Psychological&

PhysiologicalBenefits of

GreenspaceRichard J. HullUniversity of Rhode Island

Growing evidence

underscores the positivebenefits to the mind and

body offered by golfcourses and similar

landscapes

Itis often considered that turf and orna-mental plantings have great aesthetic

value but are fundamentally frivolous andof little real importance. In fact, the U.S.Department of Agriculture clearly viewsresearch on turfgrasses and ornamentals asfar less important to human welfare thanstudies on plant foods' fibre or wood. Andduring times of severe economic con-straints, many believe it is more importantto design and build for functional effi-ciency than for landscape aesthetics.

Even those professionally committed tothe culture and management of turf andornamentals would probably not disagreestrongly with such statements. It is onlynatural that we place great value on thoseelements in our environment on which oursurvival depends and relegate all else tosecondary importance.

In this presentation, I will discuss evi-dence that these attitudes are at best naiveand shortsighted and at worse dehumaniz-ing and dangerous.

The physical decay of our inner cities hasbeen an ongoing problem for decades.While the core of any cities has been revi-talized with the construction of civic andconvention centres, hotels, shopping

malls and other examples of urban re-newal, there often remains an expandingzone of neglect and poverty between thiscore and the suburbs. In this zone crimeand violence may be commonplace and,while police have become more aggres-sive and residents more defensive, thelevel of violence continues to increase andbecome more pervasive.

Perhaps it is time to consider the envi-ronmental conditions that may promotehostility and anti-social behaviour. This isnot meant to minimize the negative im-pacts of chronic unemployment, drug ad-diction, broken homes and general feelingof hopelessness that pervade many inter-city communities. Nevertheless, many ur-ban problems may come down to a simplequestion: Are our attitudes, and behav-iours resulting from them, influenced bythe physical environment in which we liveand work? If they are, the role of theenvironment in human society can be es-tablished and given its true value.

Environmental PreferenceIs there any evidence to support the idea

that surroundings influence individuals'outlook on life, sense of wellbeing andultimately their attitude and behaviour to-wards others? The answer to this questionis not easily obtained, but discussion of itmay begin simply as a matter of prefer-ence.

When given a choice, people prefer orrespond more favourably to some environ-ments than they do to others. In this con-text, environment refers to types oflandscapes, or more generally, physicalsurroundings. This preference for certainsurroundings has been the subject of muchresearch conducted by environmental psy-

chologists.As reviewed by one team of researchers,

this research most often involves showingsubjects a series of photographic imagesdepicting landscapes of different compo-sitions, complexities and orders. Theseimages may concentrate on natural scenes,those containing primarily man-madestructures or a blend of the two.

Viewers are asked to rate each scene ona preference scale of 1 to 5, though thephotographs are usually observed for onlya few seconds to gauge instinctive reac-tions. The results of such ratings are sub-jected to statistical analysis from whichpatterns of preference can be detected andthe elements contributing to preferenceidentified.

In general, people from different socio-economic levels in several countries ex-pressed preference for landscapes ofmoderately structured complexity exhibit-ing unobstructed depth and deflected vistathat suggested there was more to be seenjust around the comer or over the horizon.

In a follow-up report, one researcher il-lustrated a scene of high preference thatappears to be a park or a view down a golfcourse fairway. Features that contribute tohigh-preference landscapes include unob-structed visibility, a smooth ground sur-face that invites movement and a curvedline of attention that introduces an elementof mystery by suggesting there is more tobe learned by entering the scene and mov-ing forward. The presence of a water fea-ture often increases viewer preference.Clearly the landscape provided by a golfcourse are among the types highly pre-ferred in these studies.

Preference for a landscape or environ-ment exerts a greater influence on human

psychology than a mere like or dislike fora picture. Because like or dislike for theenvironment is an ever-present stimulus, itcan profoundly influence one's outlookand attitude - positively or negatively.

This was effectively demonstrated by aresearcher who distributed a questionnaireto residents of nine housing projects inAnn Arbor, Mich. The projects ranged insize from 10 to 55 acres and from 167 to600 units. The response rate was 33 per-cent, which generated 268 returns suitablefor analysis.

One component of the survey was aphoto questionnaire, in which residentswere asked to rate a variety of scenes thatwere similar to those typically viewedfrom an urban apartment. Not surpris-ingly, views of parking lots and city streetwere least preferred, while large expansesof open lawn areas ranked somewhat bet-ter. The introduction oftrees and landscap-ing features added considerably to thedegree of preference, and views of naturalareas that contained the elements of open-ness and mystery discussed previously re-ceived the highest ratings.

The second section of the survey pro-vided particularly significant data. Resi-dents were asked to rate the views fromtheir apartment as they did the photos inthe initial portion of the survey. This wasfollowed by a number of questions thatattempted to determine the residents' de-gree of satisfaction with their living con-ditions, their sense of well-being and theircommunity involvement.

In general, less preferred views (parkinglots, city streets and playgrounds) corre-lated with reduced neighbourhood satis-faction. Views of woods and landscaping,on the other hand, related to much strongerneighbourhood satisfaction and a greatersense of community as expressed in aperception of friendliness and positive re-lations between neighbours.

A high numerical response to the simplequestion, "About how many trees wouldyou say are very near your home?" showedthe same pattern of satisfaction as ques-tions relating to a preferred apartmentview. The perceived availability of natureand open spaces also correlated positivelywith neighbourhood satisfaction. Even ifnot visible from an apartment, the knowl-edge that "natural areas" and "good placesfor taking walks" were nearby promoted agreater level of satisfaction and connect-edness with their neighbourhood.

A Preference for NatureThese findings should come as no great

surprise. After all, home owners pay pre-mium prices for lots that afford a desirableview. A preferred view is normally de-fined as one of natural areas or of designedlandscapes that posses those features iden-tified as favoured in the preference studies.

Lots in a suburban development adjacentto a golf course are often the most highlyprized - especially if a water feature isincluded. Conversely, views of a neigh-bour's backyard or an urban landscapedevoid of natural elements add little to realestate values. The billions of dollars spenteach year on lawn and garden supplies andservices attest to the value most of us placeon the natural elements in our home envi-ronment.

Most of us have a preference for natureeven though we may not be aware of it.Visualize two photographs of an urbanstreet scene. The same subject is presentedin both photographs but one containsmostly architectural or built elementswhile the other shows a foreground ofplants and turf. If you were selecting oneof these photographs to be enlarged,framed and displayed in your home oroffice, which would you choose? If givena large choice of photographs, you prob-ably wouldn't select either of these be-cause the subject itself is not one of highpreference. However, if the choice werelimited to one of the two, most peoplewould select the one with the natural ele-ments.Itdoes not take many natural elements to

increase the appeal of an urban scene.Imagine two views of an apartment com-

plex. Both show the principal buildings ina landscape consisting of a paved plazawith sculptured features and structures forsitting. In one, there are no natural ele-ments. In the other, a small row of treeshave been added. Though the first scene isattractive, it would likely be less preferredthan the other, whose natural featuresmake it more inviting and thus increase itsappeal.

Sociological Impactsof Nature

There are documented examples of ur-ban communities that have been revital-ized because of the introduction of natureinto their neighbourhoods.

One researcher describes the sociologi-cal impacts of a tree planting program inOakland Calif. The Oakland Tree TaskForce, with aid from a citizens group, or-ganized an eight-month tree planting pro-ject. Local residents were involved in theprogram and performed much of thephysical work. Every effort was made touse the project as an opportunity to bringpeople together and establish a sense ofshared ownership in and commitment tothe neighbourhood.

Inner-city residents often have a poorimage of, and sense of, not being con-nected with their neighbourhoods becauseof their environment of absentee landlordsand general physical neglect. The treeplanting program, by giving residents afeeling of involvement and a measure ofcontrol over their surroundings, spawnednumerous paint-up, fix-up parties, neigh-bourhood watch associations and commu-nity garden projects. An atmosphere ofcommunity was frequently establishedthat expressed itself in numerous wayslong after the initial tree planting was com-pleted.

This approach is not unique. Inner-citygardening projects have been enormouslysuccessful in most urban communitieswhere they have been organized. ThePhiladelphia Green program sponsored bythe Pennsylvania Horticultural Societyhas initiated more than 1,300 projects at a1988 cost of more than $1.5 million. Fea-tured on national television, this programhas virtually transformed several de-pressed neighbourhoods of inner Philadel-phia into vital communities displayingenthusiasm, pride and economic revivalwithout displacing the original residents.

It is surprising, however, that such exam-ples of urban rejuvenation go largely un-noticed and that programs that permitresidents to introduce nature into inner-city neighbourhoods are rarely listedamong priority.approaches for addressingurban problems. It may be that the con-ventional wisdom that holds lawns, treesand flowers as purely decorative with lit-tlefundamental human value is so deeplyingrained in the minds of planners andcity managers that they are blind to suc-cessful programs even in their own com-munities.It may seem ludicrous to propose that

guns, drugs and violence can be effec-tively countered by the practice of urbanhorticulture. Although lawns and gardenscannot necessarily correct social ills, it islikely that the changes in the attitude andoutlook of the residents could.

Physiological Impacts ofNature

Although the psychological value of na-ture in the human environment is sup-ported by most pertinent research, thereare a number of studies that show thatnature can promote physiological benefitsas well.

One study focused on the rate of recov-ery from stress using students at the Uni-versity of Delaware. Volunteers (60 menand 60 women) were subjected to emo-tional stress by viewing a relativelygraphic videotape of work-related acci-dents.

After a short rest, they looked at a tapeof a natural setting or one of either vehicu-lar or pedestrian traffic in an urban setting.Each tape was accompanied by an appro-priate sound track set at a decibel levelconsistent with the scene being viewed.While watching the stressor and recoverytapes, subjects were monitored for the fol-lowing physiological activities: muscletension, skin conductance and pulse tran-sit time ( a non- invasive measurement thatcorrelates well with blood pressure).

As expected, all subjects responded tothe stressor tape with increased muscletension, greater conductance and pulsetransit time (elevated blood pressure).While watching the recovery tapes, allstudents exhibited a reversal of the stressmeasures, but those looking at the naturalsetting recovered more quickly and more

completely. Viewing the street vehiculartraffic or pedestrian traffic in a shoppingmall caused a more prolonged duration ofstress than did experiencing scenes andsounds of nature.

The authors concluded that everydaysurroundings can significantly influencean individual's physiological state andrate of recovery from stress. Therefore, itappears that a preference for nature mani-fests itself at both psychological andphysiological levels.

In a more 'classic' study; one researcheremployed hospital records to assess theimpact of a window view on the perform-ance of patients recovering from gallblad-der surgery.

Patients assigned to the surgical wing ofa suburban Pennsy lvania hospital between1972 and 1981 were grouped into 23 simi-lar pairs matched by sex, age, smokinghabits, obesity, and previous hospitaliza-tion history. The rooms in the wing wereidentical except that half of them had awindow that overlooked a park with trees,lawns and flower gardens, while theotherrooms had a window view of the brick wallof an adjacent hospital wing. Data werecollected only from patients who wereadmitted during the period from May 1through October 20 when the trees were infoliage.

Highly significant differences in patientrecovery performance were noticed be-tween members of each pair. Those with aview of the park were discharged almost afull day earlier than patients with the viewof the wall. The amount of pain medica-tion required by the wall-view patients

was about three times greater than forpatients with the park view.

Apparently, the visual stimulus providedby a view of nature has beneficial physi-ological impacts that may very well derivefrom positive psychological responses. Inany event, the experiences of nature posi-tively influences both the mental andphysical health of individuals.

Implications for GolfCourses

What does this have to do with golfcourses and their management? It is clearthat the natural environments that evokedthe highest preference ratings and ap-peared to elicit the most positive physi-ological responses are just the sort ofviews common to a well-designed, maturegolf course. The unobstructed views oftrees, water bodies and other natural fea-tures with a smooth ground surface and acurved vanishing point that invites furtherexploration are all common to golf coursesand are features that promote maximumpreference. Thus, if you need to relax andseek relief from the stresses of life, youcould find few places close to home betterthan a golf course. Perhaps this partly ex-plains the enormous popularity of golfwith people of all ages and socioeconomicstatuses.

The presence of golf courses in urban orsuburban settings should be consideredcommunity assets: Golf courses providepsychological and physiological benefitsnot only to those who utilize them directly,but also to passersby, nearby home ownersand those who simply know they are closeby.

Golf courses could be better integratedinto the community fabric by incorporat-ing hiking trails, picnic areas and benchesfor relaxation and observation of nature.This vision of golf facilities as positivecontributors to the physical and mentalhealth of the community and its residentscould do much to dispel the image ofelitism and frivolous extravagance inwhich they are sometimes viewed.

Evidence exists that strongly supportsthe value of open, park-like spaces to acommunity. It should take no leap ofimagination to see golf courses in a simi-larly positive light.[Reproduced with permission from Golf Course Manage-ment, Aug. 1994 and based on an address by Prof. Hull tothe Turfgrass Section of the Crop Science Society of Amer-ica Conference, San Antonio, TX., Oct. 1990]