. In France40,000 tons of snails are eaten per year. A large partof those are snails are wildcrafted in natural areas inEastern Europe and Turkey. From an ecologicalpoint of view, this is unwise and many snails are ofpoor quality and sometimes contaminated and maybe dangerous to the consumer.

French snail cultivation methods usually aim at fat-tening the snails by keeping large numbers of themin small spaces, greenhouses, and pens, and feedingthem with various food mixes. In France, usually theEscargot Petit Gris (Cornu aspersum) is cultivated.Though this species cannot compete with the Escar-got de Bourgogne (Helix pomatia) in taste and size, itis difficult to cultivate Helix pomatia. Only Cornuaspersum, also called the common snail, due to itsabundant distribution on the British Isles, is easy toraise and so can be kept in a less specialized format.A solution is sought by cross-breeding with giantCornu aspersum varieties from North Africa for abigger snail which more resembles the Helix poma-tia.

The French still remain the main producers and con-sumers of snails.

Successful modern snail marketing has spread alsointo other countries. Snails are now raised in Ger-many, Switzerland, and Austria in modern formats.While cultivation habits have changed, in 18th cen-tury Austria snail farming was quite widespread.Many noble’s estates had their own snail farmswhere the snails were raised in pens among the gar-dens and orchards. The new methods of snail cultiva-tion are close to nature and reprise successfulhistorical methods from Southern Germany, whileadding modern cultivation practices. Legumes areused in crop rotation to supply natural nitrogen fer-tilizer Green manuring is standard practice and


277

The snails are basically kept in pens bordered byfences, in which green food plants are grown beforethe snails are placed there. A metal wall dug deeplyinto the soil around the farm keeps snail predators,such as mice, shrews and other snail hunters, out. Aspecially manufactured net fence keeps the snails inthe enclosure.

Mangold is a favorite food of snails©iStockphoto.com/Kurt Hahn


278

A special limiting factor is the natural regulation offertility among snails which prevents overpopula-tion. Only 20 snails can be kept on one square meter(3300 snails are kept in an enclosure of 150 to 160square meters). A snail’s slime contains a chemicalagent limiting fertility. It is disagreeable for a snailto have to crawl over another snail’s trace and if theyare exposed to a number of snail trails, the snails willnot reproduce. Enclosures must never be toocrowded and in a successful snail farm there must beseveral gardens to raise the young snails.

The natural prerequisite for keeping snails in enclo-sures is a mildly alkaline type of soil with a sufficientcontent of calcium carbonate. A snail farm can besited in most places where snails survive in nature.Moderate humidity because of dew and natural pre-cipitation is best, though snails have been raisedunder rainbirds and other mist irrigators. In areaswith dew, the snails are usually not netted againstbirds, but nets can be used efficiently in irrigatedsnail gardens.

A sufficient amount of live vegetation in the enclo-sure not only provides food, but also hiding places forthe snails. Food plants, such as clover, chicory, tur-nip, rapeseed, spinach, beets, and wild cabbage aresuitable for modern snail farming. In modern snailculture very few tree leaves are used with the excep-tion of the mulberry tree, which all grazing andbrowsing creatures seem to favor. A diet made up ofsolely fresh green food is not sufficient for goodweight gain and growth. At regular intervals thesnails must also be provided with dry plant food andmeal.

When a percentage of the snails are moved into anew enclosure to prevent overpopulation, anotherpart is selected to be processed. This means thesnails have first to be collected, and then to be killed


279

and sorted. If snails are processed properly, they willnot suffer unnecessarily. Snails are killed in boilinghot water, as are some creatures raised for seafood.The visceral sac with digestive gland and most of thedigestive apparatus is removed. This means thesnails do not have to be starved before they are killedas many farm animals are.

Mobile snails - ready for marketing©iStockphoto.com/syagci

Usually snails are preserved in different ways, suchas in tins, in a sauce, or frozen. Transporting livesnails is complicated, as the route of transport mustremain short, and special transport containers arenecessary which keep their temperatures stable,allow for ventilation, but do not let the snails escape.

Mainly two types of snails are marketed: The mobilesnails collected in early summer after laying theireggs, and the fat “lid” snails (snails which havesealed themselves in their shells) The lid snails arecollected after the start of hibernation, when they


280

have the largest weight and are richest in nutritivecontent.

Snails at an outdoor market©iStockphoto.com/Alison Stieglitz

Cultivating snails for food remains an intriguingmicrostock possibility. Cuisines outside of Francehave begun to show interest in snail recipes. Snailfarms are also appearing in Africa where local popu-lations are often deficient in protein. There, it ishoped the snails will be an integral part of the dietrather than a delicacy.


281

In Nigeria giant land snails are fed on maize chaffand paw-paw leaves. In Ghana snail enclosures areplanted deliberately with selected host trees andherbs. These are only two of the dozen African coun-tries seriously considering heliculture as a way ofproviding more protein to rural populations andintroducing what may be a possible export crop.

SilkwormsPerhaps the most important insect raised on trees isthe domesticated silkworm which is fed exclusivelyon the leaves of the mulberry tree and raised for thethread in its cocoon. “Silkworm” is the commonname for the larva of various species of moths, indig-enous to Asia and Africa, but now domesticated andraised for silk production throughout most of thetemperate zone. The culture of silkworms is calledsericulture.

Silkworms eat a mulberry leaf©iStockphoto.com/Huiping Zhu


282

The various species of silkworms raised today aredistinguished by the quality of the silk they produce,the type of leaves on which they feed, and how manytimes they breed within a year. The most widelyraised type, and the producer of the finest silk, is thelarva of Bombyx mori, of Asian origin. After centu-ries of domestication, Bombyx mori is no longerfound anywhere in a natural state. The legs of thelarvae have degenerated, and the adults are notcapable of flight.

Silkworm cocoons in a factory in Vietnam©iStockphoto.com/Anka Kaczmarzyk

Hatched from eggs so small 30,000 of them can fit ina matchbox and weigh only an ounce, these silk-worms are immediately quite active on hatching andfeed voraciously on mulberry leaves. At the end ofthe larval stage, 30 to 40 days after hatching, theworms are about 3 in. (7.5 cm) long. A full size larvaattaches itself to a twig and, with a weaving motionof its head and a slow, circular motion of its body,begins to spin its cocoon. A moist substance, fibroin,


283

is manufactured in two silk glands located on theunderside of the larva’s body. Mixed with a smallamount of wax, it is emitted from an orifice calledthe spinneret, in the lip of the larva. The fibroindries quickly in the air, hardening into a half-mile-long thread of silk which makes up the cocoon.

The adult moth, with a wingspread of 1.75 in. (4.5cm), emerges from the cocoon in about two weeks.The moths mate and lay their eggs (several hundredfrom each female) within a week. The eggs hatch inabout ten days. Only enough cocoons to ensure ade-quate reproduction are allowed to hatch. The restare unwound after developing for a week, and thesilk is processed.

The giant silkworms used in some Asian and SouthAmerican sericulture are the larvae of the closelyrelated saturnid moths (family Saturniidae). Theyinclude the tasar silkworm, mentioned below.

Giant silk moth©iStockphoto.com/Victor Kapas


284

The ailanthus moth (Samia walkeri) is also a closerelative. It is a large, olive-green saturnid moth usedin China to produce a coarse grade of silk. It wasimported into the United States along with its foodplant, the Chinese ailanthus tree, as the basis of anew North American branch of the silk industry. Theindustry never got a start, but the moth has beenfirmly established in the New York City area since1861, and so has its host tree, which first naturalizeditself quite successfully in Brooklyn.

Tasar Silk WormThe cultivated tasar silkworm is raised in China forits tawny colored silk. It is referred to as Tussah,Chinese Tussah, Oak Tussah, or Temperate Tussah.It is the source of Tussah spinning fiber which isused in the West. It is a relative of the Tropical Tus-sah silkmoth, Antheraea mylitta of India, and alsorelated to Antheraea polyphemus, the AmericanPolyphemus silkmoth.

In China, they are fed on plantations of speciallytrimmed oak trees on the hillsides and tended muchas domesticated silkworms are pampered with opti-mal feeding and protection from predators and theelements.

While domesticated tasar silkworms are in no dan-ger, the wild tasars are becoming rather rare. Thewild tasars feed primarily on Shorea robusta (Sal),Terminalia arjuna (Arjun), Terminalia tomentosa(Asan) and Terminalia catapp (Sea Almond) besidesa variety of secondary and tertiary food plants avail-able in dense tropical deciduous forests of Asia. Somewild tasar species are important for the livelihood ofthousands of extended Indian tribal families on thesubcontinent. However, the extensive collection ofwildcrafted cocoons, rapid deforestation, and humanencroachment to insect habitats has greatly reduced


285

wild populations. There is an imperative need toinvolve and educate local tribal peoples on sustain-able cocoon collection and habitat conservation tosave the wild tasar from extinction.

Tussah silk fiber dyed purple©iStockphoto.com/Teresa Levite

This chapter concentrates on insects and molluskswhich have been more or less domesticated andgraze on trees the way sheep graze on pasture. How-ever, there are many things which “grow on trees”some tame and some wild. Some are animal andsome vegetable. Some are used for food and some formedicine. The trees which support these organismsare commonly called Host Trees. They are the sub-ject of the next chapter.

286

Chapter 17Host Trees

From an agricultural viewpoint the most interestingorganisms which use trees as hosts are fungi.“Fungi” is the name given to group of living thingsincluding mushrooms, toadstools, moulds, truffles,slime, and by stretching the definition a bit, lichen(lichen is a symbiosis of fungi and algae). Unlikegreen plants, Fungi cannot produce their own food.Instead they absorb nutrients from their surround-ings.

The fungi which grow on live or dead trees are highlyspecialized. There are saprophytes, which live ondead stumps and logs, and also symbiotic fungiwhich grow on or in living hosts.

Symbiotic Fungi Although these fungi do live on or inside other livingthings, they do not cause damage. The fungi, and theorganism on which it lives, both receive benefitsfrom living with each other. Many types of fungi livein such harmonious “give and take” relationshipswith trees, and other plants, including orchids. Thefungi grow underground, and their threadlike“hyphae” grow into a thick mat known as “myce-lium.” This mycelium absorbs more nutrients andwater from the soil than it needs and passes theexcess to the tree through the roots of the tree. Suchrelationships between fungi and trees are known asmycorrhizal relationships. These fungi are more orless invisible, unless one is looking for them, and ofcourse are not harvested or used for food. However,whole other classes and families of fungi use trees ashosts including truffles, mushrooms, bracket fungi,

Chapter 17: Host Trees

287

and puffballs. Many of them are highly prized as del-icacies or medicinal material.

Some have already been domesticated. As an exam-ple of a domesticated fungus which needs living treesas a host, one need look no further than the truffle.Truffles are a hypogenous fungus, which means theyform their fruitbodies below ground. Ecologically,they are mycorrhizal, forming mutually beneficialassociations with the roots of plants. Taxonomically,they are members of the Ascomycota phylum of thefungi kingdom (having a saclike ascus which con-tains the ascospores).

Like most other hypogenous fungi, wild trufflesdepend on animals to disperse their spores and helpthem reproduce. The ripening truffles emit a distinctaroma, which grows stronger as they mature. Thearoma attracts a variety of animals (humansincluded) who eagerly collect and consume the truf-fles, and later disperse the spores to new areas, bycontact with the truffle, their feces, or when speak-ing of humanity, by deliberate inoculation to newhost plants.

Truffle CultivationTruffles are sold for between 800 dollars a poundand 3,000 dollars a pound. A successful truffleorchard can produce 130 to 150 pounds per acre peryear on land which is good enough to grow a selec-tion of hardy forest trees such as oaks, elms andhazelnuts. The area chosen for a truffle orchardmust also fulfill other soil and climatic conditions.

The combination of high prices and the availabilityof areas in the temperate zones which may be suit-able for cultivation of the host trees has made trufflecultivation an extremely promising new branch ofagricultural endeavor.


288

Area Must Have High pH Soils: The ground for thetruffière (truffle orchard) must be high in pH. A min-imum pH level is 7.5 and the optimum is 7.9. Manyof areas otherwise suitable are well below this leveland if a farmer seeks to establish a truffière on lowpH soil, he/she must make the effort to lift the pHand keep it permanently high. The best course is tofind a part of the property where pH is naturallyhigh or to move to a location where the soil pH isnaturally high.

Area Must Have Free Drainage: The development ofthe truffle is inhibited in clay soils. If the soilbecomes too wet the truffle can also rot undergroundbefore it is ready for harvest. In order to develop thetruffle bed the top 300mm of soil should be loose andfriable enough to enable the farmer to dig out thetruffles when they develop.

Area Must Have Good Quality Water For Irrigation:Irrigation water must be available for the site whenrequired. Although the truffière need not be irri-gated all the time, the fungus develops poorly if theground dries out for extended periods. Supplemen-tary irrigation may therefore be required and the soilhumidity should be measured regularly. The guidingrule with irrigation is, if the trees are suffering, thetruffles will suffer as well. The water source mustnot only be plentiful and reliable, it must be of highquality.

Area Must Not Have Chemical Residues In The Soil:Truffles are very sensitive to chemical residues inthe soil. Site selection for the truffière should takeinto account the previous land use and stay awayfrom sites or cropping areas which may contain her-bicide or pesticide residues.

Host Trees: The most common host trees planted intruffière are European: English Oak (Quuercus


289

Robur), Holly Oak (Quercus ilex) and CommonHazel (Corylus avellana) but birch, alder, elder, andelm trees are also used. To prepare saplings as hosttrees, they are inoculated in the nursery ensure thegrowth of the fungi. The Oak and Hazel trees createthe best conditions for the black Périgord truffle(Tuber melanosporum).

Wind Protection: Small trees need some form ofwind protection when they are still young. However,this is not necessarily achieved by the planting ofnative tree belts because these can contaminate thetruffle bed with wild truffle species.

Fencing: In the early stages of truffle bed develop-ment, the young trees are vulnerable to rabbits andother wild life. A small meshed fence too high tojump, on sturdy posts is required to keep out allsmall grazing animals. To keep out rabbits and othergnawers, it is best to set the fence in the ground byat least 20 cm.

Buffer zone: Due to the potential for wild fungal con-tamination it is best to create a border-zone aroundthe truffle bed. This may be in the range of 50m -100m.

Climate: A climate with crisp frosty winter morningsand plentiful sunshine hours is ideal. Most truffletrees are temperate zone deciduous trees. Truffleswill grow where summer temperatures are hot anddry, but they will need to be irrigated if cultivated insuch an area.

Who finds the truffles? Truffles can sometimes be spot-ted by areas of dead grass that their ripening pro-duces. These are called “brules.” A prototypeelectronic truffle sniffer is under development tohelp find the truffles, but the most effective methodof truffle detection is by using the superior sense ofsmell of some animals. Traditionally, in France, pigs


290

and dogs have been used for this purpose. Pigs arenot as easy to train and restrain as dogs, so currentlydogs are more popular among truffle farmers. Oncelocated, the task still remains for the farmer to digcarefully with a pronged fork to recover the trufflewithout damaging it. This is why the upper layers ofthe earth in the truffle orchard should be loose andfriable.

Freshly harvested truffles©iStockphoto.com/Alain Couillaud


291

When to harvest: The complicated root matting andthe development of the truffle fruiting bodies is alengthy process. First harvest in a truffière may befrom four to seven years after planting.

Yield: The yield of a truffière is measured in kilo-grams of truffles per tree. Once the trees are mature,each tree has the potential to produce up to 1 kg oftruffles per year. This is a reasonable planning fig-ure. There have been cases of trees yielding up to 2kg per year.

Growing/Harvest cycle: Most truffle trees are decidu-ous. They emerge from their dormancy period inspring and grow strongly through the summer. Thetruffles are most active at the same time the treesare most active. In winter, the trees become dormantand so do the truffles. It is in the winter dormancythe truffles form into the hard, black, knotted tubersbeneath the ground.

Truffles are among the world’s most sought afterculinary delicacies. Prized for their taste and texturefor millennia, their price has risen until truffles havebecome the most expensive foodstuffs. Retail pricesin the U.S. for the French black truffle or blackPérigord truffle (Tuber melanosporum), and the Ital-ian white truffle (Tuber magnatum), have reached$1,000 and $3,000 per pound. Most truffles are har-vested in the wild, but since the wild supply is dimin-ishing, prices continue to climb. This is one of themany incentives for the domestication and cultiva-tion of these unusual food plants.

The breakthrough which made their cultivation pos-sible was development of technology to properlyinoculate host trees with the fungus under exact andcontrolled conditions while the trees are still in thenursery. The use of inoculated trees to cultivateTuber melanosporum and other truffles has proven


292

successful over the past two decades in Europe andmany farms, including several in the United Statesand one in Canada, are now producing French blacktruffles for the market.

To cultivate truffles, inoculated truffle trees areplanted in orchard formats much like those for fruitsand nuts. The trees are inoculated as saplings andthen planted out in optimal conditions of spacingand water availability. Truffles begin to appear sev-eral years (4 to 7 years) after the inoculated seed-lings are planted out. Truffle production, onceestablished, can continue for decades. The onset andduration of production depends to some extent onthe interplay of truffle species with the host trees.Some trees are slower to take the inoculation andsome truffles are slower to develop.

Yields vary dramatically from farm to farm: somefarms produce as much as 150 pounds per acre eachyear while others produce only a dozen kilograms.Typical yields in Europe range between 25 and 35pounds per acre each year in orchards based mostlyon inoculating wild trees. As methods improve, manymore farms are achieving yields in excess of 100pounds per acre, an achievement which makes truf-fle cultivation a financially viable form of agricul-ture.

The famous black truffle (Tuber melanosporum)grows beneath relatively isolated trees, meadowtrees, or trees at the edge of forests in its naturalhabitat. Thus, many plantations in Europe aresparsely planted with as few as 100 or fewer largetrees per acre. In other cases, the trees are packedclose with as many as 1,000 trees per acre to encour-age the inoculation of all the trees by the movementof the fungus from one tree to the next through vege-tative growth of the fungal mycelium. The spacing ofthe trees also depends to a large extent on the size of


293

the tree species used, soil fertility, and the willing-ness of the farmer to thin the trees when populationdensity exceeds healthy level, possibly removingsome trees which may be producing truffles.

In North America host tree seedlings such as oaks,hazelnuts, and elms are inoculated with Tuber mel-anosporum and other truffle species. These seedlingsare checked individually to confirm the presence ofthe proper fungus and to confirm they are abun-dantly colonized by the truffle ectomycorrhizae andcompletely free of any competitor species. The inocu-lated trees are then planted out in areas with theproper soil fertility, amount of organic matter andproper ph.

The approaches necessary to maintain these condi-tions can vary from place to place and different farm-ers may want to use different methods depending onavailability of equipment, time, and money. Thebasic management practices include irrigation, weedcontrol, soil aeration, pruning, thinning, mulching,and in some cases, fertilization. A fundamentalrequirement in all cases is to maintain the soil pHnecessary for truffle production.

At the extremes of low and high intensity manage-ment are the Tanguy and Pallier methods of cultiva-tion representing two distinctly different cultivationmethods.

At the low intensity end of the scale the Tanguymethod calls for mowing to control weeds, but doesnot involve soil aeration, pruning, irrigation, or fer-tilization. This method is simple enough for thosefarmers who do not own tractors, nor have abundantavailability of irrigation water nor the time andmoney to invest in more intensive managementapproaches. It is also safer in the sense it errs on theside of non-interference and caution towards the


294

development of the truffles and the host species.Because of this tendency to err on the side of lessinterference and intervention, there is less potentialto damage the plantation. However, it generallytakes a couple more years for truffle production tobegin.

The more intensive Pallier method calls for light till-ing or harrowing in the spring and early summer tocontrol weeds and aerate the soil. The trees areshaped to maximize penetration of sunlight throughthe canopy and warm the soil. And finally, irrigationis supplied as necessary to emulate the summer andfall weather which produces the largest truffleyields. It is possible to till too deeply and damageroots, and to irrigate too much, giving the competi-tive advantage to other water loving fungi. Thesemethods should be used carefully. However, the Pal-lier approach is thought to produce truffles some-what earlier than less intensive approaches and toallow the farmer more control over microclimaticconditions. In some cases, irrigation may be neces-sary simply to keep the trees and the truffles alive ifnatural precipitation is insufficient.

The first cultivated truffles may be harvestable fiveyears after the inoculated trees are planted out.They are generally detected by the presence of driedand burned looking patches of grass around or nearthe trunk of the tree (brules). These brules areformed when the truffle begins to mature and giveoff chemicals substances which kill the grass. It is atthis time, the truffle begins to have the odor whichmakes it detectable.


295

An antique illustration of a truffle hunter with trained pig©iStockphoto.com/nicoolay

In some truffle orchards a trained dog or a trainedpig will indicate where to dig. The digging process isactually done by the truffle farmer (since if the ani-mal finds the truffle he will eat or damage it) and theanimal rewarded by a slice of truffle or some othertreat.


296

Truffles in the Negev (and their hosts)

Truffles that resemble potatoes©iStockphoto.com/anzeletti

“Desert truffle” is a term used to refer to members ofthe genera Terfezia and Tirmania in the family Ter-feziaceae, order Pezizales, which grow in arid andsemi-arid areas of the Mediterranean region, theArabian Peninsula, and North Africa. Some deserttruffle species have been found in South Africa andChina. Dr. Nissan Binyamini is the local expert onthe Negev truffle. Dr. Binyamini wrote the onlymushroom guide for amateurs in Hebrew, andheaded the Dept. of Botany at the Tel Aviv Univer-sity for many years.

Species of Terfezia and Tirmania prefer high pH cal-careous soils. High pH and the presence of calciumcarbonate are typical of desert soils.

Although the genera Terfezia and Tirmania are pri-marily ectomycorrhizal (they usually form a sheatharound the roots of their host plant rather then


297

growing from the root tissue), they are highly adapt-able. Some species, like Terfezia arenaria, Terfeziaclaveryi, and Tirmania pinoyi, form endomycorrhizalassociations in phosphate-poor soils and ectomycor-rhizal associations in phosphate-rich soils.

Species of both genera form mycorrhizas on rootsmainly of members of the genus Helianthemum(family Cistaceae), relatives of the North Americanrock rose, but can also form relationships with mem-bers of other families in the absence of species ofHelianthemum including many desert trees. Theserelationships contribute to Helianthemum’s adapt-ability to drought conditions and facilitate absorp-tion of nutrients, particularly nitrates.

This finding may provide an explanation for folkloreshared by Bedouins in the Israeli Negev, Israeli wild-crafters, and truffle hunters in Morocco, claimingtruffles will grow where lightning strikes duringthunderstorms. (Lightning of course, is the originalnitrogen fixing process, turning the nitrogen in theair into a form which can be used by plants.)

Plenty of rain in the beginning of the rainy season isnecessary to ensure a good truffle crop in spring.Even so, many truffle hunters, including the Bedou-ins of the Negev, used to believe truffles appear sud-denly, without seed or root, swollen by early season’srains, and loosened from their sandy bed by the loudrumblings of strong thunderstorms. These beliefs goback thousands of years and were shared by manypeoples.

In the 1st century C.E., Pliny the Elder (Gaius Plin-ius Secundus), wrote in his Naturalis Historia, Bookxix:

“Among the most wonderful of all things is the factthat anything can spring up and live without a root.These are called truffles (tubera). They are sur-


298

rounded on all sides by earth, and supported by nofibers. There are two kinds: one is sandy and injuresthe teeth, the other without any foreign matter.Those of Africa are the most esteemed. Peculiarbeliefs are held, for they say they are produced dur-ing autumn rains, and thunderstorms especially, andare best for food in the spring. They grow…wherethere is much sand.”

The Jewish Talmud (the record of rabbinic discus-sion and extrapolations of the Jewish Torah), echoedthe same claim. Truffles and mushrooms are usuallydiscussed together in the Babylonian Talmud (com-piled and redacted in Iraq in the 5th Century C.E.).The Rabbis considering the issue concluded trufflesand mushrooms do not grow from the soil. Rather,they spontaneously appear in the soil. In one place itis said, “They emerge as they are in one night, wideand round like rounded cakes.” This was considereda great wonder and there was some discussionamong the Jews of the day as to which blessingshould be employed before eating them since theones appropriate to ordinary foods might not apply.

The most common species of the genus Terfezia areTerfezia arenaria (syn. T. leonis), T. boudieri, T. clav-eryi, T. leptoderma, and T. terfezioides (=Mattirolo-myces terfezioides) and although just separated - T.pfeilii (syn. Kalaharituber pfeilii). The most commonspecies of the genus Tirmania are Tirmania niveaand T. pinoyi (syn. T. africana). Terfezia spp. havespherical and ornamented spores, while Tirmaniaspp. have smooth spores.

The truffles themselves are round, tan to brown, andlook like small, sandy potatoes. They are a few centi-meters across, and weigh about 1 to 10 oz. The truf-fles produced by both genera are similar in overallappearance and are not easy to tell apart. Theirunique flavor develops as they reach maturity and


299

they are generally cooked in the most simple manneroften by roasting on a bed of coals.

These truffles are generally found by careful exami-nation of the soils in which they and their hostplants grow. Desert truffle hunters rely on a varietyof signs, including the presence of dried hyphae tolead them to the truffles.

Although the field of trufficulture has greatlyexpanded since its inception in 1808, several speciesstill remain uncultivated. The desert truffle is one ofthem, although there is some research going on inIsrael towards its domestication. There is also atleast one Israeli project which is attempting to adaptthe European truffle to desert cultivation conditions.

Morel MushroomsBeautiful, tasty, exotic, and strange, the morels arethe choice tree-associated fungi of the spring.

Typically they are found in moist areas, arounddying or dead Elm trees, Sycamore and Ash trees, oldapple orchards, and in mixed deciduous forests. Theareas where morels are found vary. It is very likelyeach patch of mushrooms may be growing in slightlydifferent conditions. Morels tend to grow in or verynear places in which they were found the yearbefore, though. Wildcrafters of morels carefullymark and map these spots.

Morels are not universally appreciated. There is acertain amount of risk in eating them. One of thereasons morels are suspect is the presence of falsemorels in many areas, morel mushroom look-alikeswhich are not edible. In part, it is because of thesepotentially dangerous mushrooms a drive to domes-ticate the morel has begun.

One man seems to be well ahead of the pack in moreldomestication, Stewart Miller of Indiana, a former


300

biology teacher, who for most of his life has been veryinterested in mushrooms and edible fungi of allkinds. Miller began his morel mushroom cultivationresearch in 1972 while teaching Biology at MarionHigh School in Marion, Indiana. He has been study-ing the relationship between morels - also known assponge mushrooms - and elm, apple, and ash treessince 1992. After years of experimentation, he wasawarded US Patent Number 6,907,691 B2 in June2005 for his morel cultivation process.

To explain how the morel mushroom forms in natureMiller coined the term “symbiotic disruption” toexplain the morel mushroom’s eccentric growinghabits. A suffering or dying tree stimulates the morelfungus inside the root system, causing it to with-draw. Hardened nodules called “sclerotia” formbelow the ground, then with sufficient water andwarmth in the spring, these sclerotia swell and forma morel mushroom.

Morel mushrooms©iStockphoto.com/Becky Swora


301

An avid morel mushroom hunter since childhood,Miller explains growing morels eliminates the guess-work in judging whether wild morels are safe. At hisMorel Farms, which consist of three different parcelsof land, including a 45-acre tract near Lafayette,Indiana, Miller is growing a combined total of 2,000apple, 3,000 ash, and 5,000 elm trees.

The morel mushroom harvest begins in April or May,depending on climate and region. In a test-plot in thefall of 2008 he planted 1,200 elm trees inoculatedwith his patented morel fungus, in an open, well-drained, and fertile acre of land. “In seven years,according to our projections,” said Miller, “each treewill produce approximately five morels for a total of6,000 morels. Total income for the project would beapproximately $7,500. If you divide $7,500 by sevenyears, the resulting income would be projected at$1,071 per acre. This and other forms of researchwill verify our predictions of morel mushroom pro-duction and morel farming as a viable crop.”

This and other domestication and cultivation proj-ects may make the morel as at least as easy to obtainand cultivate as the domesticated truffle and removemuch of the danger from eating morel mushrooms.

Domesticated Mushroom and FungiMany mushrooms and fungi have been domesticatedand are cultivated like any other agricultural crop.Most of these are the type of fungi which get theirenergy from decaying material and so are easier tocultivate, as they can be grown on inoculated logs orother formations of cellulose which contain theproper nutrients rather than cultivated on or by hosttrees.


302

Mushroom farm©iStockphoto.com/doga yusuf dokdok

The most popular is the White Button (Agaricusbrunnescens) which is also the most frequently usedof all mushrooms. Also, called Champignon, theyhave been cultivated by the French since the 1700’s.Today, the United States is the largest grower of cul-tivated White Button Mushrooms. The Champignonretains its shape well when cooked, although they doshrink a little in size. The Champignon has a mildflavor and firm texture and comes in sliced form.Most commercially canned mushrooms are usually ofthis variety. The Champignon absorbs flavors well inany dish and reconstitutes well from its dried form.It has been grown on wood shavings and fine tree lit-ter but its most common growing format uses traysof composted manure.

The first domesticated mushroom of all may havebeen the Chinese Wood Ear, a fungus which doesgrow on a living tree. The domestication and the cul-tivation of these mushrooms were recorded early in


303

Tang Dynasty times (618 - 907 CE). There is infor-mation suggesting the Wood Ear (or Cloud Ear)mushroom was the first mushroom to be domesti-cated in Chinese history. Before domestication, theyand all other wild mushrooms were wildcrafted andoften considered the food of the elite. By SungDynasty times (960 - 1279 CE), there was a guild ofmushroom gatherers, mushroom farms, and a mono-graph written about wild edible mushrooms in theroyal library.

The botanical name of the Wood Ear family of mush-rooms is Auricularia auricular. They have a relativecalled the Silver fungus or White Tree Ear whosebotanical name is Tremella fuciformis.

The tree ear mushroom is the only mushroomamong all edible mushrooms, whose taste is thesame fresh or dried (after reconstituting them bysoaking). The texture is close to the same, as well.Tree or wood ears are traditional food in China.There are many varieties of mushrooms in this fam-ily, about fifteen or twenty species. They earned theirname because they grow on wood and their convo-luted shape resembles ears.

Tree Ears grow in bunches on the trunks of live for-est tees. One species particularly prefers the eldertrees and is only found on them, but most will colo-nize other broad leaf tree varieties. Though Oak isthe most common host tree, they can be found onbanyon, birch, poplar, ash, and elm trees. Some typesgrow on fir trees and even on pines. While thesefungi are most successful when introduced to livinghosts by the transfer of spawn and spores, they canbe grown on harvested logs or artificial logs incorpo-rating diverse agricultural wastes such as cottonseed shells, various types of sawdust, sugarcane, ricestraw, and corn residues into an artificial matrix.


304

Wood Ears are believed to be healthy food and haveconsiderable incomplete protein—many aminoacids—in their composition. One hundred grams ofdried Tree Ears are said to have almost eleven gramsof protein, almost no fat, and sixty-five grams of car-bohydrate, close to four hundred milligrams of cal-cium, half that amount of phosphorus, almost thesame amount of iron, and various polysaccharides. Itis possible they were the first mushroom to bedomesticated because of their nutritive value.

Modern DomesticationsThe domestication of edible mushrooms and fungihas accelerated in the last decades. It is now possibleto grow many types of edible fungi, whether in spe-cial formats or at home on with spawn supplied inkits. The following species are cultivated on har-vested or artificial logs.


305

Shiitake Mushroom (Lentinula edodes)©iStockphoto.com/merrymoonmary

Growing Temperature: 50–80° F

This mushroom is esteemed for both its health-sup-porting properties and its culinary value. It is grownon logs of several different forest trees including oak,alder, and birch. Shiitake mushrooms can be har-vested at 2 week intervals for up to 16 weeks.


306

The Pearl Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus)©iStockphoto.com/Roger Whiteway

Growing Temperature: 55–75°

Pearl Oyster Mushrooms start on logs but will flour-ish in other moist, nutrient-rich areas, like a com-post pile. Often gardeners can enjoy continuedharvests of Oyster Mushrooms for many months.


307

The Blue Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus var. columbinus)©iStockphoto.com/Werner Münzker


This fascinating fungus is a cold-weather variant ofthe Pearl Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus). Itrequires temperatures of approximately 65° Fahren-heit to produce mushrooms, though the myceliumwill continue to grow at temperatures above 65. Dueto its unique temperature requirements, the BlueOyster mushroom can be grown in cool spaces suchas basements and on the north sides of buildings.


308

The Flamingo Oyster (Pleurotus djamor) honored by a stamp©iStockphoto.com/jim pruitt


A tropical species, the Pink Oyster Mushroom is alsoknown as the Flamingo Oyster.


309

The Nameko Mushroom (Pholiota nameko)©iStockphoto.com/Frans Rombout


The Nameko Mushroom is Japan’s second most pop-ular cultivated mushroom Shiitake is the most popu-lar. This mushroom has a strong flavor, faintlyreminiscent of cashews.


310

The Enokitake Mushroom (Flammulina populicola)©iStockphoto.com/Ming Onn Boey


A small capped, long stemmed mushroom a favoritein Japan and known by North Americans as TheWinter Mushroom.


311

The Lion’s Mane Mushroom (Hericium erinaceus)©iStockphoto.com/Vladimir Sazonov


An extraordinary mushroom, the Lion’s Mane (alsocalled Bearded Tooth Mushroom or Hedgehog Mush-room) is one of the most unusual edible fungi. It iscold tolerant and found on hardwoods in nature,especially beech trees. It is being investigated for itsinfluence on auto-immune and degenerative dis-eases. So it may be more than a tasty fungus. Thefruitbody produces cascading, icicle-like clusterswhich can grow to the size of baseballs or larger. Achoice edible, this mushroom imparts a seafood-likeflavor when cooked with butter and onions and eas-ily absorbs the flavors of spices.


312

The Maitake Mushroom (Grifola frondosa)©iStockphoto.com/Yosef Galanti


Maitake mushrooms are succulent and delicious.They are known in Japan as Maitake (also “Hen ofthe Woods” or “Sheep’s Head”). They are a large,hearty mushroom commonly found on or nearstumps and bases of oak trees. They are believed tohave medicinal properties. They are also one of themost popular and widely recognized mushrooms inJapan.


313

The Reishi Mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum)©iStockphoto.com/exxorian


Ganoderma lucidum are known as “Reishi” by theJapanese and “Ling Chi” by the Chinese. This mush-room has long been sought after for its beneficialmedicinal properties. Ling Chi is perhaps the bestrenowned of all the traditional therapeutic fungi,represented in Asian art for thousands of years.Reputed to have many health-supporting properties,this mushroom is generally broken up, powdered,and steeped in simple teas. Its flavor is strong, dis-tinctive, and pleasant to most people.


314

The Pioppino Mushroom (Agrocybe aegerita)©iStockphoto.com/ilbusca


Popular in Italy, Pioppino mushrooms have a mellowand attractive flavor. This table-top mushroom fea-tures beautiful membranous rings on the stemswhich slowly fall as the mushrooms mature; a studyin the beauty of nature. Once fruited, The PioppinoMushroom is an excellent candidate for stump recy-cling of willows, bay, alder, cottonwood, elm, andmany other woods.

Mushroom kits from many companies now offer plugspawn of a number of hardy mushroom species: Rei-shi, The Oregon Polypore, Maitake, The ConiferCoral, Lion’s Mane, Shiitake, Pearl and PhoenixOyster, Chicken of the Woods, and Turkey Tail.

These sterilized wooden dowels are spirally groovedand fully colonized by pure mushroom mycelium.


315

They are sold with instruction booklets so the ama-teur mushroom grower will know how to grow themushrooms, on what wood the spawn will thrive,how to harvest them, and how to cook and eat them.

Growing mushroom on logs©iStockphoto.com/Hsing-Wen Hsu

By using the dowels to inoculate cut hardwood logsor stumps, mushroom mycelium can be encouragedto colonize the chosen wood. Once the wood is fullycolonized (typically 9 to 12 months) mushrooms willgrow copiously from cracks or channels in the wood.Generally, the best time of year to inoculate logs andstumps is in the spring, after the last hard frost.However, in all but the coldest of cold areas, logs canbe inoculated any time up to 2 to 3 weeks beforefreezing temperatures set in for the winter. The ideais to allow the mushroom mycelium growing on theinoculated dowel enough time to establish itself in itsnew home before it goes into dormancy over the win-ter. Logs can be left outdoors over the winter, undera layer of straw or leaves, or a burlap tarp, shade-


316

cloth, or other vapor-permeable cover. Do not useplastic tarps; this can cause mold to form. In areaswhere the winter is exceptionally harsh, logs can bestored in a shed, barn, garage, or other outbuilding.

Most inoculated spawn prefers to grow on hard-woods, with the exception of the Phoenix OysterMushroom, which grows well on firs. Most speciescan be grown on either logs or stumps. Non-aromatichardwoods such as oak, poplar (cottonwood), elm,maple, and similar woods are very good candidatesfor log cultivation. Alder is a good wood for the culti-vation of Oyster and Shiitake mushrooms, but mustbe kept above ground because it will decomposequickly in contact with the soil. Thick-barked woodsare preferable over “paper-bark” woods such asbirch, although birch is an excellent media for thespawn inoculated dowels. Any log which is sheddingits bark should not be used. Logs should be cut oneto three months in advance of inoculation. Cuttinglogs in the late winter or early spring helps to insurethey have a high sugar content, although this is notstrictly necessary. Freshly-cut logs should not beimmediately inoculated. Trees naturally produceanti-fungal compounds, which degrade in two tothree weeks from cutting. Aged deadwood is also notrecommended for inoculation, as it has a poor nutri-ent base for supporting mushroom growth. Logs orstumps with fine cracks running through them aremore quickly colonized with mushroom myceliumthan those without.

Logs should be cut to lengths of about a meter, andare best if they do not exceed 40 cm in diameter.Holes should be drilled to allow for a snug but ade-quate fit for the inoculated dowels. Stumps should beinoculated along the circumference of their face, inthe border between the bark and the heartwood. Themore dowels used per log, the faster the wood will be


317

colonized with mushroom mycelium. Holes can besealed with cheese wax or beeswax to protect themycelium from weather and insects while it is grow-ing; although this step can be helpful, it is not abso-lutely necessary.

Wild Mushrooms (and their trees) There are many wild edible fungi which grow inassociation with various forest trees. There are toomany to list all of them, but some of the more wellknown edible types are found under on or undercommon forest trees.

Leccinum scabrum• The Leccinum genus includes two well-known

mushroom species named after the trees they canusually be found next to. The Leccinum auranti-acum (as well as the L. versipelle), found underaspen trees, and the Leccinum scabrum (as wellas the L. holopus), found under birch trees. Thetwo species are significantly different in cap coloronly. Both are very sought after, being highly pal-atable and beautiful.

• Armillaria - Autumn Stump-Grower; The HoneyMushroom, Shoestring Rot. The genus Armil-laria, with the popular species Armillaria gallicaand A. mellea, being so similar they are rarely dif-ferentiated, are palatable, highly abundant mush-rooms. Generally found on decaying tree stumps,they grow in very large quantities and are easy tospot and identify, arguably reducing the fun andchallenge in mushroom hunting.


318

• Pleurotus ostreatus - The Oyster Mushroom. It isthe most commonly picked tree-dwelling mush-room and is often also artificially cultivated forsale in grocery stores. This sturdy mushroom canbe quite palatable when young. Growing thesemushrooms at home can be a profitable enter-prise.

Picking wild forest mushrooms©iStockphoto.com/intst


319

• Tricholoma matsutake - = syn. T. nauseosum, therare red pine mushroom which has a very distinctand fine aroma. Its undeniable fragrance is bothsweet and spicy. These mushrooms always growunder trees and are usually concealed underfallen leaves and the mast or duff layer. This typeof mushroom forms a symbiotic relationship withthe roots of a limited number of tree species. InJapan it is most commonly associated with Japa-nese Red Pine. However in the Pacific Northwestit is found in coniferous forests of Douglas fir,Noble fir, sugar pine, and Ponderosa pine. Fur-ther south, it is also associated with hardwoods,namely Tanoak and Madrone forests. The PacificNorthwest and other similar temperate regionsalong the Pacific Rim also hold great habitat pro-ducing these and other quality wild mushrooms.In 1999, N. Bergius and E. Danell reported Swed-ish (Tricholoma nauseosum) and Japanese mat-sutake (T. matsutake) are the same species. Thereport stimulated the import of these mushroomfrom Northern Europe to Japan because of thecomparable flavor and taste. Matsutake are diffi-cult to find and are therefore very expensive.Moreover, domestic productions of Matsutake inJapan have been sharply reduced over the lastfifty years due to a pine nematode called Bursaph-elenchus xylophilus, and it has influenced theprice a great deal. The annual harvest of Mat-sutake in Japan has since further decreased. Theprice for Matsutake in the Japanese market ishighly dependent on quality, availability, and ori-gin. The Japanese Matsutake at the beginning ofthe season, which is the highest grade, can go upto $2000 per kilogram (comparable to most truf-fles), while the average value for imported Mat-sutake from China, Europe, and the UnitedStates is only about $90 per kilogram.


320

• The Tricholoma magnivelare is a very popularand commonly cultivated mushroom in NorthAmerica. It has proved to be one of the easier treeassociated fungi to cultivate as it can be seeded bymycelia transfer. British Columbia exports largequantities of this mushroom overseas to Asiawhere it is in high demand.

All of these species require association with a livetree to produce mushrooms, which makes them can-didates for cultivation in forested areas not suitablefor conventional agriculture. Of these so far, onlychanterelles (Cantharellus spp.) and the Tricholo-mas have been grown “in captivity,” and then onlyby achieving successful inoculation. There is somequestion as to whether or not the other species canbe introduced into a chosen outdoor plot completewith host trees where they are not already growing,either by spore slurries or mycelia transfer. Certainlythe attempt should be made as these fungi are allexcellent foods.

Beware of wild mushrooms and fungiSome mushrooms are deadly or extremely hazardouswhen consumed. Others, while not deadly, can never-theless cause permanent organ damage. If using andgathering wild fungi it is strongly advised:

• Only gather mushrooms which have been posi-tively identified.

• Do not depend on generalizations such as “allshelf and bracket fungi are edible” or “all treemushroom are edible” because they are not true.

• To identify the mushrooms a second time duringpreparation, and to prepare them properly (onlyvery few species can be eaten raw). It is consid-ered unwise for collectors to combine the mush-rooms they have collected into salads orcasseroles.


321

• To inform oneself about deadly mushrooms andthe deadly look-alikes of edible ones. The secondcategory varies across world regions, so it isimportant to take into account regional varia-tions.

• Not to gather mushrooms which are difficult toidentify, unless one has an expert’s knowledge.This applies especially to the mushrooms of thegenus Amanita or Cortinarius and “little brownmushrooms” which are often assumed to be ediblebecause of the appearance.

• Only to consume a small amount of the mush-room the first time one tries a certain species.People react differently to different mushrooms,and all mushroom species can cause adverse reac-tion in a few individuals, even the commonchampignon.

Integrating Fungi Growing with Conventional AgricultureSmall-scale mushroom production represents an oppor-tunity for farmers interested in an additional enterpriseand is a specialty option for farmers without much landor with forested land unsuitable for other forms of agri-culture. Market gardeners who want to incorporatemushrooms into their systems and for those farmerswho want to use mushroom cultivation as a way toextract value from woodlot thinning, stumps, logs, andother “waste” materials or indeed to use the living treesof the woodlot themselves as hosts should consider edi-ble fungi as a possible crop. Mushroom production canplay an important role in managing farm organicwastes when agricultural and food processing by-prod-ucts are used as growing media for edible fungi. Thespent substrate after harvest can then be compostedand retuned to the soil. The host trees, of course, willcontinue to contribute to the health of the garden orfarm.

322

Afterword

A Blessing to the Earth

I would like to conclude my book with a quote fromE.F. Schumacher, the author of Small Is Beautiful:Economics as if People Mattered, Harper Perennial(September 27, 1989). On reading Tree Crops: A Per-manent Agriculture, by J. Russell Smith, ShambhalaPublications (December 1987), one of the mostimportant books ever written about the subject ofsilviculture or arboreal agriculture, E F. Schumachersaid:

“Tree Crops made so much sense to me that I havenever been the same since. It made sense because it didnot merely state that “civilized man has marchedacross the face of the earth and left a desert in his foot-prints”—a remark I found confirmed in innumerableplaces throughout the world; no, it did more than that:it showed what could and what should be done. Mostimprobably, it seemed to me, the answer has been thereall the time and was still available to us. Agriculture isfor the plains, while silviculture is for the hills andmountains. When the plough invades the hills andmountains it destroys the land…just as efficient agri-culture depends on human ingenuity and work—infinding the best methods of cultivation, in plant breed-ing and so forth—so an efficient silviculture depends onthe same kind of effort. Without the effort, nothingmuch can happen.

“As my work took me all over the world, everywhere Icould see it thanks to Russell Smith: Agriculture inrocky, dry, and mountainous regions is a disaster, buttrees are salvation. And trees yielding annual crops didnot have to be created, they existed already. But ourcare and attentions, selection and plant breeding, theapplication of methodical science, could improve thembeyond our imagination.

Afterword

323

“All my life has been a discovery of the generosity ofnature. I started out thinking we had to do everythingourselves and of course, we couldn’t. But then I discov-ered that everything will be done for us, provided onlythat we realize our ‘nothingness’ and therefore start tosearch for a way of fitting in with the great processes ofnature, making the most of them, for our purposes.

“By the means of trees, wild life could be conserved,pollution decreased and the beauty of many landscapesenhanced. This is a way or at least one of the ways, tospiritual, moral, and cultural regeneration.”

I, too, read Tree Crops by J. Russell Smith and I, too,was changed forever. The course of my life waschanged with me. The work I wanted to do, the con-tribution I wanted to make to those who come afterme, the potential of tree crops I knew and wild treesno one seemed to know anything about—all becameclear to me.

I went to live in a hard place, an unforgiving placewith blazing sun, caustic soil and bitter water. ThereI learned tree by tree what a blessing trees are to usand to the earth.

Trees are the upwelling zones of the world of agricul-ture, the springs of fertility and abundance for thenatural world. They will protect the earth for us, sta-bilize the climate for us, bring down the rain for us,store water and carbon for us, turn dry sands intofertile soil, feed, clothe, shelter, protect and succorus, and support whole legions of plants and animalsas they do these things as well.

Indeed, we do not have to do everything ourselves.

There is a vast incredibly rich perennial harvestwaiting for us. The solutions for the problems of landdegradation, desertification, pollution, drought, andhunger are available to us. They have been here all


324

the time but we in our restlessness have not beenable to see them.They are ours for the taking on theinvestment of a little thought, a little care, and a lit-tle patience.

All we have to do is learn how to understand thetrees, tap into their promise and potential and usethem wisely.

We must also learn not to be greedy with theirbounty. There must be room, in our land use pat-terns and food producing systems, for the wild crea-tures and wild plants of the world or the world wewill bequeath to our children and grandchildren willa poorer, sadder, and more precarious place.

So let us plant trees everywhere.

There is not one ecological problem caused by agri-culture or animal husbandry the trees of the worldcannot mitigate.

Let each tree planted with thoughtfulness and care,be a step in the greening and healing of the earth.

Amen.

325

Appendix 1Environmental and economic potential

of Bedouin dryland agriculture

Environmental and economicpotential of Bedouin dryland

agricultureA case study in the Northern Negev, Israel

Khalil Abu RabiaBen-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel

Elaine SoloweyThe Arava Institute for Environmental Studies, Qetura, Israel, and

Stefan LeuBen-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel

Abstract

Purpose – The purpose of the paper is to show that land degradation and desertification arethreatening the livelihood of more than a billion dryland inhabitants. The paper aims to presenttraditional and novel approaches for sustainable agricultural exploitation of the arid drylands inSouthern Israel and similar climatic zones, and their potential for rehabilitating degraded drylands andincreasing agricultural productivity.

Design/methodology/approach – The paper analyses the current agricultural activities on theAbu Rabia farm as well as developing experimental approaches and discusses the expected impact onecological, economic and social sustainability.

Findings – The farm investigated consists of about 120 hectares of semi-desert land 30 km east ofBeer Sheva, divided about 50:50 between rocky hill country and plains with deep loess soil. The areareceives an average 200mm of rain per year. The land is used for raising livestock (about 120 head ofsheep and goats), wheat cultivation on high quality soil, and agroforestry, mainly olive cultivation interraces designed to collect runoff water of seasonal streams. These activities provide a basic incomeand cover a significant amount of the families’ food requirements, but can not provide a full income fora family head in a developed country like Israel. Improving the quality of the grazing land bysilvipasture, further investments into high value dryland tree crops and simultaneous production ofwood for industry and energy can dramatically increase the farm’s income, its resilience to droughtand ecological sustainability.

Practical implications – This analysis demonstrates the potential of dryland agroforestry forsustainable development while solving a number of economic and social problems of poor drylandinhabitants, and it contributes to fighting desertification and global warming.

Originality/value – This case study demonstrates that sustainable dryland exploitation byagroforestry can establish significant agricultural production potentials on marginal lands oftenconsidered worthless. Because of the establishment of significant and permanent carbon sinks, carbontrading may be mobilized to cover the required investments creating a classical win-win situation.

Keywords Israel, Global warming, Agriculture, Farms, Land, Applied economics

Paper type Research paper

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at

www.emeraldinsight.com/1477-7835.htm

This work was supported in part by a grant from IALC (International Arid Lands Consortium) toE.S. and S.L.

Bedouin drylandagriculture

353

Received 10 September 2007Revised 12 October 2007

Accepted 7 December 2007

Management of EnvironmentalQuality: An International Journal

Vol. 19 No. 3, 2008pp. 353-366

q Emerald Group Publishing Limited1477-7835

DOI 10.1108/14777830810866464


326

I. IntroductionLand degradation and desertification affect about two-thirds of the world’s countries,and 40 per cent of the earth’s surface, on which one billion people live (Malagnoux,2007). The Middle East and the Mediterranean Basin, including Israel and the areaanalyzed in this paper are among the most severely degraded areas worldwide, withunsustainable, intensive agricultural exploitation beginning 10,000 years ago(Ruddimann, 2003). Most severely affected are the semi-desert areas where biomasscover and soil are dramatically reduced and in extreme cases completely absent.Restoring natural grazing lands as well as establishment of forests, dry woodlands,savannahs or agroforestry projects can dramatically increase the productivity ofdegraded drylands, even in hyperarid regions that are generally consideredunproductive. Such activities also contribute significantly to mitigation of globalwarming by sequestering carbon into soil and biomass (Lal, 2004; Leu, 1990; 2005).

Techniques for agricultural exploitation of deserts by collecting runoff water inartificially created dams or ditches have been applied for thousands of years in theArabian Peninsula. Remains of water collection systems many thousands of years oldof Israelite, Egyptian and Nabatean origin have been found all over the Israeli NegevDesert (Evenari et al., 1971). Agriculture in the Negev continued during centuries,apparently supported by the Byzantine Empire until the eighth century. The successfulrestoration of the historical runoff farm at Uvdat (receiving 80mm of mean annualprecipitation) demonstrates the power of these techniques for producing a wide rangeof agricultural products. It also confirms that the archeological agriculture systemsfound throughout the Negev desert were designed for current levels of precipitation(Haiman, 1995). In contrast to general beliefs, the Bedouin population in Southern Israeland in the Palestinian Authority has, whenever possible, applied techniques ofsustainable desert agriculture throughout the last centuries, and ancient terraces, damsand water holes, many of them recently restored, are testimony to the success andsustainability of those techniques.

Bedouin arrived in Southern Israel hundreds of years ago from Saudi Arabia insearch of water and pasture and settled in the largely unoccupied Negev Desert. Theland was divided amongst tribal groups according to their influence, power andmilitary strength reflecting their ability to occupy and hold onto sources of water,pastures and the roads leading to the ports and cities (Kressel et al., 1991). Bedouinwere well adapted to living in arid environments and were fully aware of theimportance of space for pasture and drinking water for man and their livestock.Bedouins adopted agricultural practices by observation of ancient examples and bycareful management of the available resources. Agricultural activities and lifestylewere adapted to natural cycles and seasons of the desert. The limitations of scarcewater were overcome by capturing and storing water flows in seasonal creeks andrivers during winter, by a system of stow dams and terraces of various sizes. Inaddition, cisterns were built in rock caves for collection of drinking water. Sincemaintenance of such structures requires constant supervision, wars, unrest and lack ofsecurity were a constant threat to those efforts. Only recently, the traditional drylandagroforestry systems of the Southern Hebron Mountains and the Negev are beingrestored after hundred years of turmoil.

The current status of biosphere rehabilitation measures and the remainingrehabilitation potential in a 190km2 section in the Yattir-Lehavim area east of Beer

MEQ19,3

354

Appendix 1: Environmental and economic potential of Bedouin dryland agriculture

327

Sheva (Leu, 2005) was analysed and is documented on this paper as a case study. Inthis area desertification has been stopped by watershed protection projects, forestry,agroforestry and creation of open woodlands by planting about 100-200 trees perhectare (often termed savannization). The authors have determined and extrapolatedthe carbon sink potential of equivalent rehabilitation efforts of the semi-desert areas ofIsrael, the Palestinian Authority and Jordan with similar climatic and topographicconditions and predicted the global carbon sink and biomass production potential ofdryland rehabilitation. Conservative estimates yield a potential global sink for 5gigatons of carbon dioxide per year corresponding to over 30 per cent of the currentcarbon dioxide accumulation rate in the atmosphere (Leu, 2005). In addition suchmeasures could create sustainable supplies of wood, fodder and food. Thus a globaldryland rehabilitation program as demonstrated and proposed here, driven to a largepart by investments on private land, could make a significant contribution tomitigating antropogenic CO2 emissions, stop desertification and give work, food andincome to millions of today’s poorest populations.

II. MethodologyThe location of the Abu Rabbia farm was marked on an Israeli precipitation map(Israel Meteorological Service, Bet Dagan), which indicates a mean annual precipitationat the research site of slightly over 200mm. The borders of the Abu Rabbia propertywere marked on a 1:50000 topographical map for identification of the topographicaldetails given in Figure 1. The details on agricultural activities and yields weresummarized by the authors. The economic aspects and potential of drylandagroforestry were based on recent studies (Leu, 2005) and on the data gathered duringimplementation of an IALC (International Arid Lands Consortium) funded silvipastureproject on this and similar sites. Data on biological productivity potentials weregathered at public afforestation sites near the research site.

III. ResultsTopographical dissection of the Abu Rabbia Farm and implications for agriculturalexploitationThe Abu Rabia property encompasses 120 hectares of dryland in the southern foothillsof the Hebron Mountains, ranging in elevation between 500 and 600m above sea level.The area receives about 200mm of mean annual precipitation (the map shown inFigure 2 indicates the average precipitation observed between 1961 and 1991) with thelarge variations typical for drylands.

Since the farm does not have sufficient water rights for irrigation agriculture,agricultural activities are based on exploitation of the scarce winter rains. About 50haof relatively flat, deep loess soil are used for cultivation of winter wheat. About 10haare in direct vicinity of the Abu Rabbia homes and are strongly degraded due to thehigh density of livestock and poultry. 60ha are rocky, steep hill country used forgrazing of the farms livestock. The property borders follow the watersheds feeding thetemporary streams of the property (Figure 1), which is an important condition forsuccessful runoff agriculture.

The property encompasses close to 5 km of valleys suitable for construction ofterraces and runoff water harvesting. Currently 12 dams have been established,exploiting about 700m (or 15 per cent) of the available potential and creating about 2ha


355


328

Figure 1.Schematic overview of theAbu Rabia property withthe most significantfeatures (North ¼ up)

Figure 2.Geographical location andprecipitation level at theresearch site: the lines ofmean annual precipitation(marked in mm/a) areextrapolated from theaverage precipitation ofyears 1961-1991

MEQ19,3

356


329

of well watered land suitable for highly productive agriculture. The remaining valleysas well as part of the rocky slopes provide space for significant increase in runoffagriculture under application of the whole spectrum of harvesting techniques available(Prinz and Wolfer, 1998).

Current agricultural activitiesWater management and soil conservation. It takes a commitment to the land and secureland ownership to build the necessary dams or terraces to control water runoff andretain the alluvial silt or soil. Therefore privately held family pieces of land aregenerally better maintained than equivalent, nearby public lands (leased for examplefor short term agricultural exploitation), as measured by erosion damage, yields andbiodiversity. Private lands are often kept free of erosion, and rocks are removedregularly from the wheat growing areas. Land is plowed along the contours (contourplowing), which allows the rain to soak into the soil and increases soil humidity.Excess water not absorbed by the soil is collected by damming seasonal streams tocontrol the often destructive power of floods. Water slowly absorbed into the soilenhances the natural vegetation that further slows the water flow and enhances soilconservation. A delicate balance is critical in these land management practices,between the amount of water that is captured, and the amounts of water released in acontrolled manner. Any flow of rainwater carries topsoil that spreads fertility todammed areas that become suitable for intensive exploitation. Proper livestockmanagement is crucial in regulating the correct amount of runoff, and organic animalmanure accumulating in the grazing lands and in dammed areas further increases soilfertility (Golodets and Boeken, 2006). However, overgrazing especially in dry years canirreversibly damage the land by erosion of topsoil and loss of seeds of native plantsand organic litter. Again, based on our survey of the area, private lands are less likelyto suffer from overgrazing than public and governmental lands on short- term lease.

Cereal production. The major crop produced on large areas in the Negev is winterwheat. It can yield 1,000-1,500 kg per hectare in average to good years, but the crop has ahigh risk of failing in years with below average or irregular rainfall. Barley is popular inthe cooler and dryer southeast as a substitute for the more valuable, but more droughtsensitive wheat. During good seasons the cereals are harvested and surplus is sold, inbelow average years the grain is not harvested but used as protein rich livestock fodderduring summer and fall when the traditional grazing land is exhausted.

Livestock. In order to deal with the harsh conditions of the desert, the Bedouin havespecialized in raising animals that can survive with a minimum food and little water,such as camels, sheep or goats.

The Abu Rabia ranch used as a case study in this paper currently holds a herd ofabout 120 heads of sheep and goats. Even though all of the hill country as well as partof the annual wheat crop are used for grazing, the farm supplies no more than 50-70 percent of the fodder requirements in average years. Insufficient edible plant material isproduced to last the whole year, and by the end of summer the nutritious value ofremaining plant material is too low to cover the animals’ needs. Additional fodder isbought, but this significantly reduces the profit from the herd.

The most important profits of animal husbandry at the Abu Rabia farm are theproduction of meat by selling of most of the herd offspring. Dry cheese, for long-termstorage, and fresh cheese for immediate use are produced from goat and sheep milk.


357


330

Due to the natural, organic fodder and vegetation those animal products are free ofchemicals and can be considered organic free range products, a big marketingadvantage in the future. Wool is used for production of covers, coats, mattresses andrugs. Women specializing in the wool business can create steady income from the localmarket that has a significant growth potential.

The total net income of the herd, taking into account labor and fodder costs andveterinary care, is in the range of US$10,000 per year (corresponding to the minimalsalary by law in Israel) even though the herd is straining the lands production potentialto its limits. Improving the fodder basis of the land appears the only way to increaseprofitability of the herding business considering the high and growing cost of buyingadditional fodder.

Dryland agroforestry. The long-term ownership of the land has enabled the AbuRabbia family to invest in time consuming and expensive techniques of exploitingrunoff water for cultivation of fruit trees. So far 12 stow dams have been constructed indry valleys, creating temporarily flooded areas of totally about 2 hectares (Figure 3).

Most of the family farms grow olives, grapes and figs. Olive oil is used mostly forconsumption as food, but also used as healing topical oil and internal medicine and isvalued as oil for lighting the home. In addition the terraced areas of the Abu Rabiafarm are used for cultivation of a large number of different fruit trees (Figure 4, Table I),whereby olive with about 300 trees is the dominant one.

The gross earnings from the 300 young olive trees is currently about US$2,000 peryear (with yields of about 1 l of oil per tree per year), but is expected to reach at leastUS$10,000 per year with the trees getting bigger and producing 5 l of oil per year andtree. Considering that so far only about 15 per cent of the farm’s potential is exploitedfor agroforestry in this way, olive planting appears to be the most profitable long termoption for increasing the farms income in a sustainable way, with gross earnings ofover US$50,000 per year anticipated in the long term. However, quality trees cost aboutUS$8 per tree, and investments for terracing, planting, initial watering and fencing

Figure 3.Dammed and fencedagroforestry plantation atthe Abu Rabiah farm witha variety of planted fruittrees

MEQ19,3

358


331

result in total investment costs of US$20 per tree. Since profits are expected earliest 5years after planting, such investments are a grave burden slowing the developmentpotential for agroforestry.

Figure 4.Besides the classical

dryland species olive (topleft) and pomegranate (topright), a wide range of fruittrees manage to produce

fruit in such dammedareas, including plums

(bottom left), grapes(bottom right), peach,

apple, pear, guava, etc.(see Table I)

Species Produce Time of harvest Other benefits

Olive Oil November Leaves and litter for soil improvementand livestock fodder, cutting residuesand wood for fires, soil improvementand erosion control

Grapes Fresh/dry fruit AugustAlmonds Green fruit Spring (fresh) or summer (dryFigures Fresh/dry fruit August/SeptemberPomegranate Fresh fruit August/SeptemberApricotsa Fresh fruit MayMulberrya Fresh fruit JunePlumsa Fresh fruit JuneApplesa Fresh fruit JunePeacha Fresh fruit MayGuavaa Fresh fruit September/OctoberPeara Fresh Fruit May/June

Note: aThe species are not generally considered dryland species, but perform well without irrigation

Table I.Fruit tree species grownsuccessfully in the Abu

Rabia dams withoutirrigation (except for atwo year adaptation

period)


359


332

The terraced areas are used for classical agroforestry activities as well. Vegetables,lentils, tobacco and Sorghum are intercropped with trees in the dammed areas. Due tothe large amounts of humidity stored in the dammed areas, tobacco and sorghumcontinue growing in these dams throughout the summer allowing multiple harvests(Figure 5).

Winter wheat is routinely intercropped in the terraced areas as insurance fordrought years, so that even in the driest of years a minimal harvest can be produced ona small area. The yield achieved in those dammed areas is five times that of the regulargrowing areas and can reach 7.5 tons per hectare.

Expansion and development potential of the agricultural activitiesSilvipasture. The grazing potential of the land could easily be doubled or tripled bytemporary reduction of grazing intensity and large scale planting of browsing treesand shrubs. Such measures require significant capital for covering the necessaryinvestments and the temporary loss of income. We have initiated a silvipasture project(Figure 6), whereby a number of drought resistant multipurpose trees and shrubs(Table II) are planted mainly on the farm’s most degraded land.

The benefits expected from silvipasture are threefold:

(1) The summer active perennials directly supply fresh fodder and protein richseed pods and litter during the toughest time on the farm, in late summer andfall, when no other sources of protein are available. Sufficient trees can thussubstitute for buying fodder and help covering the herd’s needs throughout allof the year.

Figure 5.Classical agroforestrywith summer sorghum(left behind) intercroppedwith olive trees

MEQ19,3

360


333

(2) The trees improve the soil by creating organic litter and improving the mineraland water balance of the land. Synergistic increase of annual vegetationunderneath dryland trees is clearly observable, with partial shading, soilimprovement and supply of nutrients (nitrogen fixation) all involved in thisinteresting synergism. The 60ha of hilly grazing lands could easilyaccommodate some 10,000 fodder trees in a savanna configuration (150 treesper ha), and we expect an increase of at least three-fold in biologicalproductivity on this moderately degraded rangeland. Full exploitation of thesilvipasture potential of the Abu Rabia ranch could easily triple biologicalproductivity and thus sustain about double the current herd size. Due toreduced fodder expenses, profitability of the herd could be more than doubled inthis way, although an investment of US$20.000-40.000 for planting andtemporary reduction of income must be taken into account.

(3) In order to maintain full grazing capacity, the silvipasture trees will have to betrimmed periodically to maintain optimal shading and tree cover. Thussignificant amounts of cutting residues become available soon that can be usedas fuel. Most rural inhabitants of southern Israel are heating with firewood

Figure 6.A newly planted mesquite

tree (Prosopis juliflora)near the farmhouses of the

Abu Rabia ranch,established on stronglydegraded unproductive

grazing land


361


334

Species

Properties

Produce

Advantages

Disadvantages

Acaciaraddiana

Thorny,highly

droughtresistant

Edibleseed

podsandfoliage,

litter

from

flow

ersandleaves

Nitrogen

fixingnative,

biodiversity

Slow

growing,long

winterdormancy

Prosopisjuliflora

Droughtresistanttree

ofAmerican

origin

Largeedibleseed

potsand

foliage

Nitrogen

fixing,fast

growing

(biomasspotential)

Som

einvasiveness

Pistaciaatlantica

Highly

droughtandcold

resistant,almostextinct

inthe

area

Edibleseeds,deciduous

Native,biodiversity

Ceratonia

siliqua

(Carob)

Evergreen,highly

drought

resistant

Edibleseed

podsandfoliage

Nitrogen

fixingNative

Slow

growing

Argania

spinosa

Oilproducingtree

from

Morocco,

highly

droughtresistant

Fruitandfoliageeatenby

livestock

Higheconom

icpotential

ofoil

production,partlydom

esticated

Sensitiveto

Fusarium

Pistacialentiscus

Evergreen

smalltree/largeshrub

Seedsandfoliageeatenby

livestock

Native,componentof

the

oak/carob/pistacia,dry

Mediterraneanwoodlands

Lim

ited

drought

resistance

Acaciavictoria

Australian

evergreen

Foliage,seed

podsandflow

ers

Highly

droughtresistantand

cold

tolerant,evergreen

Not

nativeslightly

invasive

Sclerocaryacaffra

birrea

(Marula)

Fruitandmultipurposetree

from

SouthernAfrican

Fruit,foliageandexpensiveoil

from

seeds

Droughtandcold

tolerant,partly

dom

esticated

Ziziphusspina-christi

Thornydeserttree

withsm

all

ediblefruit

Fruitandfoliage,honey

Extrem

elydroughtandheat

tolerant

Acaciabibinosa

Desertshrub

Ediblehighprotein

leaves

and

pods

Droughttolerant,resistantto

grazing

Cassia

stuartii

Desertshrub

Highprotein

leaves

andpods

Droughttolerant,resistantto

grazing

Table II.Some of the silvipasturetree and shrub speciesplanted or considered forplanting at theexperimental field of theAbu Rabia farm

MEQ19,3

362


335

during the short but cold winter. In times of rising oil prices, increasing woodproduction for energy is good business with firewood being sold far above thebiomass market price of US$100 per ton.

Expansion of agroforestry. The agroforestry potential of the Abu Rabia farm so far hasnot been realized. Only about 15 per cent of the suitable valleys are watered by thestow dams (Figure 1). The sloping land allows for creation of further terraces or othermeans to collect runoff water (Prinz and Wolfer, 1998), which could allow plantation ofat least 3,000 dryland fruit trees across the farm. Such plantations with a variety of treespecies could very dramatically increase the income of the farm. Climate and land aresuitable for planting Pistachio, Almonds and Argan, an oil tree fromMorocco whose oilis sold at more than US$150 per liter both in Israel and in Europe and the US. Thanksto a first generation of trees with increased yields, and half mechanical oil productionequipment available (E. Solowey, personal communication), this tree can represent ahigh value commodity for Mediterranean dryland farmers.

Biomass production. In an area where heating with wood is the traditional means topass the cold winter nights, and in the light of increasing oil prices, sale of sustainablyharvested wood can further increase the farms income. 15,000 trees planted on the AbuRabia farm can supply about 100 tons of wood per year from thinning and trimmingalone within about ten years. With cut firewood being sold for about US$200 per tonthis can represent a very significant additional income. Planting of Eucalyptus or pine(that grow well in the area) for higher yields or saw wood can further increase incomefrom forestry operations without reducing grazing capacity.

Medical plants. Cultivation and exploitation of medical plants has an extremely higheconomical potential in semi-desert areas. Many aromatic plants of the Oregano family(Figure 7), but also Foeniculum, Artemisia and others grow well under such harshconditions without irrigation, and as a fact accumulate more aromatic oil than the sameplants grown in wetter environments. The number of such plants can easily beincreased by seed application in suitable locations (that are often degraded rockyhillsides), and dried plant material or distilled essential oils can be sold at veryattractive prices.

Figure 7.Two typical medical

plants from thesemi-desert environment

in Southern Israel


363


336

IV. DiscussionEconomic growth potential of the Abu Rabia FarmAs demonstrated by the analysis of a private 120ha Bedouin family farm, applicationof traditional, sustainable dryland agriculture and agroforestry to properties ofsuitable size and topography in semi-desert environments can improve ecologicalsustainability, resilience to climate change and multiply the current farm’s income.Today’s farm income is mainly based on barely sustainable grazing of livestock andprovides a single minimum wage of net revenue. Expansion of high value tree crops,increasing the grazing potential by addition of multipurpose trees, commercial sale ofwood and further activities like production of organic fruits, eggs or medical plants cancreate income sufficient for several full time staff even under relatively high salaryconditions as those in Israel, with a minimum wage of US$800 and an average grossincome of US$1,600 per month.

Significance of dryland farming to the Negev BedouinIn the Negev alone at least 1,000 similar farms could be created by transferring publicagricultural land, that is being exploited under short term lease, to private ownershipor long term lease. Such farms could absorb and fully occupy between 3,000 and 5,000families, without encroaching into ecologically sensitive areas. It should be noted thatalready now Negev Bedouin successfully exploit lands down to 100mm of meanannual precipitation using agroforestry techniques as the ones described here. Such aprogram would be of highest significance to the socioeconomic and culturaldevelopment of the Bedouin helping to transform them from a marginalized to a proud,land-owning and productive population. This approach will facilitate integration ofwomen into independent trade and business activities without sudden break of thestrict rules of tradition. Orderly transformation of some of the most neglectedpopulation segments in the Negev into productive independent farmers based ontraditional knowledge and family structures can also help mitigate or avoid some of thesocial problems observed during the rapid forced urbanization of the last decades(Abu-Saad et al., 2001). By cooperating with like-minded, concerned individualscommitted to living on this planet with the least impact on the web of interdependentlife, the Bedouin recognize that the human ecology of relationships is no less fragileand in need of a new perspective. They welcome all initiatives that will help themrestore natural balance to overexploited drylands.

Global implicationsThe conclusions presented here concerning the Israeli Bedouin population applysimilarly to hundreds of millions of marginalized dryland inhabitants worldwide, who,due to lacking land tenure, conflicts and desertification are driven into vicious cycles offurther land degradation, more poverty and thus faster desertification. According to anextensive FAO survey (Pretty et al., 2006), farmers relying on traditional agriculturaltechniques fared far better than their colleagues relying on intensive, globalizedagroindustrial technologies thanks to lower cost (less fertilizer and pesticide use),higher water productivity and higher resilience to drought and weather extremes.

It can be clearly demonstrate here that establishing land tenure, education andinstruction in suitable agricultural techniques can create blooming drylands withoutthe need for irrigation, fertilizers and pesticides. Privatization of degrading drylands

MEQ19,3

364


337

kept unnecessarily in government hands, under supply and implementation of thenecessary rehabilitation technologies, could stop desertification by private initiativealone and create enormous production potentials for food, animal products and carbonnegative, sustainable biomass energy (Righelato and Spracklen, 2007). This is in starkcontrast to the developments in Israel and many third world countries, where mostland is being nationalized at the expense of nomadic people’s traditional rights. Whileother models of land ownership like resource conserving community management (notexisting in Israel anymore) could yield similar benefits, privatization has the clearadvantage of full accountability concerning all aspects of land management. Onlyprivate landowners can, e.g. receive loans for developing their property andsubsequently claim carbon credits resulting from land rehabilitation.

Carbon trading for land rehabilitationThe context between land rehabilitation and global warming has been presentedsufficiently clear in a large number of publications (Malagnoux, 2007; Lal, 2004; Leu,1990, 2005). It is clear that suitable land management techniques including treeplanting, soil conservation and water management can create very significant carbonsinks in drylands. We estimate that the Abu Rabia property could act as a carbon sinkfor 200-400 tons of carbon dioxide per year over the next 50 years at least. Accordingly,the investments required for planting and maintenance of the necessary trees, terracesetc. could basically be funded by carbon trading schemes supporting such privateefforts. Finding rapid, efficient ways to create certified carbon sinks by rehabilitationof private drylands could probably be one of the safest and most profitable carbontrading practices in terms of verification, guarantees and ecological benefits.

V. ConclusionsCareful land rehabilitation, harvesting of runoff water and investments into suitabletree crops can create viable agricultural production potentials in arid and hyperaridenvironments, contingent on suitably sized private properties.

Silvipasture can dramatically improve the grazing yield of degraded drylands andresults in higher productivity and land rehabilitation and significant carbonsequestration.

Property sizes of 50-100ha per family, and appropriate support for investments andrehabilitation can provide highly climate resilient agricultural production units withsignificant economic potential.

Land rehabilitation and biomass accumulation on those sites will create permanentcarbon sinks that can be sold for covering investment costs.

The findings exemplified here are applicable to all degraded land areas in tropicaland subtropical areas and can play a central role in fighting poverty, haltingdesertification and mitigating global warming.

References

Abu-Saad, K., Weitzmann, S., Abu-Rabiah, Y., Abu-Shared, H. and Fraser, D. (2001), “Rapidlifestyle, diet and health changes among urban Bedouin Arabs of Southern Israel”, Food,Nutrition and Agriculture, Vol. 28, available at: www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/Y0600M/y0600m06.htm


365


338

Evenari, M., Shanan, L. and Tadmor, N. (1971), The Negev: The Challenge of a Desert, HarvardUniversity Press, Cambridge, MA.

Golodets, C. and Boeken, B. (2006), “Moderate sheep grazing in semiarid shrubland alterssmall-scale soil surface structure and patch properties”, Catena, Vol. 65, pp. 285-91.

Haiman, M. (1995), “Agriculture and Nomad-State relations in the Negev Desert in the Byzantineand early Islamic periods”, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Vol. 297,pp. 29-53.

Kressel, G.M., Ben-David, J. and Abu Rabia, K. (1991), “Changes in the land usage by the NegevBedouin since the mid-nineteenth century”, Nomadic Peoples, Vol. 28, pp. 28-55.

Lal, R. (2004), “Carbon sequestration in dryland ecosystems”, Environmental Management,Vol. 33, pp. 528-44.

Leu, S. (1990), Forests and Carbon Dioxide, Swiss Review of World Affairs No. 2, Verlag NZZ,Zurich, pp. 10-13.

Leu, S. (2005), “Dryland agroforestry for biomass, food, carbon sequestration and desertrehabilitation”, Proceedings of the 14th European Biomass Conference, Paris, pp. 341-4.

Malagnoux, M. (2007), Arid Land Forests of the World: Global Environmental Perspectives,available at: ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/ah836e/ah836e00.pdf

Pretty, J.N., Noble, A.D., Bossio, D., Dixon, J., Hine, R.E., Penning de Vries, F.W.T. and Morison,J.I.L. (2006), “Resource-conserving agriculture increases yields in developing countries”,Environ. Sci. Technol., Vol. 40 No. 4, pp. 1114-9.

Prinz, D. and Wolfer, S. (1998), “Opportunities to ease water scarcity (water conservationtechniques and approaches)”, Proceedings, International Conference on World WaterResources at the Beginning of the 21st Century, available at: www.ubka.uni-karlsruhe.de/cgi-bin/psview?document ¼ /1998/bau-verm/6&search ¼ /1998/bau-verm/6

Righelato, R. and Spracklen, D.V. (2007), “Carbon mitigation by biofuels or by saving andrestoring forests?”, Science, Vol. 317, p. 902.

Ruddimann, W.F. (2003), “The anthropogenic greenhouse effect era began thousands of yearsago”, Climatic Change, Vol. 61, pp. 261-93.

Corresponding authorKhalil Abu Rabia can be contacted at: [email protected]

MEQ19,3

366

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: [email protected] visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints

339

Appendix 2A Short List of Fuel Trees

Fuelwood species for Arid AreasAcacia brachystachaAcacia cambrgiAcacia cyclopsAcacia niloticaAcacia radianaAcacia salingaAcacia SenegalAcacia seyalAcacia tortillisAdhatoda vasicaAlbitzia lebbeckAnogeissuss latifoliaAzadriachta indicaCajanus cajunCassia siameaColophospermum mopaneEmblica officialisEucalyptus camaldulensisEucalyptus citriodoraEucalyptus gomphocephalaEucalyptus microthecaEucalyptus occidentalisHaloxylon aphyllumHaloxylon persicumParkinsonia aculeatePinus halepensisPithecellobium dulceProsopis alba


340

Prosopis chiliensisProsopis cinerariaProsopis julifloraProsopis pallidaProsopis tamarugoTamarix aphyllaTamarix niloticaZisiphus mauriniaZisiphus spina-christi

Fuelwood species for Tropical HighlandsAcacia mearnsiiAilanthus altissimaAlnus acuminataAlnus nepalensisAlnus rubusEucalyptus globulesEucalyptus grandidGrevillia robustaInga veraShorea spp.

Fuelwood species for Humid TropicsAcacia auriculiformisCalliandra calothyrusCasuarina equistefoliaDerris indicaEugenia jambolanaGliricidia sepiumGmelina arboreaGuazuma ulmifoliaLeucaena leucocephaliaMangroves

Appendix 2: A Short List of Fuel Trees

341

Mimosa scabrellaMuntingia calaburaSesbania bispinosaSesbania grandifloraSyzygium cuminiTerminalia cataapaTrema spp.

342

Glossary

Actinobacteria—nitrogen fixing bacteria related to fungiActinomycete-a specialized nitrogen fixing micro organism related to fungiAbcisse—the separation and fall of fruit, flowers, leaves and other plant partsAgricultural pyramid—the sides of the agricul-tural pyramid are: plants, farmers, animals, soilAllele—different versions of the same gene, some-times in the same organismAquaculture systems—aquatic cropping systems to produce plants, mollusks or fishArable soil—soil that is suitable for agricultureArtificial manure—the original name for chemi-cal fertilizerAttush-bark cloth garment from northern JapanBast-the inner bark of certain treesBioinnoculants—cultures of bacteria and soil symbionts added to compostBiometric School—the school of plant genetics dedicated to population breedingBiosphere—the earth and all living elements upon itBiotechnology—-the science of accelerated, trans-genetic manipulation of living creaturesBreeding—Controlled propagation of palnts to achieve specific purposesCash crops—crops which are cultivated to supply raw materials in return for cash paymentCellulose digesters—modern closed compost bins

Glossary

343

Cellulosic ethanol-bio fuel derived from agricul-tural wastes and woody sourcesCloches—frames covered with glass or plastic to raise the air temperature around plantsCold bed agriculture—a system in which plants are nourished with cold waterCompanion planting—the planting of different cultivars which benefit from each other’s proxim-ityCompost—broken down, rotted plant material suitable for inclusion in the farm nutrient cycleConventional agriculture—-agriculture based on the use of fossil fuels, fertilizer in the form chem-ical salts and monocropsConventional breeding processes—pedigreed breeding resulting in huge stands of identical plantsCrop diversity—multiple cultivars on a farm, multiple varieties within a cultivarCrop rotation—planting crops in planned succes-sion to curtail insect activity and preserve fertil-ityCultivars—cultivated, domesticated plantsCultivated—raised purposefully by the farmer or agriculturalist, worked by the farmerCyanobacteria—blue green algaeDeforestation-the removal of forest cover and vegetationDeciduous—plants that lose leaves in the winterDiazotrophs-microorganisms that can “fix” nitro-genDiazovesicles-specialized plant organs for absorb-ing nitrogen made available by bacteria


344

Domestication—the process by which the breed-ing and propagation of a wild organism comes under human influenceDormancy—a state of inactivity or suspension of biological processesDrip irrigation—irrigation systems which deliver precise amounts of water through small pipesEcotypical cultivar—a strain of crop plants well adapted to a specific localeEpistasis—one gene modifies the expression of another gene, not an alelle of the first Erosion- the loss of topsoil to wind and waterEthanol—ethyl alcohol, C2H5OHField resistance—enduring, non-specific, polyge-netic tolerance of disease or environmental chal-lengeFrankia-a type of nitrogen fixing bacteria associ-ated with alder treesGene transfers—the transfer of genetic material to a different organism’s genomeGenetic base—the gene pool of a crop plantGenetic diversity—the variability and flexibility of a crop’s gene poolGenetic engineering—genetic modification, GMGenetic modification—manipulation of the genome of an organism by the addition of exo-genesGenome—the complete complement of genes within an organismGenotypes—two organisms with the same genome are said to have the same genotypeGerminate—to sprout or developGermplasm—germ cells and bearers of heredity

Glossary

345

Gluten—elastic protein substance in wheat that gives cohesiveness to doughGray water—urban but non-industrial waste water, mostly from private dwellingsGrowth inhibitors—substances which keep a seed from sprouting, or a plant from growingHalophytes—salt loving or salt tolerant plantsHarvest index—-the proportion of a crop which can be used for the crop’s principle purposeHeirloom variety—older variations of cultivated plants with specific characteristics that breed trueHeliculture-the cultivation of snailsHybrids—the progeny of a cross between two dif-ferent varietiesHydrolysis- molecule is split because of the addi-tion of waterHydroponics—literally ‘water working’, growing plants in waterHyphae-(plural) fungal filamentsIndigenous—native to an areaIndustrial style farming—high input, high energy use factory style farming Integrated crops—crops and crop successions which are planted together for synergistic bene-fitsIntegrated pest management—limiting pest pop-ulations by good farm management,Intercrop—growing two or more cultivars together for their mutual benefitIsolines—static and uniform end result of pedi-greed breeding


346

Jackpot traits—the ‘jackpot’ traits are: drought tolerance, salt tolerant and nitrogen fixing abilityJaggery—a form of palm sugarLandraces—primitive ecotypical cultivars, with great genetic variability and diversityLarva- the juvenile stage of a metamophizing insect, larva pupate then transform into adultsLegumes—a plant in the pea or bean family, usu-ally capable of fixing nitrogenLichen- organisms composed of algae and fungus in symbiotic self replicating stable statesLignin-complex chemical compound mostly found in woodMasi-a form of Polynesian bark clothMasaka-African bark clothMendelian School—the pedigreed school of plant breedingMicrogardening—producing food in tiny private areasModified seeds—seed which has undergone genetic manipulationMonocrops—crops which are not genetically diverse, frequently the only cultivar in a wide areaMonoculture—the practice of growing large stands of one kind of identical plantMycellium—the vegetative part of fungi, made up of hyphaeMycorrhiza—fungal soil symbiont microorgan-ismsNymph-the juvenile, miniature form of some insects, that do not pupate, but grow into larger

Glossary

347

forms by shedding their skin until they reach adulthoodOrganically grown crops—crops which are raised in healthy soil without chemicals of any kindParasitize—to become a parasite upon another living organismPatented genes—genes which are ‘owned’ by companies, individuals or institutionsPattern rotation—a sophisticated form of crop rotation which curtails pests and diseasePerennial—a plant which lives for many yearsPermaculture—the art/science of creating a sta-ble, sustainable, humane, energy efficient food webPhyto-pesticides—target materials derived from plants i.e. NeemPlant clones—identical plants produced asexually

Pleiotrophy—effect of a gene on the expression of a number of different genetic traitsPolyunsaturated—oil or fatty acid rich in unsatu-rated bondsPropagation—the breeding and multiplication of living organismsReclamative crop—a crop which is planted to improve impoverished soilRefugia-areas of surviving population of rare spe-ciesRelic crop—a rare ecotypical cultivar, a surviving ‘lost crop’.Relict species-species left unchanged and isolated by changes in climate or by geography


348

Resistant varieties—plants which demonstrate non-specific or field resistanceRhizobia-nitrogen fixing bacteria associated with legumesRhizosphere-the root zone of some plantsRiparian systems—relating to or involving a watershedSaponins—any of various glucosides found in plantsSeed Bank—an institution dedicated to the pres-ervation and storage of seedsSericulture-cultivation of silkwormsShelf-life—the amount of time a food or product remains edible before spoilageSilwan-date syrupSiapo- highly developed form of bark clothSoil building crops—crops which improve the health and fertility of the soilSpecies—a class of individual organisms having common attributes and designated by the same nameStem flow-water which is collected by plants from moist air by condensation on the physical struc-ture of the plants Subsistence agriculture—agriculture in which families and villages provide food for themselvesSubstantial equivalence—the idea that food plants are not significantly changed by genetic manipulation so do not have to be tested or inves-tigated vis a vis human healthSustainable agriculture—agriculture which does not damage soil, water or farm environment

Glossary

349

Synergistic integration—farm elements which enhance the health and productivity of other farm elementsTertiary foods—herbs, spices, tea, coffee, cola and chocolateToddy-a drink made from fermented palm sapToxicity—a state relating to or caused by a toxic substanceToxin—a poisonous substance which is the prod-uct of the metabolic activity of a living organismTransgene—gene from a dissimilar organismTransgene traits—traits acquired by transferring genes from another organism Truffles-edible fungi that grow on the roots of trees and other perennial plantsTruffieres-truffle producing orchardsTubers—thickened underground stems of a plantVermiculture-the cultivation of earthworms or red wormsVertisols—‘black cotton’ clay soils which are diffi-cult to make productiveWildcrafting-taking a harvest from wild plantsWildcrop—plant product which is not taken from cultivated plants but gathered from the wildWild pathosystems—in which each plant is differ-ent so the spread of disease is curtailed by vari-abilityWindbreak—a line of trees or vegetation planted to reduce the force of the windXiji-a tenured wildcrafting territory for collecting frankincense gum


350

Yield drag—the harvest deficit between unmodi-fied crops and GM crops due to GM plants’ resource debts

351

Bibliography

IntroductionDiamond, Jared, Collapse, How Societies Choose to Fail

Or Succeed, Viking Publishers, 2005Kunstler, James, The Long Emergency, Atlantic Monthy

Press, 2005Smith, J. Russel, Tree Crops, A Permanent Agriculture,

Harper Colophon Books, 1950

Chapter 1Giono, Jean; Giono, Aline, The Man Who Planted Trees,

Shambhala Publication Inc, reprint, 2000Glueck, Nelson, Rivers In the Desert: A History of the

Negev, Norton Publishers, 1968Kitterage, Joseph, Forest Influences, The Effects of

Woody Vegetation on Climate Soil and Water, Dover Publication Inc., reprint, 1973

Oryx, The International Journal of Conservation, April 2002, Volume 36 Number Two “Rainforests Harvest the Skies” p. 110

Chapter 2Jacke, David, Edible Forest Gardens, Chelsea Green

Publications, 2008Leu, Stefan, Forests and Carbon Dioxide, Ben Gurion

University Press, 2005Prinz, Dieter, Ron-off Farming, WCA infoNET, 2005

Chapter 3Ajayi OC, Place F, Kwesiga F and Mafongoya P, 2006,

Fertilizer Tree Fallows in Zambia, Occasional Paper No. 5, Nairobi, World Agroforestry Cnter

ICRAF, Improving on Improvement, Mixed Tree Fallows for better Maize Crops in South Africa,2006, The International Centre for Research In Agroforestry

Jacke, David, Edible Forest Gardens, Chelsea GreenPublications, 2008


352

National Academy of Sciences, Tropical Legumes: Resources for the Future, National Academy Press, 1979 Washington D.C

Raven, Peter and Johnson, George, Biology, Times, Mirrot/Mosby College Publishing 1989

Smith, J. Russel, Tree Crops, A Permanent Agriculture, Harper Colophon Books, 1950

Chapter 4Biology of the Acacia, Australian Systematic Botany Vol.

16, No. 1, 2003Harwood, Rinaudo, Adewusi, Developing Australian

Acacia Seeds as Human food for the Sahel, CSIRO, Department of Forestry, Canberra, 2007

House, APN and Harwood, ED (eds), Australian Dry Zone Acacias for Human Food, CSIRO, Division of Forestry, Canberra

Logan, William Bryant, Oak, the Frame of Civilization, W.W.Norton and Company, 2005

Chapter 5Blume, David, with Michael Winks, and R. Buckminster

(FWS) Fuller, Alcohol Can Be a Gas!: Fueling an Ethanol Revolution for the 21st Century, The International Institute for Ecological Agriculture

Crooks, Anthony C., Cooperatives and New Uses for Agricultural Products: An Assessment of the Fuel Ethanol Industry, USDA (Kindle Edition - Mar. 17, 2010) – Kindle

Eckholm, EP. Planting for the Future, Forestry for Human Needs, Worldwatch Paper 26, 1979, Worldwatch Institute, New York, NY

Goettemoeller, Jeffrey and Adrian, Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence, 2007Prairie Oak Publishing

National Academy of Sciences, Lost Crops of Africa, Vol. 1 Grains, National Academy Press, 1996

http://www.amazon.com/Alcohol-Can-Be-Gas-Revolution/dp/0979043778/ref=sr_1_16?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1278226888&sr=8-16

http://www.amazon.com/Alcohol-Can-Be-Gas-Revolution/dp/0979043778/ref=sr_1_16?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1278226888&sr=8-16

Bibliography

353

Chapter 6Fleuret, P. and Fluert, A., Fuelwood Use In a Peasant

Community, Journal of Developing Areas 12(3): pp. 315-322

National Academy of Sciences, Lost Crops of Africa, Vol. 1 Grains, National Academy Press, 1996

National Academy of Sciences, Firewood Crops Shrub and Tree Species for Energy Production, National Academy Press, 1980

Chapter 7Karg, Sabrine, “Direct Evidence of Heath Land

Management in the Early Bronze Age: From the Grave Mound Skelhoj in Western Denmark,” Vegetation, History and Archeology, Vol. 17 No. 1, January 2008, Springer Publishers

Soule, Judy, Piper, Jon and Jackson, Wes, Farming in Nature's Image: An Ecological Approach to Agriculture, Island Press, (Paperback - Dec. 1, 1991)

Chapter 8O'Lenick, Anthony, et. al., Oils of Nature, Allured

Publishing, 2008 Train, John; Train, Maria Teresa, The Olive, Tree of

Civilization (MTT SCALA); illustrated edition (October 30, 2004)

Chapter 9“Bark cloth,”The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition.

2008, Encyclopedia.com. (March 21, 2010), http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-barkclot.html

Chapter 10Amundsen, Roald, Race to the South Pole (The Great

Adventures) White Star; illustrated edition (March 13, 2007)

http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-barkclot.html

http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-barkclot.html


354

Carpenter, Kenneth J., The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C, Cambridge University Press (April 29, 1988)

Frankenburg, Frances R. M.D., Vitamin Discoveries and Disasters: History, Science, and Controversies, The Praeger Series on Contemporary Health and Living, Praeger; 1 edition (July 23, 2009)

Chapter 11Stearn, William T., Stearn's Dictionary of Plant Names

for Gardeners: A Handbook on the Origin and Meaning of the Botanical Names of Some Cultivated Plants, Timber Press Limited, November 1, 2002

Chapter 12Burbank, Luther, Trees Whose Products are Useful

Substances: From the Sugar Maple to the Turpentine Tree, Athena University Press (July 15, 2004)

Dyer, E. H., Sugar: Sugar, Sucrose, Molasses, Sugar Beet, Glycomics, Rum, History of Sugar, Jaggery, Bagasse, Brown Sugar, Palm Sugar, Sugarloaf [Paperback], Books LLC (May 22, 2010)

Chapter 13Marcu, Monica G., Miracle Tree, KOS Health

Publications (May 2005)Pirie, N. W., Leaf Protein and Its By-products in Human

and Animal Nutrition, Cambridge University Press; 2nd Edition (January 21, 2008)

Chapter 14Coe, Sophe and Michael, The True History of Chocolate,

2nd Edition, Thames and Hudson, 1993 Groom, Nigel, Frankincesne and Myrrh, Longman,

London and New York, 1981Rocco, Fiametta, The Miraculous Fever-Tree: Malaria

and the Quest for a Cure That Changed the World, Harper Collins, 2003

http://www.amazon.com/William-T.-Stearn/e/B001IXPT0Y/ref=ntt_athr_dp_pel_1

http://www.amazon.com/s/ref=ntt_athr_dp_sr_1?_encoding=UTF8&sort=relevancerank&search-alias=books&field-author=Luther Burbank

Bibliography

355

Weinberg, Bennett Alan; Bealer, Bonnie K., The World of Caffeine: The Science and Culture of the World's Most Popular Drug

Zohar, Amar, The Book of Incense (Hebrew), Oren Hapcott Publishers, Tel Aviv, 2004

Zohar, Amar, Balm for the Body (Hebrew), Oren Hapcott Publishers, Tel Aviv 2004

Taylor, Norman, Plant Drugs that Changed the World, Dodd, Mead and Company, 1965

Chapter 16 Ditlhogo, M., Allotey, J., Mpuchane, S., Teferra, G., Gashe,

B.A. and Siame, B.A. (1996), “Interactions between the mopane caterpillar, Imbrasia belina, and its host, Colophospermum mopane in Botswana,” In Flower, C., Wardell-Johnson, G. and Jamieson, A. (eds.), Management of mopane in southern Africa. Ch.9, 46-49

Latham, Paul, from the English edition of his manual Edible caterpillars and their food plants in Bas Congo (1999

Reddy, R.M., 2010. Conservation need of tropical tasar silk insect, Antheraea Mylitta drury (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)-strategies and impact. J. Entomol., 7: 152-159, DOI: 10.3923/je.2010.152.159 URL: http://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=je.2010.152.159 www.food-insects.com

“Silkworm,” The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th Edition 2008. Encyclopedia.com. 11 Mar. 2010 <http://www.encyclopedia.com>.

http://www.amazon.com/Bennett-Alan-Weinberg/e/B001IZPN4O/ref=ntt_athr_dp_pel_1

http://scialert.net/abstract/?doi=je.2010.152.159



http://www.food-insects.com

http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-silkworm.html

http://www.encyclopedia.com/

http://www.encyclopedia.com/

Index

357

Index

AAboriginals 58

Abraham 253

Acacia 37, 112

Acacia brachystachya 90

Acacia cambagei 91

Acacia cyclops 91

Acacia lysiophloia 90

Acacia mangium 90

Acacia nilotica 91

Acacia salinga 92

Acacia seeds 56

Acacia senegal 93

Acacia species 206

Acacia tortillas 93

Acid hydrolysis 71

Acorns 52

Actinobacteria 39

Actinomycete 33

Adhatoda vasica 83

Adult bees 269

Aesculus 116

Afarsemon 227

Afforestation 25

Agroforestry 112

Ailanthus 284

Ailanthus moth 284

Ainu 158

Albitzias 73

Albizia 206

Alder 39, 289

Aleppo Pine 89

Alfalfa 35

Almond 126, 177

Amalou 134

Amazon 21

Amazon basin 139, 254

Ammonia 28, 34

Amundsen, Roald 164

Amygdalin 126, 167

Anemia 172, 175, 176

Angiosperms 181

Animal feeding 120

Anogeissus latifolia 84

Ants 269

Apricot oil 130

Apricots 171

Archeae 185

Arenga palm 198

Argan oil 173

Argania oil 132

Argania spinosa 132

Artemisia 217

Artificial nitrogen fixing 34

Assam 236

Athens 16

Atmospheric nitrogen 34

Attus 160

Auerkraut 173

Australia 38

Avocado oil 130

Avocados 173

Azadirachta indica 85

Azolla 40

Azores 11


358

BB1 or Thiamine 175

B12 or Cobalamin 175

B2 or Riboflavin 175

B5 or Pantothenic acid 175

B6 or Pyridoxine 175

B7 or Biotin 175

B9 or Folic acid 175

Babassu 140

Babylonian Talmud 298

Balanites trees 135

Balm of Gilead 227

Bananas 176

Baobab 134, 203

Barberry 207

Barkcloth 143, 144, 147, 152,

154, 156, 158

Basho-fu 162

Bast 150

B-complex vitamins 170

Becquerel 13

Bedouin 107

Bedouin village 113

Beech tree 207

Beri-beri 168, 170

Bertholletia excelsa 139

Betula 117

Binomial nomenclature 179

Biodiese 68

Bioethanol 67

Biofuels 66, 187

Biogas 66

Biogeochemical cycles 22

Biological Nitrogen Fixation

33

Biomethanol 66

Biomimicry 110

Biotin 176

Birch 289

Birch syrup 191

Birch trees 191

Birche trees 39

Bitter almonds 126

Black truffle 292

Black walnut oil 173

Black walnut trees 192

Blue green algae 40

Blue Oyster Mushroom 307

Blueberries 172

Boswellia 221

Boxers 51

Bracket fungi 176, 286

Brazil nut trees 139

Brazil nuts 177

Bread 45

Breadfruit 143

Brewer's yeast 174

Brood 269

Brules 289

Bryant, W.C. 14

Buckthorns 39

Buffalo gourds 141

Burmese cyclone of 2008 20

Bush tucker 57

Butternut 140

Buxus 116

CCajanus cajan 86

California Indians 53

Canary Islands 11

Carbohydrates 22

Carbon 22

Carbon cycle 22

Carbon dioxide 22

Carbon emissions 25

Index

359

Carob 50, 176, 192

Carolus Linnaeus 179

Caryocar 141

Cashew oil 131

Cashews 177

Cassia siamea 87

Castanea 116

Casuarina 39

Caterpillars 257

Cedar bark textile 154

Cellulose 71

Cellulosic ethanol 67, 70

Chamaecytisus proliferus 117

Champignon 302

Chestnuts 249

Chickenfeed tree 113

Chinese Wood Ear 302

Chloroquine 216

Chocolate 176, 241

chocolate 241

Christopher Columbus 11

Cicadas 265

Cinchona 212

Clearcutting 139

clearing the bush 251

Clotting disorders 173

Cloud berry 165

Clover 35

Cocoa 237, 238

Coffee 228, 231

Colophospermum mopane 87

Commission of Dunes 12

Common beans 176

Common Hazel 289

Common snail 275

Cooking pot wars 78

Cordia 207

Corn-based ethanol 67

Corylus 117

Cottonwood 73

Countess of Chinchon 212

Crickets 271

Criollo 239

Croton megalocarpus 113

CSIRO 19

Cyanobacteria 40

Cycads 40

Cytisus scoparius 116

DDate palms 200

Dates 174

de la Calancha, Antonio 213

Dead Sea fruit 162

Dead zones 31

Decree of water and forests 11

Deforestation 11, 18

Desert truffle 296

Desertification 323

Dhofar 226

Diazotrophs 33

Diazo-vesicles 40

Dicots 181

Dika butter 138

disease 213, 214, 224, 232

Drumstick trees 202

Dust Bowl 16

EEctomycorrhizae 293

Edible insects 257

Edible mollusks 257

Edible oils 124

Edible sugars 187

Egypt 226

Ein Gedi 227


360

Ejikman, Christiaan 169

Elder 289

Elderberry 208

Eleagnus 39

Elm 289

Embalmin 225

Emblica officinalis 88

Energy crops 73

Energy production 66

English Oak 288

Enokitake 310

Enzymatic hydrolysis 71

Ephesos 11

Erica spp. 119

Erosion 58

Escamoles 269

Escargot 275

Eskimo clothing 166

Eubacteria 185

Eucalyptus 94, 95, 97

Eucalyptus camaldulensis 94

Eucalyptus citriodora 95

Eucalyptus gomphocephala

95

Eucalyptus microtheca 96

Eucalyptus occidentalis 97

European buckthorn 118

European Marine Gorse 118

Eutrophication 35

Extremophiles. 185

FFagus 117

Famine 54

FAO 78

Feed Units per Kg 116

Feedstocks 73

Fever Trees 214

Fibroin 282

Ficus cordata 184

Ficus palmata 184

Ficus psuedosycamorus 184

Ficus spp. 117

Fig 143

Filberts 177

Firewood Crops – Shrub and

Tree Species for Energy

Production 82

Flamingo Oyster 308

Flour extenders 45

Folic acid 177

Forastero 239

Forest mushrooms 176

Fossil fuels 22

Frame of civilization 221

Frankia 29, 33, 39

Frankincense 221, 222, 223,

224, 228

Fructose 196

Fungal filaments 41

Fungi 286

Funk, Cashmir 169

Fusarium venenatum 175

GGages 174

Galactose. 190

Garden snail 272

Genetic modification 63

Giant land snails 281

Giant silkworms 283

Giorno, Jean 20

Gleditsia 119

Gliridia 37

Glucose 196

GM 46

Index

361

GNA potato 48

Gold rush 164

Goldberger, Dr. Joseph 169

Golden sugar 201

Graft-chimaera 183

Grape leaves 209

Grapefruit 172

Grasshoppers 257

Green manuring 35, 275

Greenhouse effect 23

Grubs 257

Guavas 172

Gula Jawa 199

Gula merah 196

Gum Arabic 92

Gum garden 36

Gymnosperms 181

HHaber-Bosch process 34

Halal 258

Haloxylon 98

Haloxylon aphyllum 98

Haloxylon persicum 98

Hammer mill 49

Hazelnut oil 129

Hazelnuts 172

Hearts of Oak 219

Heather 119

Heather plants 119

Heathland 119

Hebrew tribe of Dan 53

Hedgerows 251

Heifer International 107

Heliculture 272, 281

Hemi-cellulose 71

Hemp 64, 74

Herodotus 224

Hesiod 52

Hickory trees 191

Hippophae 39

Hippophae rhamnoides 118

Hokkaido 160

Holly Oak 289

Honey locust 194

Honey mesquite 195

Hopkins, Sir Fredrick 168

Horse chestnut trees 73

Host trees 291

Hough, Dr. R.B 14

Hydrolysis 71

Hypertension 176

Hyphae 286, 299

Hypogenous fungus 287

Hypoxic dead zones 29

Hypoxic zones 41

IIbrasia worm 260

ICRAF 37

indaba tree 253

Integrated Pest Management

28

International Arid Lands

Consortium 113

IPCC 23

Irvingia gabonensis 138

JJackson, Wes 61

Jaggery 196

Jamestown 164

Japanese angelica tree 206

Jatropha curcas 75

Jerusalem 226


362

Jesuit priests 213

Jesuit's Bark 212, 213

Jewish traditions 258

Joe Salatin 249

Jonah, the prophet 252

Juglans 116

KKaba worm 259

Kale 173

Kange butter 138

Kapara amip 161

Kimche 173

Kingdom Animalia 180

Kingdom Fungi 180

Kingdom Monera 180

Kingdom Plantae 180

Kingdom Protista 180

Kiwifruit 172

Kiwifruits 173

Kola nut trees 242

Kola nuts 243

Kosher 258

Kumquats 173

Kurds 53

LLacto-fermented foods 173

Land degradation 323

Land Institute of Salina,

Kansas 61

Land reclamation 120

Landes marshes 12

Lapps 107

Larvae 257

Leaf forage 119

Leaf protein 209

Lecythis ollaria 139

Legumes 33

Lemons 172

Leucaena 38, 205

Leucaenas 73

Levonah 221

Lichen 286

Lid snails 279

Lignin 71

Limes 172

Limeys 168

Lind, Dr. James 168

Linden tree 208

Lion's Mane Mushroom 311

Little Ice Age 24

Liverwort 40

Locusts 271

Logan, William B. 52

Lombardini 12

Los Angeles 164

Lost crops 131

Louis the VI 11

LPC 211

MMa'asai 107

Macadamia nut oil 131, 173

Maitake 312

Makani fat. 138

Makedi kedi 260

Malaria 212

Malus domestica 183

Man Who Planted Trees, the

20

Mangoes 171

Mangrove 20

Maple 188

Marula 73, 136, 172

Index

363

Masaka 145

Masi 152

Membrane permeability 41

Merit 146

Mesquite 49, 72

Mesquite tree 195

Mesquites 176

Metate 196

Methane 106

Michael Pollen 249

Microstock 257

Miracle cures 214

Mixed tree fallows 37

Molecular nitrogen (di-

nitrogen, N2) 33

Mombin 208

Monocots 181

Mopane worm 112, 263

Morels 299, 301

Moringa olifera 73

Moringa tree 171, 177, 202

Moringas 176

Morocco 133

Morus 117

Mountain Ash 256

Mulberries 176

Mulberry leaf 207

Mushrooms 286

Mutualism 38, 41

Mycorrhiza 40

Mycorrhizal relationships 286

Mycorrhizas 297

Myrrh 224, 225

Myrtle 39

NNameko Mushroom 309

Natal fig 146

National Academy of Science

78

Native Americans 53

Navaho 107

Neem 85

Negative nutrition 125

Nero, the Emperor 227

New food technologies 64

Ngala worm 261, 262

Niacin 170, 174

Nipa Palm 198

Nitrate 28

Nitrite 28

Nitrogen 32

Nitrogen cycle 28

Nitrogen fixing trees (NFTs)

36

Nitrogen-fixing trees (NFTs)

120

Nixtamalization 174

Nkankiti worm 261

North Queensland 19

Nutrient cycling 107

OOak 55, 217

Oak mast 117

Oak, the Frame of Civilization

52

Oil of Lebanon 224

Okinawa 162

Olea 116

Oleasters 39

Olestra 124

Olibanum 221

Olive 127, 172

Olive oil 127

Omnivore's Dilemma 108


364

Oranges 172

Orcharders 187

Orchids 139

Organic farming 32

Organic methods 32

Osmotic control 41

Ovid 52

Owala butter 138

PP, K, N 32

Palmyra palm 198

Papaya 172

Paper clothing 144

Paper mulberry 143

Pappea capensis 73

Paradise nut trees 139

Parkinsonia aculeata 88

Peanut 174

Pearl Oyster Mushroom 306

Pecan trees 192

Pellagra 167, 169, 170

Penitential incense 225

Perennial corn 60

Perennial harvest 323

Perennial sorghum 60

Perennial wheat 60

Perfume 226

Periodical cicadas 265

Permaculturalists 187

Phoenix dactylifera 183

Phoenix Oyster Mushroom

316

Phosphorus 42

Pigeon pea 81

Pilonchillo 49

Pine nut oil 129, 173

Pine nuts 172

Pineapple 172

Pinole 49

Pinus halepensis 89

Pioppino 314

Plantains 176

Plasmodium 214

Pliny 53

Pliny the Elder 227, 297

Plums 173

Pollen, Michael 108

Polyface farm 108, 249

Poplar 72

Poplars 192

Poppaea 227

Populus 117

Populus nigra 116

Potassium 41

Potassium tartrate 204

Potato 172

Prehistoric middens 52

Prickly pear 171

Primaquine 216

Prosopis 37, 99, 116

Prosopis alba 99

Prosopis chilensis 100

Prosopis juliflora 101

Prosopis pallida 102

Prosopis tamarugo 102

Pterocarpu 37

Pupae 257

Pyridoxine 176

QQueen Hatshepsut 223

Quercus 117

Queso 49

Quina 215

Quinidine 215

Index

365

Quinine 212, 215

Quorn 175

RRaised breads 46

Raspberries 177

Ray cells 188

Reclaimatives 112

Redcedar 154

Redwoods 256

Reishi 313

Rhinoceros beetle 270

Rhizobia 33

Roanoke 164

Robinia 119

Rock rose 297

Root crops 177

Ryukyu 162

SSabeans 228

Sabrine Karg 119

Sacrificial material 225

Saint John’s bread 51

Salatin, Joe 109

Salix 116

Samaras 188

Sambucus 117

Saprophytes 286

Schumacher, E.F. 322

Sclerotia 300

Scott, Robert 164

Scurvy 164, 168

Sematar 134

Sericulture 281, 283

Sesbania 37

Shagbark hickory tree 191

Shepherd's war 111

Shepherdia 39

Shiitake 305

Siapo 148

Siculus, Diodorus 225

Silk producing insects 257

Silkworm 112, 281

Silviculture 322

Silwan 200

Small Is Beautiful

Economics as if People

Mattered 322

Smith, J. Russell 322

Snail garden 273

Snails 112

Soft drinks 245

Soil erosion 43

Solid stem sorghum 80

Sorbus aucuparia 117

Sorghum 70

Starlink corn 48

Stemflow 19

Sucrose 188, 196

Sugar palm 198

Sustainable building materials

26

Switchgrass 75

Symbiotic disruption 300

Symbiotic fungi 286

Synthetic nitrogen 34

TTallow nut tree 137

Talmud 298

Tamarisk 73, 103

tamarisks 253

Tamarix 103

Tangerines 173


366

Tanguy and Pallier methods

of cultivation 293

Tannin content 117

Tapa cloth 149

Tasar silkworm 283, 284

Taxus 116

Tea 232, 234

Termitaria 267

Termites 257, 267

The Little Ice Age 54

The Lost Crops of Africa 78

The Omnivore's Dilemma 249

Thorn-plums 171

Tilia spp. 117

Toddy 197

Toddy palm 198

Toona sinensis 209

Traditional oils 124

Transgenic plants 64

Translocation of sugars 41

Tree Crops

A Permanent Agriculture

322

Tree ear mushroom 303

Tree fallows 37

Tree forages 110

Tree Lucerne 117

Tree vegetables 177

Treetap 197

Trinitario 239

Tropical oil seed crops 66

Truffière 288, 291

Truffle detection 289

Truffles 286, 291

Turks 53

UUllex galli 118

Ulmus 117

VVegetarians 106

Vetch 35

Virgin oil 128

Virgin olive oil 128

Vitamin A 171

Vitamin B17 167

Vitamin C 172

Vitamin C deficiency 166

Vitamin D 170

Vitamin E 172

Vitamin K 170, 173

Vitamine 167, 169

Von Wex 13

WWalnut oil 125, 173

Walnut trees 192

Wasps 269

Water “stripped” from clouds

19

Water snails 272

Wattles 73

Webster, Noah 14

Weeks Law 15

Wheat tree 46

White ants 267

Whortleberry 165

Wichetti grubs 271

Wild edible fungi 317

Willows 73

Wine Palm 199

Wise Men 226

Wooden Walls of England 219

Woodlot 249

Index

367

XXimena caffra 73

YYellow Cypress 154

Yemen 226

Yield drag 47

ZZambia 37

Zisiphus 104

Zisiphus mauritania 104

Zisiphus spinichristi 105

growing bread on trees

Documents