grk102 - course notes
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FREDERICK
2011-2012
102:
:
2011
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1.
1.1 ;
. . "1, 2,
. ".
1.2 ;:1) Sapir (1921: 8): " . . . , ".:. .2) Bloch & Trager (1942: 45): " . . .
".: . , .3) Hall (1968: 158): " . . . -, , '".: . Sapir, Hall . "" . "'" , . Lyons (1995:23-24) , , , , ., .
4) Robins (1979: 9-14): " . . . . . . . . . ".: . , "" "".5) Chomsky (1957: 13): " . . . ( ) , ".
1
E ,.2..
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: ) , . Chomsky
.) .
1.2 1.2.1 = , , . (, , .). , , , . ,
., , () . , . , , . , , . . () . .. ., , , , , , . . , , , . . . (.. , ), (.. ), (, ) .. . , ,
(). anahtar . . , , . . . , , , , . , . . , ,
, . ,
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, , , .1.2.2 , . (.. "").,
, , , . , : , ,. , (=).
2 Ferninand de Saussure
3. Saussure
,. .
2.1 :
2.1.1 (langue), (parole)
(langage).
. , . ,., . , .. . , "", ', , "" , .. ;, .Does John want to sleep?., , ,
. , Saussure , : , , () . ,
3 Saussure C. Bally A. Sechehaye.
Saussure 1906 1911.
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,"" .
2.1.2 Saussure
. :) , ( 6000-7000 ),) (. "") ,) (. ) , , , ) .
3.
3.1. ,
, . : , , . . ; , () , . , ., (, , ).. , .., ,., , ..!. , , , , , . , , . . , , ,
, , .. , , . . , . .. , .,.
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3.2 , , , . ,
. , , .. ,, , , . . , : . : , . .. , , , . , , . 24 ,
, . , : , ,. . , . , , . (, .) . , . , . . , . /p/, /o/, /n/, /s/, .
3.3 ; , (,.) , . ,
, , . , . , () , , , , ., . , , . , , , , , , ,. , .
. ,
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. , , , , . , , . ,
, , , , . , , : , , . , , ., , , , , , .
, , , , . : " , ". . , , . . , , . : , , , ., , . ( ) .
3.4 = , , . , , ,. .
, . , (. ) . () . . , , . 24, , .
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3.5 . , () ., , , . .
, ., , . , [pe'i]. , : night , ['nait]. , , , . , , , . [ai]. [e]..
3.6 , . , .. . , , , , ( , .) , . . () : . , , ' ., . , . , , ,
. , , .. , (.. , .).
5. 6 :1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. .
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Jacobson :a. (, ' .):
, ,b. (, ' .):
(, , .) (=),
c. (, ' .): (, )
d. (): , .. ,
e. (): ( , .) , .. , ,
f. ( ): , (,, .). , , .. .
6. Saussure . , () (). , , .. ['spiti] "".
6.1
, . , . , .. , "", [ael'fos], ['braa.].
. "" . , .., .. !, !.
6.2 H , . , , .
. :
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, , , , .. . , ,
, .. , , . "" , , . , . .
6.3 //
-, . . , , .. . () , .. ( ) , , , . (.. , ) , , . , .
6.4 , () . . , , .. ,, ., , . , , () , , .
Pavlov, , . , . , . . , . , ,
, .. [pa'no], [no'pa]. , Saussure,
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, ' ( )' , , .. ' [t], [o], [n], [s] ' ['tonos].
, , ( ) .
6.5 : 1) , . . , . , ,2) , .
(. ). ; ,.. ['pino]/['ino], ['pino]/['pizo], p/, n/z , . , .
7. & . UNESCO, " , , , , , . , . UNESCO, , (,, .)., , . (modes)
, , . : , ; ; . Lemke (2005), "" ,
. Lemke
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: (,.) ; , , ;
, ; ; . Kress & van Leeuwen (2001), , . ,
Kress & van Leeuwen , (content) (expression) . (strata): (Discourse) (design), (production) (distribution). (2005) , . Kress & van Leeuwen :, . 4:, '' . , , .
. (modes), ,. , . : , , ., , , , , ,
4., , Hodge & Kress (1988), Fairclough (2003) Gee (2005).
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, , .: 1) (.. , , .), ,
, , .. , ., 2) . . ' : , : ( ), .. .
, .
8. , . , , , , . ; , : ., , . , , . . () () . , , , . "" "" .
, , .. , , . , . , , , ., ,
().
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, . , .
, . , , . , . , . , , .
9 /,.. , . , . , , .. . . Saussure " ". , , . Saussure , . .
10 ) : , , , , ..
.) : , .. . (.. /) , .. -/-.
11
, , ,
. Saussure, . M
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, , ., .
M, . , . O . I, .., , . N, , , , . A , , O ( 380-381) :
, . ( K O) . E, () : , , , , N.A. T, , . . , , ( ),
, , . T, Aitchison, , , , (.. 3 2.X. ). H ,
., .
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H .E.. , , .. H
, ,: . ,, . M. A (William Labov) .M, ,
, , . H ( ), . : /, /, / () ,.H , , : . ; ; ; O, , .K: H
, ( ) (.., , ), , . H , , ., ;, , , , , . A , , , , . , ,
, .
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[b d g] (.. E [bma]) [v ] , . , [ph th kh] (.. E [phnos])
[f x], , , . ; : E, ( , ), , . : 4 .X., ,
. , , N , , , , . , , , , , , . T.A . , , , . : . H , - [
,
(
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T , , .E
. M / :. , ( .. ), o ( ), , , . . O
, , , .. , (.. , , ), ( ) . , .. , , ( .. . ) ( ) , .. , , . , , , ., , , ...
, [f x] [v ], , , [p tk], . H , [b d g], ( ), . T , , , .H , . A
. A
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, , , , . . M ..
, , . , , ., , , , . H .. ,
, ... O. () .. / , () . , , , , .
12
12.1 :
Saussure (), , , (langue). Saussure "",
, " ", . ., : ' ' . : . ,
.
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. (N: Chomsky) / :
(rewriterules) . , , , , ... , , . , , ,
. . , , .
12.2 , , . . , , . , . .
. , , .:: ; ;:.: ! . . . , , , , -
, . ,
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, ., ,
. , . , . .
. () () . .
12.3
: , , /.
12.3.1
, .. . . , .. . . ,. , ,
, .. , . , , , .
12.3.2 .
12.3.2.1 :
, , ,
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(.. ). . , .
'', . ' : ) , 2) , , . () () ,
.
13 H / / , , . Z , , , . , . H , , . K , , , .O . T
, , ., . O , , . , " " ,
O , , ,
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. E, . A . A , , . O
, . E, /, /. H , , . .H . . , ,
, . E , , , . A , . O , , , . O /. O , . , , . ,
. , , , , . H , , . , , . , , , . ,
, ,
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, ., . , . T ,
, . , , , , , . , . E , , . O , . ,
, ., , , , . E, . O, . K , , () , ., . A, . H , . O . E, K, ,
: , , .H , , . E, , . H , ,. O , .
, ,
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(). A,, ., , , , ,
.
13.1
13.1.1
1. , .. ., ' /,
2. ,
3. ,4. , .. !
5. , ..
, , , .6. , .. , , , .7. 5-, .. /
.
13.1.2 1. , ..
, , .2. , , ..
, ,
3. 4. -, ..
.
13.2
13.2.1 . : ,. ( ) . .
, ,. , ; . , . , . (,, ) . , , . ,
5=, =.
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. , , . .
13.2.2
() ., (), . 2.700 ! , -, ,, , . . :
, . , , , ,: . , . , , . :", : , , , , , , , , , .. . , ". , , (, ) . , :, , , ,. : .
13.2.3 : , , . . , , , . ,, . .
: ,
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. : , , .,
. , . , : , , ,. , : , , , ,., , , , , . ,
. , ,, . (). , ., . , , . .
13.2.4.
13.2.4.1 3500 3000 .. ( ), . , , , . 4 ( 3200) .. (). , , :
() . , . . . , . 1500 .. . T-K.
. , , .
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1500 .. . , . ; E , ,
, , , , . . : ; E .
13.2.4.2 , :, . 2.000.000
10.000 .. () . , . () . . : . , . : , , () (, .). . , () : ( ) ( ). . . . .
14 ; . ,, :
; , , . , . (), , ., , , , , ., , . , ,
. .. ., .. , ,
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, , (). , , : ( , )
. , , ., , 2.000.000 .. : , . , ,. .
13.2.4.3 .
, . .., ( ) . (: 30.00010.000 ..) . . 170. ( ) : . , . , , , , : , .
. ( ) , , . , . , , .
13.2.4.4
(
, ) . ,
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. , . 90008000 .. , . ; E ,
, : . , , . . ; - . , , . ( ) , , .
, . () . (, , , ) ( ) . , , : , , . . , ,. , , . , , . () 8000 ..
. : , (), , , . , , . () . , .. . , , , .
. , , .
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.. , , , .. ., , , , , .
() 4000 3000 .. , . , . 80007000 .. : , . .
.
13.2.4.5 T
13.2.4.5.1 , , . , , , , . , , , ,. , , . : (.. , )./ . //. , . , ,. / . .
. , , , . , , , . , , ., : ,
, , .
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, ./ , , , : .
, , 3.000 / 49.905. , , . , , . . /. 3.000 , 24 , .
13.2.4.5.2 ( , ) / (, ). , , 40003000 .. , , . . , ( ), , , (), :, , , . , ., / (, ) , .. , .
( ) (), . ., .. /. : /, . , (): . sn,
, sn, .
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O ., ti . . . :
. . . . , , . . , .: B , E (13.X.) (8-2.X.)
.M , : (-), + (-), + + (-), + + + (-), + (-), + + (-) . (). ' , , . H .O -- , . B . T , () (). H B . H '', --, B
po-to-li, -- -o-, -, po-to-li-se , B, ( e). H
, -- (
:
), B a-ku-ro, -- -, a-ra-ku-ro-se -- ra-ku: , -a-, , , , u,
.
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, (, ), . , , .
13.2.4.5.3
,
.. ( , ), . , , , , , . . . , , , . , , , ,
, , . , , , , , . , , , , . . , : , , , , , , .
, . ,
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, (), .
13.2.5 1)
, , . .2) ( ). () .3) . 40003000 .. ,.
. , , (), , , .. , : .
14 , , . H , , . , .
.O , , , Saussure. A : , , . A (, ,.) , , , , . O : .
O . ,
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, , , , , . . O, ,
. , , . O, . H ( , ...). H . .. , , .T : ,, , . H . M ( ) ( ). H , , , , , ,.H , , :
, . T . T , . H , , , .E , , , . M , ,
( ), : (), , ( ), . , ., , , , , . H ,
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, : , . , , , .
1 4 . 1 . , . , ., ; , ., , . ,
. . . , (, , ), , . . , . , , .
14.1.1 , , , . , , , .. , . .
14.1.2
, . . ; . (, , ) . . () , , .
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14.1.3 : . , , : ['pira]/['bira]. ([p] [b]) ,
, . [b] . ; . , , [b], . . . [z]. . . [p] [b] , ( )
. ( ), , : , : /, /. [z] () [s] () . .
14.1.4 , . , , , , , .:.
;
(, ) . B. () . ; ()
. (), , , . , , , , . , , , . , ,
. .
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., , , , . , .
14.1.5 , , , .. (.. , ), (.). (), , .. /'pote/-/po'te/.O . .
.
14.2 O, : , , , . , ['mei] () [] [n], [r] [l], ['meni] (), ['meri] (),['meli] (). [n], [r], [l], [],
. A ['mei] : ['meni], ['mei] : ['meri], ['mei] : ['meri], ['mei] : ['mii],['mei] : ['mea], . H . . T . , /'mei / () /m/, /e/, //, / i /. T . T ,
.E, , , , , , , . A , , . E , , , . O .
T , . O
/x / [x] [] :
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['exo] (), [xa'ra] (), ['ei] (), ['eri] (). , , . E
, .. .
16.1 H , . (). , . , .. ['kano]-['xano], ['topos]-['tipos].
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14.3
14.3.1 To
i (, , , , ) u () e (, ) (, ) a ()
14.3.2 (+)
p (), (b) (), ph () t (), (d) (), th ()
ts (), dz () t (), d (
f () v (), f: (),v: ()
() () s () z (), : (), : (), s: (),z: ()
(), (),
: ()
m (), m: () n (), n: ()
l (), r (), l: ()
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14.4 /
M, .. [k] [ka'los] [c] [ce'ros] /k/.
T: (+/).. (/b/ [+]
/p/ []), (/f/ [+] /p/ []), .T.. [p], [b].
T
, .. [f v x s z]., , .. [w].T..[p
h], [t
h], [k
h].
T, , .. [b], [d], [g]./B, , , .T, .. [i], [u].
O
.. [i].T ..[l].O.. [ts], [dz].T.. [t], [d].
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H ..
/p/ /v/ /'patos/ /'vaTos/.
T ().. .T.. [f] [v].
1) : [x], [], [l], [b], [z]2) [c]-[k] [m]-[b];3) [fafi], [lafi], [lefi], [leri], [mafi],[meni], ;4) [lena], [lema], [pena], [tena], ;5) : ,,, , ,, , , , , , ,,
, ,,.1.
"", .. "", .. "" "" "" """", .. "" """, ", .. ""
"""", .. ""
"", .. "" "" "" "", ..
" ()" " ()", .. , ", ", .. "", .. , ""
"", .. ", "
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"", ..,
"", .. "() ", .. ' , .
"", .. ""
14.5 , ( ) ,. A , . O . E , . H
.A, (['fevo]). , : -(['fev]) - ([o]). M , , , .. /'usa/ /aa/. , . A , , (. .. , ,). , (. .. -, ). E, . T , (.. - ), (.. -
X), . A, , .., , , . (. -, -, -, -).
.
1) ; anasema"", , atasoma " ", nilisoma "", ninamupika " ",ninapika "", ninasema "", ninasoma "".2) ; komitsosol "", komitwewe "",petatmeh"",petawewe "".
3) """"
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""
"" "" ""
""
""""
"" """"""
"""/-/-" ""
"" ""
"" "" ""
"" ""
"" ""
14.6 , , . , . , , , , . E , , . , /aa'po/, /aa'pusa/, /a'apisa/ , : () , () , ( ) .
/aa'pusa/, / a'apaa/: ( ) . T, ( [ ] , [] , [] )
AA. E ,
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.O . (.. -
-, -), (.. -, -). , , . ; , , , , ., : (.. , ): =, .. .
ho se vao oan "" ho="", se=, vao="", oan="". , (.. , , ) (, ). , .. , DI d ( ) "", d( ) "", d (- )"", d() "".
(.. ): = .
, .. . adam-lar-i "", -. , . () . () . , , , . , .. -, -, -, -, -, -. , (.. ), , .. () t-meyn-levt-pt-rkn " " t=' ., meyn="", levt="",
pt="", rkn=. , .. ,
, , .. ktb "" katab"" 'kaatib "".
. .
, , (.. , ), , ,
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(.., , , , ). (.. ).
. , (- -) .
14.7 ' : . . . , ,
, . , ' . .
14.7.1 (, ,, .). . , .. , . , : ; ., ,
. ; , . , , . , .. . . . , . . . , . . ..
14.7.2
,
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, .. , ., , , , ..
, .. , , , (.. , ) , .. , . , .. , 6 /, /., :) , .. , ., ) , ..
//, //., , () .
14.7.3
, , , , , .
14.7.4 (=) , .. .,., .. , , * . , .. , *. : (.. , ),
(.. , ) , .. , .
14.8 , , ( ): Saussure, , . B, , . A, , . , T , ,
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, . , , B, ...
, , , . . T . .E , . , . , , , , ., , , .H , . T O . E, , , .. O T , . .
H . T .. , . , , , , . T, , , , . H .
, .. -, -, -, -, 6-7, -, --, --, -
. , , , (, ) (.. ) . . ,
6
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, . , , .
, .. -. . , .. . , .. - ( .),-. "", (..) "", , , .,
, .. -, -,, . ": ". () , .. -, -, -, (" " " ", "" """), , , . ", " "". . ., , . . , ,, .. "" "", . "" " ()", . "" "", "" "", "" "", "" "", . ", " "", "", ", ", "" ", ". () (.. . ""
""
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"" "" ""., , , ..
. .
14.9 M . . A , , ., ,
. , Y , . , . K / , , , / . A ()K , , .H , , . A , , .. (.
M, !). , .
14.10 T ,
, , . O , , ... H, , , (, , ) , : , , . , , ,
. , , .
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O (.. , .), . , , ,
, .
15 () , ..
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, .. , , , ,.
, () ::
, .. :
, .. , .. :
, .. , ., .. .
:, .. , . "
", ..
15.1.3
:1. ' ' , .. . ,2. ' ' . , ..
10
, .. , . , .. ,3. . , . (.. ) (.. ) , .. , .
15.1.4 , . , , ..
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, , .K 180 . A . O 60.000-120.000 .
, ( ). H , , . B . A, .E, , .T: . ( , ). ( , ). , . . E, , . M . T , , .M, : K,
; K , ; O N. Chomsky . K, . , , ,, . A
,
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, .E Christofer, .A
, , , . A . , 1861 Pierre-PaulBroca , , , /tan/, T. T, Broca .
Broca , , . O Broca : M . , 1876, Carl Wernicke , . K , .
Broca Wernicke
(Broca)
Wernicke
O Broca Wernicke, 150 , Wernicke-Geschwind, . , ( ) () , , . A Wernicke, . M Wernicke , , Broca, , . E , Broca
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, .T Wernicke-Geschwind , Broca Wernicke Wernicke Broca.,
. E, , , . T Wernicke-Geschwind , . A Broca Wernicke . H ,
, , , , . M , , . ( Damasio & Damasio), , . T . , , , , . O , , , ., ,. M, , . , .
T , , , . , , .M . M . K
, .
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A , , ., .
11
. R. Descartes . X, , , . , , , , . A , . O
. O, , , , . , 1930, 1960 , , , . T , -. E, , , . M , , . T; ;A homo erectus, 0,5 1
, homo habilis, 1,5-2 , . T
11A . X: T
, , , , : . , , , . , . E , ,
, . H .
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. H , .K
, , .O homo habilis R. Leakey : A 1,5-2 . , . A . T , ; 100-150
homo habilis. M Broca. N Broca homo habilis , ;,, , ( 100.000 ), , . A , , , , , .
17. 12
, (-, , , ) .
17.1 - , . [n] : [vunn], [jemton], [prramman]. , , , .. [pramman], [plln]. /k/, /p/ /t/, .. [kkhalon], [potth]. , , ( ), .. /k/ [t] /x/ [] , , [(e)tnos],
12 (2007), (2009),
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[ter], [te], [rin] (). //, .. [fia] ( ), [epa] ( ). [en] [men] . , .. , . /b/, /d/ /g/ /p/, /t/, /k/. /p/,
// //, /i/ /c/, .. , , , ,.
17.2 . ', ete ate, , .. ( ). , , .. , (, ). , .. ( ), ( ). , .. ()., -, -,.. , , . , -, -, .. , , . , .. .
17.3 , .. (), ; (;). , . "". , , , 13 ";". , , .. .