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Grounds Maintenance and Operations

John Lawter

Rob Doletzky

Chad Godfrey

Sponsored By

Grounds Maintenance and Operations Copyright APPA 2009

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From APPA Body of Knowledge APPA: Leadership in Educational Facilities, Alexandria, Virginia, 2009

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Grounds Maintenance and Operations

IntroductionIt is now commonly known that the appearance of a college campus is directly related to recruitment and the mentaland physiological health of the students, faculty, and staff who live and work there. First impressions of the groundscan affect enrollment of students, employment of faculty and staff, and the attitudes of visitors and benefactors.Creating a "quality environment for learning" is the mission of all grounds managers as they attempt to balancecampus aesthetics with real-world economics. In addition, grounds maintenance operations have the uniquechallenge of having to contend with unpredictable variables such as living plants, pests, and weather. More thanever, these administrators need to identify best practices to accomplish this mission.

Grounds maintenance organizations operate with varying degrees of success. Real success is achieved throughleadership by staff well trained in forestry, turf, and horticultural practices, task management, equipmentmaintenance and management, human resources, work loading, and scheduling. In addition, modern groundsmanagers must be aware of their operation's effect on the environment, such as from the use of fertilizers,herbicides, pesticides, and sand and salt during winter de-icing operations.

The wealth of information that has been collected in this area provides a new sophistication, allowing groundsmanagers to better accomplish their mission. Administrators as well as employees must now be aware of the latesttechnological advances as well as government regulations, which often require specialized training and evenspecialized individuals to accomplish the many tasks confronted.

Organization

In-house OrganizationsSuccessful grounds maintenance organizations are characterized by strong leadership, including well-trained andenthusiastic supervisors with adequate staffing and equipment. Grounds managers may face differentresponsibilities based on institutional needs and the manager's abilities. Grounds sections are often charged withadditional responsibilities not directly related to traditional services in order to use labor and equipment moreeconomically. Those responsibilities may include such functions as waste removal, recycling, moving, pestmanagement, and special events support.

Grounds maintenance groups generally include a variety of disciplines. A site development group may include alandscape architect, a horticulturist, a surveyor, civil engineers, or other grounds construction specialists. In somecases, this group may be aligned under an office of design or a unit called "University Architecture" or"Engineering." Plant bed and turf maintenance groups are responsible for general upkeep for the grounds. Teamsare often used in this application to create a uniform and consistently maintained campus with responsibilities forthe general tasks that, when done all together, create a finished appearance. Plant bed maintenance may includeweeding, watering, planting, light pruning, and general leaf and litter policing. Turf maintenance may includemowing, edging, and trimming.

A landscape specialty group is often formed to support the general landscape maintenance group. This group mayinclude people with special skills to handle the diverse problems the campus faces and may include chemicalapplication specialists, arborists, turf renovation and irrigation specialists, horticulturists, greenhouse operationspersonnel, and athletic field maintenance personnel.

Grounds maintenance groups are typically organized into zones or areas. Each zone or area has a quantifiablerealm of responsibility, allowing the team to feel personally responsible for their area or zone and enabling themanager to monitor performance. Some special tasks that do not fall within this concept, such as chemicalapplication, heavy pruning, or planting, may be handled by roving specialty crews, working in support of the area orzone crews. It is essential that the specialty crews have the same goals of consistently outstanding appearance asthe grounds maintenance crews. Finally, many organizations are supported by an equipment maintenance shop,which may or may not be attached to the grounds department.

A sample grounds maintenance organizational chart has been included (Figure 1). Although it is often difficult toestablish clear guidelines for all functions, it is important that grounds employees clearly understand their functionsand management expectations concerning their performance. Many grounds functions will require close andeffective coordination with other functional areas within the facilities organization to ensure effective results.


Figure 1. Grounds Maintenance Organizational ChartOne such function is snow removal. The grounds crew typically has a clear responsibility for snow removal onsidewalks, exterior stairs, and parking lots, whereas the custodial staff may be responsible for entryways, buildingsteps, wheelchair ramps, or walks leading to the building. A clear, mutual understanding of these responsibilitiesand close coordination to ensure that the snow removal tasks are fully completed are essential to success.

Contract OrganizationsIt is possible to contract many grounds services or even the entire function. Services that are most commonlycontracted include pest control, waste removal, tree care, and mowing. Some organizations use contractors tosupplement seasonal tasks when it is not practical to have staff year-round, such as for snow removal. Carefulanalysis of the advantages and disadvantages, however, should be a prerequisite to contracting for any services.The chapter on contract management and APPA: The Association of Higher Education Facilities Officers' ContractManagement or Self-Operation discuss important issues that should be considered and provide good generalguidance. Once a decision to contract for services has been made, careful development of the specifications isessential to a successful contract. Effective management of the contract services is another key to success. Closesupervision, inspections, and feedback to the contractor are all essential.

Ensuring that the special needs of an educational setting and the flexibility of campus events can be accommodatedcan be difficult with contracted services. Many colleges and universities are finding that the use of part-time labor isan alternative to contract services and provides needed cost reductions while still preserving the greater degree ofcontrol that may be lost with contract services.

Special ConcernsGrounds managers face the dilemma of environmental concerns as they pertain to their area. Chemical applicationspecialists need licensing and special training and also need to be kept abreast of new developments.Environmental concerns have led to the creation of invasive species removal programs and limit the types offertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides that grounds departments may use. Some campuses have created no-mowprograms where turf is cut twice a year (fall and spring), reducing the amount of turf maintenance, which reduceschemical use and pollution from mowers. The requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act should beconsidered in landscape planning. Finally, new plantings have to be carefully placed so that they do not encouragecriminal activity, block lighting, or otherwise create an unsafe environment.


Figure 2. No-Mow Area, University of Michigan School of Music

Standards and Scheduling

Grounds Inventory and Maintenance LevelsPlanning for the performance of grounds maintenance functions should be based on both a land-use inventory of thescope and nature of the grounds to be cared for and a determination of the standards of care. The land-useinventory should contain quantitative information about the campus landscape, such as the square footage of lawn,planting beds, and perennial beds. What land uses are inventoried can be determined by the tasks needed tomaintain them. Items with similar maintenance needs can be grouped, whereas items with specialized maintenanceneeds should be inventoried separately. Standards of care are typically set by the desired level of maintenanceestablished by the administration. The data resulting from the land-use inventory and standards of care can be veryhelpful in showing the administration what levels of maintenance are possible based on resources available.Standards of care should be set for the various zones or areas of the campus and personnel and resourcesappropriately assigned. The size of the zone is not arbitrary and should be determined by the previously identifiedmaintenance needs. Small zones with high-maintenance land uses or high standards of care may be taken care ofby the same size crew used for larger zones of low-maintenance land uses. Standards may be established on acampus-wide basis or individually according to buildings and functions. The former gives a more uniformappearance to a campus and is much less complicated to carry out. One should consider the visual view shedwhen determining the maintenance standards of an area. Obvious changes in the level of maintenance from onearea to another are undesirable. The transitions between higher and lower standards of care should be well planned and logical.

SchedulingWhen standards have been set, priorities should be established according to functional processes, institutionalneeds, and environmental dictates. Priorities define the areas of the institution that will receive the highest care.Often, higher levels of care are made possible by reducing the level of care in other areas rather than by obtainingadditional funding. It is important for all maintenance staff to understand where the high-priority areas are so that themaximum possible care is given to these areas and not wasted in areas of less importance. For maintenance staffwho have traditionally tried to maintain everything at a certain level, the new direction of spending more time insome areas and less in others can be difficult. A detailed explanation of the reasoning behind establishing prioritiescan help with this transition. After priorities are set, scheduling can begin.

Scheduling is a dynamic process, requiring constant updates as the institution changes. Industry time standardssuch as those developed by the Professional Grounds Management Society are very useful for benchmarking.


Scheduling usually includes time-motion studies to establish time standards for tasks unique to each institution.Time-reporting systems are often used to establish time standards. As each individual task is scheduled accordingto the standard, crews will be proactive in their work loading, and emergency "fire fighting" will be minimized.Preventive maintenance scheduling that may be less routine is effectively done by a computerized preventivemaintenance program. In the area of equipment maintenance, preventive maintenance printouts are essential.Computerized inventories of as-built locations of plant materials allow special conditions of maintenance to beintegrated into the preventive maintenance program. Repetitive scheduling is most efficiently handled by developingschedules on calendars and sharing them with all affected parties within the facilities organization, includingmaintenance staff, maintenance supervision, and customers.

TrainingA well-planned, continuing program of training will benefit any area of the facilities organization. This is particularlytrue for grounds maintenance activities. In addition to general training applicable to all facilities staff, training shouldbe provided for grounds staff in such specialized areas as the care and operation of grounds equipment; the mosteffective techniques for the planting, maintenance, and pruning of plant materials; the requirements of governmentregulations; and safety. Chemical application specialists, for example, need special training and licensing and mustbe kept abreast of new developments in the field. Proper training in the calibration of all types of equipment used forthe application of all types of materials is important.

A range of resources is available to support effective training programs. State extension services can be one of thebest sources of training assistance and materials that are both of high quality and specific to local area needs andconditions. State or local nurserymen's associations can be another good source. Community colleges and localtechnical schools typically offer programs in various elements of grounds care. Videos and other training materialsare often available from the suppliers of specialized grounds care equipment.

Training programs will be most effective when they are scheduled regularly and incorporate realistic situations thatmay be encountered in the work environment. Good documentation of training is essential.

EquipmentThe increasing costs of labor make proper equipment selection and use all the more important. The labor requiredfor maintenance procedures can be dramatically reduced when effective and efficient machinery is selected. Properinvestigation through the purchasing process, demonstrations, and collaboration with similar institutions with similarproblems can be a valuable part of this process. A proper preventive maintenance program is critical. Downtime canwaste considerable amounts of money. Not only will downtime halt the operator, but it can halt several other crewsand disrupt scheduling as well. Factory training for the equipment maintenance mechanics as well as the operatorsshould be strongly considered when constructing the purchasing agreement. Worn and undependable equipmentcan disrupt operations and increase costs. A timely replacement program can pay dividends.

Replacement scheduling can allow for budgeting in a systematic fashion, minimizing the peaks and valleys inequipment funding needs that occur in the absence of a strong replacement plan. Grounds operations typicallyrequire expensive machinery, but the machinery can be cost-effective in diverting labor and conserving resources.Whenever possible, equipment should be selected for multiple purposes. Many new products have attachments,eliminating the need for several specialized pieces.

Leasing equipment can be an attractive alternative to ownership because one can avoid the large capital investmentcosts. Short-term leases or rentals will often be the most cost-effective way of obtaining equipment resources thatare needed on a periodic or temporary basis.

Grass and TurfFacilities managers should remember three principles of turf management:

No lawn is stable. It is either improving or declining in quality. Even when a lawn appears to be in goodcondition, hidden problems may be beginning.

1.

With proper moisture and fertilization a lawn will be established, weeds will be crowded out, and grasseswill grow abundantly. However, proper moisture and fertilization do not preclude invasion by fungi and insects.

2.

Grass will not continue to grow in dense shade. Beware of miracle advertisements. There are varieties ofgrasses that tolerate varying degrees of shade, but none can tolerate the shade caused by dense trees. Theproblems of dense shade include dry soil caused by the trees absorbing much of the water.

3.

Be wary also of growth regulators; they are not for every lawn. A number of restricted-use growth regulators areavailable on the market, and each is effective for different turf situations. Cost factors must be considered todetermine the economic feasibility of growth regulator use. Also, growth regulators of turf may cause physiologicalproblems in certain areas.

Non-irrigated lawns usually experience a dormant period from mid to late summer if rainfall is below levelsnecessary to sustain growth.This is normal, and the brown-blue grass will turn green with sufficient water.

Seed Selection


Consult a turf specialist or agronomist for seed selection in any given location. As a result of research on turf grassvarieties, new selections regularly come on the market. Selection of a combination of grasses suitable for a specificuse must be made individually.

Many factors determine seed selection, including use of the lawn; mowing heights; available water and fertility rates;insect and fungus resistance; shade percentage; and intensity, soil factors, and drainage. No common seed mixtureis perfect, and no two turf consultants will prescribe the same solution.

Preparation and PlantingProper preparation for a new lawn ensures the desired result. In new construction, the site is usually in poorcondition for the establishment of turf. Depending on the priority level of the lawn, all kinds of problems may have tobe corrected. For example, sheets of plywood may be hidden just below the surface, large concrete chunks may beembedded in the soil, and buried plaster or lime may cause alkalinity problems. Grounds managers must inspectthe construction site before planting a new lawn and correct any abnormalities, or unforeseen problems will occurfor years afterward.

During the grading process, the most important consideration is drainage. No turf area should slope less than 1percent. Pockets of undrained turf will result in a multitude of problems.

Areas compacted by heavy equipment should be loosened, or turf establishment will be difficult until the soilloosens naturally, which can take several years. The entire site should be tilled and evenly shaped.

A fertilizer chosen for the specific soil condition should be applied and worked into the surface. Soil analysis isalmost always necessary to determine fertilizer requirements.

Several methods of seeding can be used, depending on the site. In small areas, seed might be distributed byhand-carried rotary seeders. For larger spaces, a slicing seeder or drill might be used, and large areas of steepslopes may require hydro seeding. The latter method can incorporate fertilizer, seed, and mulch in one operation.

Erosion control blankets are necessary when seeding on slopes or in areas where sediment can reach storm drainsor other avenues to public waterways. These blankets also retain moisture, shade the seed bed, and protect fromother potential damage.

IrrigationIrrigation systems, once deemed frivolous and undependable, have become a mainstay for turf and plantmaintenance in the current grounds care industry. Such systems not only provide a cheap insurance policy for newplant and turf installation but also serve as a potential source of labor and dollar savings over time. Hand wateringwith hoses and sprinklers is an inefficient use of water as well as labor. An irrigation watering source that controlswater usage through specific precipitation rates and precise watering times is more effective.

Water use is typically minimized through the use of an "automatic controller" and a rain sensor. These simpledevices allow the system to turn itself on and off at certain times of day and control the length of time each area iswatered. In periods of sufficient precipitation, the rain sensor will shut down the system until the moisture level is lowenough to warrant additional watering. In expansive commercial jobs, irrigation is often managed through acomputer. Such management allows for the control of a system from a central location. Manufacturer-specificprograms compute precise watering times and schedules based on regional climate, geography, soil compaction,slope conditions, and specific landscape features to optimize the use of water. In addition, with a change insoftware, the system controller can automatically operate fountains, gates, lighting, and security systems, and evenserve as a word processor. A well or sewer charge meter monitors water used by the irrigation system. This wateris not subject to sewage charges. As water management in some communities has become an important issue(sometimes requiring water restrictions), a well will provide a usable source during drought conditions and isacceptable in most communities during restriction periods. It too is exempt from sewage fees. System selection willdepend on the following factors:

Mechanism desiredMode/method of operationSpecific applicationSize of projectWater source/water pressureClimate

Properly designed and installed irrigation systems require little maintenance. Seasonal watering times may beneeded to react to severe deviations from regional weather norms, and winterization and restart will be required incold climate areas. Proper operation and an appropriate schedule of watering times combined with a good sprayingand aeration program will control problems from fungus and thatch.

Irrigation systems will benefit any landscape setting and will represent an asset to the facilities organization. Once asystem is installed, it requires only occasional maintenance and, in colder climates, winterization. Watering amountsare critical. How much water depends on soil type and turf variety and the seasonal changes of theevapo-transpiration rate (defined as moisture taken from the soil by plants and air). Potential problems with irrigationinclude increased fungus growth, thatch accumulation, and soil compaction. A good spraying and aeration programwill keep these problems in check. Fungus diseases can also be reduced by timing watering to minimize the timethat the turf is wet during a 24-hour period.


Maintenance ProblemsA profusion of disease and insect problems may exist in lawns. As the use of a lawns increases, there may be anincrease in problems. Selecting grass for disease resistance is important, and a program of seasonal treatmentshould be established to cope with standard problems.

One common problem with lawns is the accumulation of thatch. Thatch causes a roof effect and reduces thechances of air and water reaching the roots of the grass plants. It also creates an environment conducive to insectand fungus disease growth. Mowing frequencies and other cultural practices can reduce the buildup of thatch;however, if this layer of thatch gets too thick, it must be removed or a poor turf will result. Chemical de-thatchershave been introduced, but none have proven successful. Mechanical cultivation is the only answer. Core aerationwill modify thatch. Annual aeration of heavy-use areas will reduce compaction and allow moisture to permeate thesurface.

Mowing schedules and heights must be regulated. In campus situations, particularly where budgets and humanresources are limited, mowing often falls behind schedule. Heavy windrows of clippings can create fungusproblems. Delayed mowing will also injure the grass plant by allowing the leaf to be cut severely into the "white"area. The best management practice is to cut more often, thereby removing less of the grass blade per cutting. Assummer passes, the cutting height should be raised to allow more leaf surface to remain. A good rule is to removeonly 1/3 of the leaf blade at one cutting. An accumulation of grass cuttings on the lawn is a good indicator that themowing frequency needs to be increased. Remember, “mow high, mow often.”

If human resources and budgets are still of primary concern after this management practice is applied, othermeasures may be taken. You may need to prioritize your lawn areas or even go to nonmaintained grassy areas inlower priority sections of your campus or facility.

If properly graded and drained, most lawns can become acceptable if management establishes a systematicprogram of chemical treatment, fertilization, and irrigation. Each area of the country requires specific programs. Ifthey are followed, the lawn quality will improve.

Athletic FieldsThe quality turf that is required on some athletic fields will require more maintenance. Irrigation, good drainage,fertilization, aeration, over-seeding, top dressing, and chemical application are all necessary to maintain or increasethe turf's durability. Many volumes of literature and university courses detail athletic field installation andmaintenance. Of course, no maintenance program can ensure safe, playable turf on overused fields. If such ademand exists for athletic turf, additional areas should be created so that playing fields are not used to the pointwhere the turf is always in a state of decline.

Plant MaterialsThe maintenance problems of plant materials—trees, shrubs, ground covers, and vines—are directly related to theinitial selection of the specific plant. If improperly chosen, a plant will be a problem in various ways throughout itslife. Many factors must be considered to ensure that the proper plant is chosen for a specific location.

The one problem commonly overlooked is space. Many times the plant selected will grow considerably larger thanthe space allows, which results in continual pruning and, finally, replacement. A common error of designers is to useseveral plants, causing overcrowding, where one will do the job. Poor selection may require continuous treatment tocondition the soil acidity, or a plant may be chosen that will not withstand wet conditions or areas of poor drainage.Selecting plants that are not hardy enough for a geographical zone or exposure to sun, snow, or strong winds canbe disastrous.

Soil conditions determine many future maintenance problems. Selection of plants to withstand the variousconditions is critical. In urban settings, some plants are harmed by air pollutants; this fairly new problem must beconsidered.

The person selecting plants for use on campus should be aware of these common problems. Occasionally, alandscape architect or other designer who practices in a different environment and does not have firsthandknowledge of special conditions affecting plants on a specific project is selected to create a planting for a given site.The designer will probably use plant lists for the zone intended, but local conditions may be entirely different.Therefore, consultants must be completely familiar with the area and its problems. Involving the maintenance stafffamiliar with the soil conditions, circulation patterns, and previously successful plant material is also worthconsidering when choosing plant material.

PlantingThere are several steps in the planting procedure that frequently cause problems. Preparation of the hole isimportant. Trees planted in heavy soils with poor drainage die from too much water rather than from a lack of it.When the hole is dug, it should be no deeper than the depth of the ball to plant at the original level. This keeps theplant from settling out of plumb or to a level that will not drain. The hole should be significantly wider than the ball.There are strong arguments for not amending the soil to a degree that will cause water filtration problems betweendifferent soil interfaces; however, a 5 percent addition of topsoil or compost can be a wise addition to the heavy soilbackfill.


The person handling the plant should not lift the plant by the top, which would break or loosen the ball. If the tree willnot stand on its own or is loose in the ball, it should be staked. Staking reduces losses caused by wind, people, andother physical problems. If the tree is staked and mulched properly, the base of the tree will also be protected frommower damage. The twine or cord used in securing the ball must be completely loosened and cut away from thetrunk. If not, the tree will be girdled and die. This problem is particularly evident when non-degradable twine is used.Any burlap containing the soil ball of the plant must be cut away and buried to prevent this material from acting as awick that would pull water and moisture away from the soil and the plant. It is also recommended to cut and removeat least the upper third of the wire basket of the balled-and-burlapped tree.

Methods of planting should follow the standards set by the American Association of Nurserymen in its manual, American Standards for Nursery StockAmerican Standards for Nursery Stock. Those standards also provide guidance for quality and size when purchasingplant material.

Plant Materials MaintenanceAll plants require maintenance in varying degrees. There are no plants entirely free of problems. Problems must bedealt with individually because there are thousands of cultivated plants, each with its own requirements.Maintenance common to plants includes watering, fertilization, chemical treatment for proliferation of pests anddiseases, pruning, and eventual removal.

Determining proper moisture levels for the numerous varieties of plants is difficult. Most plants should be thoroughlysoaked and allowed to drain to the point of being dry before being watered again. Most plants will drown ifoverwatered, but drought conditions can also be damaging. Proper balance can only be reached by learning thepeculiarities of individual plants.

Many plants used in cultivated conditions require fertilization. Intensity of fertilization varies according to individualplant requirements. Turf grass plants that are irrigated on well-drained soils require fertilization several times eachyear, but a good shade tree in natural conditions may require no fertilization. Related to fertilization is theintroduction of various trace elements lacking or trapped in the soil. This again relates to improper plant selection.For example, chlorosis (abnormally yellow color) in several varieties of trees is common and must be treated.Chlorosis may be the result of the tree not being able to get iron from the soil. Iron is either not present in the soil ornot available to the plant because of some other soil condition. One of the most common causes is a combination ofalkalinity and iron deficiency within the soil. The same plants located in the proper soil will not develop chlorosis.

The various chemical treatment procedures that can be used in the maintenance of various plant materials are sonumerous that only descriptions of common operations are presented.

Chemical ApplicationMost states require a chemical applicator's license or registration for at least one person responsible for chemicalapplication. In addition to licensing, the requirement for developing and utilizing an integrated pest management(IPM) program is becoming more prevalent. A landscape IPM program is a multidimensional approach to pestmanagement that evolved to address the ecological, social, and economic implications of overreliance on chemicalpest control. The goal of IPM is to manage pests and their damage to tolerable levels. Typically, landscape IPMfocuses on pest prevention and suppression rather than eradication. Current federal regulations require employerswho transport, store, and apply hazardous chemicals to have a Hazard Communication Standard Program thatobtains Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) from manufacturers for each hazardous chemical on hand. The MSDSmust be made available to the employees, who must be trained on how to safely handle each hazardous chemical.For more information regarding the Hazard Communication Standard Program, contact your local or regionalOccupational Safety and Health Administration Office.

Target PestThe insect or other organism must be identified before proper treatment can be selected. Identification includestiming, resistance, and life cycles.

ToxicityPesticide application will become a subject of public concern if not properly monitored. Levels of toxicity areindicated by an LD(50) value. This is the amount of pesticide that is lethal to 50 percent of a test population in asingle dose. It is registered in milligrams per kilogram of body weight and is shown as both dermal and oralindicators. This rating does not indicate hazard but rather the killing ability of a chemical. A chemical can be highlytoxic but have little hazard potential because of the way it is used (or misused) and the way it is formulated. Thelower the number, the higher the risk factor, because less volume of material is required to be lethal. LD(50) is notthe only way of determining toxicity, but it is a good indicator.

PhytotoxicityThis describes the effects a selected chemical will have on various nontarget plants. Incorrect selection andapplication methods will result in damage to other plants. An example is the injury to shrubs and trees whenherbicides with mixtures of 2,4D are applied improperly to lawns for broadleaf weeds.

CompatibilityCertain chemicals can be combined to resolve a combination of problems. There are many chemicals that should


http://www.jerseygrown.nj.gov/jgstandards.pdf

http://www.jerseygrown.nj.gov/jgstandards.pdf

Certain chemicals can be combined to resolve a combination of problems. There are many chemicals that shouldnot be mixed or will not mix for many reasons. Awareness of chemical compatibility will avoid many problems.

Other factors to consider when selecting a specific chemical are its effectiveness, residual behavior, method ofapplication, and employees' capabilities to handle application problems.

Shop rules for safety and procedural methods must be established. Reference publications are available thatsuggest methods of transportation and storage of chemicals, types of personal protective equipment and clothing,and the calibration of application equipment. Information is also available about other use factors of equipment,personal hygiene, and environmentally friendly methods of disposal. College and university agencies, such asagriculture schools and health services, state extension services, and manufacturers, are all sources of safetyprocedures.

The problems inherent in exposure to agricultural chemicals, and the subsequent hazards of absorption into thebody, cannot be overemphasized. Health testing procedures are available for use in protecting employees and, inturn, the institution. Chemical absorption can result in absenteeism and serious health problems. A good system ofdetection can benefit employees and possibly avoid future legal entanglements if hazards are discovered andtreated properly.

PruningOne of the most misunderstood maintenance procedures is pruning, which should not be confused with shearing.The quickest way to ruin plants and frustrate the original intent of a plant selection is to allow them to be shearedinto round balls or flat-topped cones, unless a formal garden is intended. The use of the hedge clippers can injureplants and ruin the plants' intended purpose.

Pruning should be done to remove dead or damaged branches, retain original plant shape, control the size of theplant, or renew the plant. Trained personnel should perform this function at specific times of the year as needed bythe type of plant. On larger campuses, or where labor availability is a problem, pruning can be done almostanytime. If pruning is done at the wrong time of year, some sacrifices must be made, such as loss of flower or fruitthe following season.

Disease control is an important reason for pruning. Some infected plants or groups of plants can be spared thespread of disease if infected branches are removed and destroyed. In some cases, the pruning equipment must besterilized after each cut to keep it from carrying the infection from plant to plant. Dipping tools in alcohol or sprayingwith a professional-strength aerosol disinfectant is effective.

Additional pruning and training will be used for a host of other good reasons: to produce safe, structurally soundspecimens; to create pleasing shapes that best display plants' ornamental qualities; to stimulate vigorous growthand encourage other desirable habits (e.g., dense, bushy growth in hedging plants); and to enhance flowering andfruiting.

IvyThe maintenance problems associated with ivy-covered walls involve potential damage to masonry and woodmoldings. The two most common ivy plants covering the walls of many buildings are the deciduous plant,Parthenocissus tricuspidata, commonly called Boston ivy, and the vine that does not lose its leaves, Hedera helix,commonly called English ivy. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.

Boston ivy grows rapidly, sometimes as much as 10 feet per year. Prior to losing its leaves each fall, like mostdeciduous plants, it displays fall colors of bright orange, red, and crimson. Boston ivy climbs readily on nearly anysurface by using adhesive discs at the tips of its tendrils. These tendrils do not seek cracks or crevices but adhereto the surface. The vine should not be allowed to grow unrestrained behind and between moldings or joints, or onwood surfaces.

English ivy, a dark green-leafed vine, is a much slower growing plant and, in some conditions, not nearly as hardyas Boston ivy. In certain locations, it will freeze back to the ground and must be removed. In the proper location, it isexcellent as a ground or wall cover. Some smoother surfaces do not have enough texture to support English ivy. Itclimbs by means of aerial rootlets that cling to the substrate; these tendrils will seek cracks or crevices. In additionto the potential structural damage, English ivy will attract bees and other insects with its flowers produced from latesummer until late autumn. These insects can be a bother to the human inhabitants of the buildings covered by thisivy. The fruit of this ivy ripens in late winter and is an important food source for many birds. In addition, birds,particularly pigeons, will nest in dense growths of this vine.

Both vines provide shading of walls and insulation against bright sunshine. Ivy's value as insulation has not beendetermined but is significant. The added aesthetic value possibly outweighs the negative attitudes, costs to controlgrowth, and potential structural damage.

Indoor PlantsInterest in indoor plants has risen dramatically in recent years. Although the idea of growing plants inside is notnew, it has never been so popular. Now tropical foliage plants in building interiors have become as necessary asthey are fashionable. Plants not only beautify surroundings but also create an atmosphere of warmth and life. Mostimportant, plants growing inside a building effectively remove harmful toxins from the air, they provide a naturally


more comfortable environment that improves worker morale and efficiency, and studies indicate that they givepeople an increased sense of well-being.

There are various architectural uses for plants, and architects and designers include interior foliage plants in theirplans as a standard practice for several reasons. Plants can be used as a visual screen, they diffuse sound inopen-plan space designs, they help soften hard lines or surfaces, and they add texture to nondescript areas. Theygive people directional clues and complement furnishings with color, texture, size, and shape.

Plant SelectionWhen plants are being chosen for interior landscaping or “plantscaping,” there are three primary considerations:location, type of plant, and size of plant. Location determines which types of plants can be used most satisfactorilyand the size suitable for the particular surroundings. Because indoor conditions are usually not conducive tovigorous plant growth, plants that are already the desired size, or slightly smaller, should be chosen for installation.Indoor plants rarely outgrow their allotted space.

LocationFoliaged plants most often found in campus buildings are placed in public areas such as entrances, hallways,lobbies, and lounges. Light intensity and duration are crucial to plant health. Therefore, it is important to place plantsnear a good light source. The brighter the light provided, the shorter the period of illumination required. Most plantsrequire 8 to 14 hours of artificial light a day, if that light is between 200 and 500 foot-candles (a foot-candle is onelumen of light projected on 1 square foot of area). Sunlight is the most desirable kind of light but may be unavailable.If artificial light is the sole source, fluorescent is better than incandescent. Fluorescent light produces darker greenfoliage and more compact growth. Plants grown in incandescent light have a tendency to become weak and spindly.Insufficient light results in loss of lower leaves, weak stems, pale coloring, and the potential death of the plant.

Temperature and Humidity ControlFoliaged plants require moderation in both temperature and humidity. Generally, what is comfortable for people isappropriate for plants. The specific temperature range in which most plants thrive is 55ºF to 80ºF. Avoid placingplants near drafty doors or windows because these areas may be significantly cooler than the rest of the area.

If the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system removes too much humidity from the air, install a humidifier.Insufficient humidity creates symptoms similar to those of underwatering. Leaf tips turn brown, margins yellow, andgrowth is stunted. Too much humidity over a long period makes plants susceptible to bacterial and fungal invasions.

WateringHow well a plant grows is determined by the controlled environments of building interiors. Light, temperature,ventilation, humidity, soil moisture, and nutrients are interrelated and affect the appearance, strength, and health ofplant material. Consistently adequate soil moisture is a critically important requirement for healthy plants.

Fertilizer and InsecticidesPlants grown in artificial light require substantially less fertilization than do those grown in natural light. The less lightreceived, the slower the growth rate and therefore, the less need for nutrients. A balanced fertilizer containingnitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium should be used. Pest infestations are common among plants growing indoorsand may need to be professionally eradicated. Personnel applying restricted-use insecticides are required by statelaw to be certified.

Cleaning and PruningFoliage must be cleaned regularly to keep plants healthy and attractive. A heavy coat of dust clogs the stomata, thecell openings that allow for the exchange of gases and the release of moisture. Most plants can be sprayed with amixture of one tablespoon of liquid dish soap with one gallon of water to help keep them clean, shiny, and healthy.Pruning can be performed to encourage new growth, enhance plant shape, remove undesired branching, or removedead or diseased material.

Maintenance and SustainabilityMany grounds maintenance departments maintain staff specializing in plantscaping; however, due to the continualneed to replace declining plants and the facilities and costs involved in doing this in-house, this work is generallycontracted out. Hiring a plantscaping company is an excellent alternative, given the number of companiesspecializing in this work. These firms are experienced at maintaining as well as selecting and installing interiorfoliage. They can provide the skills needed to lengthen a plant's life indoors and thus reduce replacement costs. Inaddition to maintaining existing plants, many of these companies offer purchase-only, purchase/maintenance, andlease/maintenance contracts.

Yard WasteWith increasing environmental regulations aimed at reducing the use of landfills, composting operations arebecoming more common on college and university campuses. Wet garbage, yard waste, and other humus materialon campus can be composted. Although a composting facility will require grounds space, special equipment, and


staffing, it will prove useful in reducing the solid-waste stream. The composted material can be used in amendingsoils, as top dressing, and to reduce water consumption. In addition, wood from forestry operations can be chippedand used as mulch, saving significant material costs.

Maintenance of Other Grounds FacilitiesMaintenance of paved surfaces, storm drainage systems, campus furniture, fountains, signage, fences, retainingwalls, and other external campus improvements is often an important element of the grounds maintenance function.Each of these areas requires special skills and knowledge for effective care and maintenance.

Paved SurfacesPaved surfaces can range from loose gravel to hand-laid tile or exposed aggregate surfaces. Each material requiresits own maintenance methods, but there are some common practices for all. Before any material is selected,consideration should be given to its intended use, type of traffic, cost of installation, cost of maintenance, lifeexpectancy, aesthetic conditions, material availability, and weather and seasonal factors. In regions subject to iceand snow, consideration should be given to the suitability and durability of pavements that will be subject tomechanical snow removal or the use of chemicals for ice control.

The most common problem of paved surfaces is the lack of drainage. This problem often occurs in climates thatexpose surfaces to continued freeze-thaw cycles. Common to all pavement types is the need for a proper base. Asoft subbase, caused by wet, poorly drained conditions, results in pavement movement, "pumping," and otherproblems. Good drainage is essential to effective pavement maintenance.

Concrete pavements are widely used and can provide a durable, easily maintained surface. However, a number ofproblems can result from poor quality in the mixing or placement of concrete. Improper proportioning of materials inthe mix, or too much or too little water, can result in a poor-quality or low-strength material. Overworking ofsurfaces, retempering, or excessive water can produce surfaces that will crack or spall.

Storm DrainageGood storm drainage is essential to a well-functioning campus environment. Undersized lines are a frequent causeof storm drainage failure. Ensuring an ample margin of excess capacity is the best policy when designing drainagesystems, because future growth is likely to add hard-surfaced areas that increase runoff. Adequate manholes areimportant for cleaning operations. Cleaning of storm sewer inlets should be scheduled as part of the preventivemaintenance program to ensure consistent flow capability. Cross-connections into sanitary sewers should be soughtout and corrected as a matter of resource conservation and current code compliance.

Campus FurnitureA variety of exterior campus furniture is needed for a well-ordered and functional campus environment. Furniturecan include benches, light standards, refuse receptacles, planters, newspaper distribution boxes, signage kiosks,and fixed or moveable athletic equipment. Design standards and color choices should be established as part of acomprehensive landscape plan for the campus to ensure that exterior furniture is in harmony with the architecturalcharacter and general design of the facilities. Site furniture is subject to all the effects of weather, so a regularprogram for cleaning, repainting, refurbishment, and replacement is important to include in any work plan.

Outdoor ArtOutdoor art and displays represent a peculiar challenge. Special maintenance, such as regular sealing and cleaningof sensitive and unusual materials, is often required. Some art is actually part of the landscape (see Figure 3) andmay require specialized equipment. At the point of installation of such art, a maintenance plan for these itemsshould be developed in conjunction with the artist and the administration.


Figure 3. Wave Field, University of Michigan College of Engineering (Artist: Maya Lin)

FountainsFountains and other water attractions are appealing and can add much to the quality of landscaped areas.However, they can represent a significant investment and can be difficult and costly to maintain. In addition togrounds maintenance staff, maintenance can require the participation of mechanical and electrical shops for care ofpumps, nozzles, lighting, and other mechanical features. Regular water treatment is necessary in warm climates orduring the summer to control algae growth, and occasional emptying is required for cleaning and the removal offoreign objects. Regular refurbishment and resealing of fountains and other water features will also be necessary.

Signage and Exterior GraphicsA proliferation of nonstandard signage and exterior graphics can be the single most significant item creating visualclutter on a campus. Careful planning and coordinated and compatible design and lettering are essential to asuccessful signage and exterior graphics program. Strong institutional guidelines and standards should govern alltypes of signage, visual graphics, posters, traffic control signage, and informational and directional signage. Thesestandards should specifically establish responsibility for management and enforcement of the program. Postersshould be limited to strategically placed bulletin boards and kiosks on campus, and these should be regularlycleaned and policed to remove old, outdated material. Building identification and directional information signageshould follow set standards using appropriate and consistent colors, locations, sign sizes and shapes, and letteringstyles. A consistent, uniform exterior signage program can play an important role in creating visual continuity and adistinctive institutional image throughout a campus.

In many areas, graffiti on building surfaces, signage, or other exterior surfaces can present a major maintenanceproblem. Institutions faced with this problem have learned that allowing it to accumulate only encourages more,while prompt and complete removal soon discourages it. A number of effective cleaning materials are now availableto seal surfaces, or to remove all types of paint and other marking materials. Similarly, improperly placed orunauthorized posters or other signage should be promptly removed to discourage their proliferation.

FencingFences are often required to direct traffic and restrict use to designated programs and to secure areas. In somecases fences can be replaced by plants and pavements can be redesigned to provide proper traffic flow. Extensiveuse of fencing should be avoided. Too much fencing can obstruct views or diminish the aesthetic continuity of space.

Fencing materials should be pleasing and unobtrusive but still do their intended job. Darker colors help fencingrecede visually. Fencing that is compatible with site furniture and existing architecture could represent the characterof the surrounding area. Temporary fencing should be avoided. Concerted effort with student organizations toencourage people to refrain from cutting corners or creating paths in turf areas and shrubs can reduce the need forobtrusive temporary fencing.

Snow RemovalThe removal of snow and ice during the winter months can represent one of the toughest problems for groundsmaintenance crews at institutions in northern climates. During recent years, increases in litigation resulting fromslips and falls have only put additional pressure on this difficult assignment. Snow and ice removal that is not wellhandled can have serious public relations consequences for the facilities organization. A successful effort thatserves the institution well will be based upon clearly established and recognized priorities and carefully developedplanning and procedures.


Establishing PrioritiesAlthough every person on campus would like a high priority for his or her department, parking space, or building,snow and ice removal can be successfully accomplished only by following clearly established priorities that meetrecognized needs. At institutions with medical centers that provide 24-hour emergency care, access to this servicefrom major arterial roads and sidewalks is critical. Student health centers that provide similar emergency care wouldalso have a high priority. Second priority is usually assigned to power plant service areas, residence halls, and foodservices areas. Then the remaining main roads and walks serving classrooms and research buildings are cleared ofsnow. Handicap ramps and curb cuts, a high priority for mobility of a limited number of people, are of no value untilthe surrounding streets and walks are in passable condition. Therefore, ramps and curb cuts should have the samepriority as adjacent surfaces. Widespread publication of the basic priorities and principles of the snow and iceremoval plan can help to forestall much of the criticism and controversy that usually come with a major snowremoval effort.

Employee CallbackA workable system of mobilization is of prime importance. The responsibility for initial notification rests with adepartment and specific individuals who are on campus during nonworking hours. If snow or ice conditions occurduring working hours, the removal process can begin as needed. In the evenings, on weekends, and duringnonbusiness hours, the responsibility for callback must be clearly established. The job is often assigned to campuspolice, as they are on duty 24 hours a day, every day.

The decision to call out employees or contractors is difficult and must be based on experience as well as otherreadily available information. National and local weather forecast information and contacts with local agencies areimportant. Managers should consider communicating with the institution's top administrators if conditions warrantrestricted movement or school closing. A good rule is always to err on the side of calling people back sooner orcalling back more staff than prove necessary. Once a major storm has gotten the upper hand, it can be almostimpossible to recover.

Staffing RequirementsPersonnel to form crews for snow emergencies can come from several sources, and duties should be assigned torelate as closely as possible to normal assignments. Custodial employees can remove snow and ice fromentrances, steps, and landings. Grounds maintenance employees, usually experienced with heavier equipment,should be responsible for snow removal from sidewalks and curb cuts. Street and parking lot snow removal may beassigned to grounds maintenance crews or to a campus service group that operates heavier equipment and trucks.Equipment maintenance personnel should be on duty to repair breakdowns and install plows. Some institutionssupplement their regular maintenance crews with part-time student workers during periods of heavy snowfall, andmany institutions have standing contracts to use contractors and their equipment for snow removal.

A strong agreement on participation in emergency call-out procedures should be made with employees and theirlabor organizations. Some employees may delay their response to emergency calls or not respond at all. Theestablished policy should include method of contact, response time expected, payment for overtime orcompensatory time granted, and job responsibilities.

In the case of an emergency condition that could last for many hours or days, it is important to phase the workinghours of available labor. Repetitive shifts in cold weather should last a maximum of about 12 hours. Beyond this,efficiency and safety capabilities decrease rapidly. Just before the first snow or ice conditions are expected, hold abrief meeting of all employees and contractors to explain or review the mission and expectations of the operationand delineate responsibilities of the various crews. It is helpful to ask various agencies on campus to sendrepresentatives. Interested agencies include security, traffic, custodial, and general administration; in addition,someone should represent accessibility issues. Problem areas can be discussed and special requests orexpectations presented. Instruction and training in the use of equipment and distribution of salt is invaluable.Damage to the campus can be extreme if care is not taken. Plow damage becomes quite obvious as winter snowsmelt and grass does not grow.

Attention to details can make snow removal a success. Placing stakes at walk intersections to guide operatorswhen the area is entirely covered, or providing coffee and hot chocolate for employees during long hours ofovertime, improves the operations efforts.

Snow Removal EquipmentEquipment funding, staffing, policy, procedure, local snowfall, and the physical characteristics of the snow removalareas all directly influence the types of snow control equipment best suited for each campus setting. It is importantthat all of these factors be considered when evaluating equipment, as many varieties of equipment and materialsare manufactured to clear, remove, and melt snow and ice. Once policies, procedures, and staffing patterns areestablished, other factors can be considered, such as the physical characteristics of the snow removal areas.Characteristics such as street, sidewalk, and parking lot sizes; vehicle weight restrictions; snow emergency zones;street and sidewalk bollards; and bridges are all factors that need to be considered when purchasing or evaluatingequipment. Because funding for equipment is generally limited, it is important to select equipment that will becost-effective. For instance, will tractors, commercial lawn mowers, and dump trucks be equipped for snow and icecontrol? Utilizing a piece of equipment that might otherwise sit idle in storage will greatly increase the equipment'sreturn on investment. Will the equipment handle the workload during severe weather conditions? Consideration maybe given to contracts with state, county, or local public works to share equipment and routes.


be given to contracts with state, county, or local public works to share equipment and routes.

These questions must be asked, in addition to studying manufacturers' recommendations, observing equipmentdemonstrations, and visiting nearby institutions to observe other snow control programs. Once a program isestablished, fine-tuning begins through a trial-and-error process. What works in one area may not work in another.As the snow control program is carried out, meetings should be held to discuss and review its effectiveness. Thesupervisor should implement worthy suggestions from the staff and keep track of which techniques work well.

Be prepared. Organize the snow control program several months in advance. Ensure that supplies are ordered in atimely fashion. Have vehicle maintenance employees winterize equipment to be pulled from storage, and equip thetractor mowers and dump trucks with plows, tire chains, and salt spreaders. Order snow-melting compoundssuitable for the local winter conditions, and have them ready in their storage areas. The Snow Fighter's Handbook,available from the Salt Institute, contains information pertaining to all phases of snow control. The American PublicWorks Association schedules an annual snow conference that can be a valuable training resource.

Snow and Ice Control PlanAs with any emergency procedure, careful advance planning is an essential element of a successful snow and icecontrol program. If this planning is to be effective, it must be written down in a well-organized and comprehensiveway. Among the basic elements of a good plan are the following:

Summary of basic policies and procedures for snow and ice controlEstablishment of prioritiesOrganization for snow and ice controlControl and communicationsAssignment of responsibilitiesPersonnel assignmentsDelineation of equipment routes

To remain effective, a snow and ice removal plan should be reviewed and updated each fall, well in advance ofwinter weather, and the updated plan should form the basis for training all essential snow and ice control personnel.

ConclusionA well-maintained campus can be of great importance in attracting students and faculty. To achieve its goals, aninstitution needs adequate staffing and funding for grounds maintenance and care. It is imperative that the campusadministrators be aware of the importance of the campus aesthetic to the bottom line. A leader who isknowledgeable in this and can communicate this message when needed will ensure that the grounds department issupported and able to fulfill its mission of creating “a quality environment for learning.”


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