greenhouse gas emissions from tropical peat forest … gas... · greenhouse gas emissions from...
TRANSCRIPT
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FROM TROPICAL PEAT FOREST AND PEAT OIL PALM PLANTATION -A REVIEW
CHIENG BEND YUAN
This project is submitted in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of't: ngineering With
Honours (('ivii Engineering)
To my beloved purenis and family
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to take the opportunity to express my sincere appreciation to people that
have given contributions towards the success of this thesis. First and foremost, I
would like to thank God for His grace and mercy throughout this project. It is by His
hands and wisdom in guiding me to finish my work within study period.
My appreciation also goes to my FYP supervisor, Professor Ir. Dr Law Puong Ling
for his academic guidance throughout this project. Thanks for gave out a lot of
precious time for discussion and checking errors in my thesis.
I would also like to thank Universiti Malaysia Sarawak for providing a resourceful
library that enabled me to gain adequate information for my thesis.
Last but not least. I would like to thank my family members and friends for all your
support and care.
Thank you.
ill
ABSTRAK
Ulasan jurnal telah dibuat bagi menentukan pembebasan gas rumah hijau (GI IG) dari
hutan gambut and pcnanaman kclapa sawit di kawasan gambut. Kebanyakan CiII(i
adalah tcrdiri daripada CO,, C114, dan N20. dcngan C'O: mangandungi 90% daripada
kcscluruhan GWP manakala (. '114 dan N_O hanya mengandungi <1% daripada
jumlah GWP. Kcbanyakan kawasan gambut bcrada di Asia Tenggara (69%) yang
mana Indonesia mcnyumbang 53.1% daripada potcnsi karbon tcnggclam global
dengan karbon simpanan dianggarkan bcrnilai 20.28 Mt C yr''. Kawasan gambut
yang tclah ditcbang mcmpunyai pcmbcbasan GII(i yang lebih tinggi daripada hutan
gambut semulajadi disebabkan pertambahan pcmbebasan CO, daripada pembakaran
( 1.42 - 4.32 Gt, 'y) dan juga danpada pcnguraian setnula di parit (700 Mt yr", tahun
2009). Penanaman kelapa sawit di tanah gambut tclah mcnycbabkan hutang karbon
yang tinggi (melebihi 3000 Mg ha"') uniuk dibayar discbabkan oleh pembebasan
carbon yang tinggi kepada udara semasa penebangan (648 f 337 Mg ha") dan juga
daripada pcnguraian semula di tanah (55 Mg of CO, ha*' yr"). Walaubagaimanapun,
penanaman kelapa sawit di kawasan berrumput telah didapati berupaya
mengurangkan CO, dengan nilai 135 Mg ha" C'O,. Jadi, penanaman kelapa sawit di
kawasan berrumput adalah lebih sesuai bagi mcngurangkan pembebasan (ill(i.
IV
ABSTRACT
Reviews had been carried out on related journals in determining the G11G emissions
from tropical pcatlands and peat oil palm plantations. Majorities of G11G arc CO2,
CH4, and N, O, with CO2 consisted of 90% of total GWP while C: 114 and N, ()
contributed <1% of total GWP. A majority of tropical pcatlands arc located in
Sourthcast Asia (69%) while Indonesia alone has accounted for 53.1% of global
potential carbon sink with estimated carbon storage of 20.28 Mt C yr ' Degraded
pcatlands have relatively higher GHG emissions than natural peat forests due to
additional CO2 emissions from peat fire (in range of 1.42 to 4.32 Gt/y) and soil
decomposition in drainage (approximately 700 Mt yr i, year 2009). Establishment of
oil palm plantation on peat soil resulted in a high carbon debt (over 3000 Mg ha* 1) to
pay due to large amount of carbon losses into atmosphere during land clearing (648 s
337 Mg ha") and soil decomposition in drainage (approximately 55 Mg of ('O, ha"
yr1 ). However, oil palm plantation established on grassland rehabilitation acted as
carbon sink with a net sequestration of 135 Mg ha'' CO,. Therefore, it is preferable
for establishing oil palm plantations on grassland rehabilitation.
V
TABLE OF CONTENT
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Abstrak
Abstract
Table of Content
List of Tables
List of Figures
List of Abbreviations and Notations
List of Appendices
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Greenhouse Gases
1.2 Peat Forest
1.3 Oil Palm Plantation
1.4 Problem Statement
1.5 Scope of'study
1.6 Aim and Objectives
1.7 Structure of thesis
Page
ii
iii
iv
V
vi
X
xii
xiv
xv
i ý
3
4
5
6
K
vi
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Tropical Pcatland: Distribution and Carbon storagc 9
2.2 GHG Emissions from Tropical Pcatland 11
2.2.1 Natural Tropical Pcatland 12
2.2.1.1 Mcthanc Fluxcs 12
2.2.1.2 Carbon Dioxidc Fluxcs 14
2.2.2 Dcgradcd Pcatland 15
2.2.2.1 Deforestation 18
2.2.2.2 Rolc of Firc 19
2.2.2.3 Draincd Pcatlands 20
2.3 Pcat oil palm plantation and GHG 23
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 General
3.2 Background Study
3.3 Data Collection
3.4 Importance of Data Collection
3.5 Results and Discussions
3.6 Conclusion and Recommendations
3.7 Progress of Work
29
28
29
29
29
30
31
CHAPTER 4 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1 Peat distribution. thickness and carbon storage 32
4.2 Deforestation Rate in South East Asia 35
vii
4.3 G11G Emissions from Natural
Tropical Peat Forest 38
4.3.1 CI{4 Flux Emissions 38
4.3.2 C02 Flux Emission 40
4.4 GIIG Emissions from Degraded Pcatland 42
4.4.1 C'11, Flux Emissions 43
4.4.2 CO, Flux Emissions 45
4.5 Comparison of GI IG Emissions from
Natural and Degraded Forest 48
4.6 Role of fire on Carbon Loss
from Tropical Pcatland 50
4.7 Carbon Flux by Location and Land Use 51
4.7.1 CO_ Flux Emissions 52
4.7.2 ('II., Flux [: missions 54
4.7.3 N"O Flux [: missions 56
4.7.4 Total GWP for Different Ecosystems 58
4. X Oil Palm Plantations and (ill(i Emissions 60
3.8.1 CO, Emissions in Grassland and Forest
by using Zero-Burning Method 60
4.8.2 CO, [: missions in Grassland and
Forest by using Burning Method 61
4.8.3 (iiI(i Balance for Oil Palm Plantation
on Grassland and on Forests 62
4. X. 4 Comparison of'Oil palm Plantations 65
and other Biofuels Plantations
VIII
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
5.2 Recommendation
69
71
REFERENCES 73
APPENDIX 84
Ix
LIST OF TABLES
Table
4.1 Global Tropical Peatland
4.2 Estimates of Carbon Polls and Carbon Sinks
4.3 Deforestation Rates (2000-2005) of Total Peat
Swamp Forest, in SEA
4.4 Deforestation Rates (19X5-2000) of Peat
Forests in Some SEA Countries
4.5 Carbon Gas Emissions from the Peat Surface in
Natural and Degraded Peat Swamp Forest in
Central Kalimantan. Indonesia.
4.6 Carbon Flux by Location and Land Use
4.7 CO, Emissions by Location and Land Use
4.8 ('11, Flux Emissions by Location and Land Use
4.9 N, () Flux Emissions by Location and Land Use
4.10 Total GYP of the Soils for Different Ecosystems
4.1 1 CO, (: mission (MG till'' ) Due to Complete Decomposition of Above and Below Ground Biomass of Forest or Grassland Vegetation alter C'om erring the Land into an Oil Palm Plantation
4.12 CO, E quiv'alent Emission I MG ha'') Caused by Burning and Decomposition of' Biomass of' Forest or (Irassland Vegetation during the First 25 year Oil Palm Rotation
Page
33
33
36
37
49
53
53
56
58
59
61
62
x
4.13 GHG Balance in C02 Equivalents (Mg ha') for Oil Palm Plantation on Grassland and on Forest on Mineral and Organic Soil. during the First 25-year Oil Palm Rotation 65
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1.1 Carbon Cycle in Natural Peat forest
2.1 Schematic Illustration of CO-, Emissions from
Drained Peatlands
3.1 Progress of works
4. I Lowland peat extents in Southeast Asia
4.2 Peat Depth/Thickness Classes by Area in
Indonesia
4.3 Land ('over on Peatlands in Indonesia and
Malaysia
4.4 Methane Fluxes at Various Peat Watertable Depths and Annual Cumulative Methane Emission from I lollows of Peat Swamp Forest
4.5 1lwnmock and Ilollow Mean ('O. Flux Rates from Peat Swamp Forest at Various Peat Watertable (WT) Depths
4.6 Watertable Depth and Annual Cumulative CO, Emission from Mixed Peat Swamp Forest I lummoeks and I lollows
4.7 Peat ('I I, Fluxes Rates at Three Tropical Peatland Sites at Various Peat Watertable Depth ('lasses
4.8 Annual Cumulative C'11, and CO, Fluxes at the Peat Surface of Three Drained Sites
4.9 Peat CO, Fluxes Rates at Three Tropical Peatland Sites at Various Peat Watertable
3
22
31
34
35
36
39
40
42
44
44
X11
Depth Classes
4.10 Historical, Currcnt and Projcctcd CO: Emissions from Pcatlands duc to Drainagc (fires cxcludcd)
4.11 Cumulativc CO_, cmissions from SE Asia over 100 ycars
4.12 Fire Ilotspot Data (Number of Fires Counted per ycar)for Borneo from 1997 to 2006
4.13 Tentative Estimate of Annual and Average Annual Carbon Emissions due to Peatland Fires
4.14 GWP for CO_ by Locations and Land Usc
4.15 GWP for C'H, by Locations and Land Use
4.16 GWP for N, O by Locations and Land use
4.17 Carbon Debt. Biofuel Carbon Debt Allocation, Annual Carbon Repayment Rate, and Carbon Debt Repayments for Different Biofiuel Production
46
47
47
50
51
53
56
58
68
X111
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND
NOTATIONS
GI1G
GWP
co, CHa
N, O
Ha
Pg
Gt Mg
mg
FAO
Greenhouse Gases
Global Warming Potential
Carbon Dioxide
Methane
Nitrous Oxide
Hectare
Pctagram (g x 10
(Iigatonnc (t x 10°)
Megagram (g x 10")
Milligram (g x 10")
Percent
Food and Agriculture Oragniiation of the United Nations
XIV
LIST OF APPENDIX
Appendix Page
Oil Palm Plantation in Malaysia (1957-2007) 85
Oil Palm Plantation in Indonesia (1990 --- 2008) 86
XV
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Greenhouse Gases (GHG)
Greenhouse effect is no doubt one of the major problems nowadays due to its
contribution to the global warming. Greenhouse effect is caused by the trapping of
heat from the sun in lower atmosphere of the earth. Grccnhousc gases ((ill(i) are
gases in the atmosphere which give rise to this greenhouse effect. (; llG allow
shortwave or solar radiation to penetrate down to the atmosphere and the Earth's
surface (The Green Lane, 2003). (ili(1 traps heat in the atmosphere which then
causing the radiation been absorbed and the Earth's surface becomes warm.
Greenhouse gases can be produced either in natural or man-made. "Natural
greenhouse effect" is an important phenomenon to biological life on Earth.
"Enhanced greenhouse effect" is caused by human activities such as burning fossil
fuels, deforestation or land surface change, industrial processes, etc. The additional
Gl iG produced by enhanced greenhouse effect has increased the concentration of
I
GHG in the atmosphere at an alarming rate thus changing the temperature and
climate system which then contribute to global warming. The main GHG fluxes arc:
carbon dioxide (C02), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N20).
1.2 Peat Forest
Tropical pcatlands are major storage for carbon dioxide and source of
atmospheric methane. The peat content in Southeast Asia is the highest among
regions, as much as approximately 69% of overall global peat. According to Riclcy
et al. (2008), peat swamp forests in natural state have the ability to sequester carbon
from the atmosphere during photosynthesis, retain this in plant biomass and store
part of it in the peat. The change in pcatland C storage results from changes in the
balance between net exchange of CO,, emission of ('114. and hydrological losses of
carbon (e. g. dissolved organic and inorganic C and particulate organic C)
(International Peat Society, 2008). Net pcatland flux is determined largely by the net
balance between CO, uptake in photosynthesis and C release by ecosystem
(autotrophic and heterotrophic) respiration (Riclcy et al., 2008). Recently, (ilI(i
emissions released from peat forest have increased rapidly due to over deforestation
for agricultural developments. Figure 1.1 shows the carbon cycle in natural peat
forest.
I
Figure I. I: Carbon Cycle in Natural Peat forest (Source: Minkkincn et al., 2008)
1.3 Oil Palm Plantation
UNDRAINED NATURAL FOREST
Global palm oil production is increase by 9% every year due to the expanding
of'biofuel markets in European Union and by food demand in Indonesia, India and
China (Clay, 2004: European Commission, 2006). Oil palm plantations are
structurally less complex than natural forest with uniform tree age structure, low
canopy, sparse undergrowth, less stable microclimate and greater human disturbance
and are cleared and replanted on a 25-30 year rotation (Corley and Tinker, 2003;
Danielsen et al., 1995; Pell et al., 2006). Oil palm is harvested in many tropical
countries on more than 12 million hectares and yields over 32 million tonnes of oil
annually. It accounts for more than one quarter of the global vegetable oil market
and is the most important oil crop next to soy bean. (Genner and Sauerhorn, 2000)
ý
Indonesia and Malaysia own the largest oil palm production (over 80%) in global oil
palm plantation. Oil palm plantations in Indonesia often replace forests which arc
previously degraded by fire and logging and illegal oil palm development has been
increased by 4.4 million ha to 6.1 million ha with the total forest loss about 28.1
million ha in pcatland and climate change (FAO, 2006; Hansen et al., 2005;
McMorrow ct al., 2001; Ministry of agricultural republic of Indonesia).
In Malaysia, oil palm was first planted commercially in Peninsular Malaysia
since 1917 for replacing rubber plantations and forest (Corley et al., 2003; Abdullah
et al., 2007). As land became scarce, its expansion was shifted to Sabah and Sarawak
in association with logging and was facilitated by the reclassification of some state
forest reserves to allow conversion to oil palm plantations (Hansen et al., 2005;
McMorrow et al.. 2001). Between 1990 and 2005, the oil palm plantation area in
Malaysia has increased by 1.8 million ha to 4.2 million ha while 1.1 million ha of
forest were lost (FAO. 2006; Malaysian Palm Oil Board). Oil palm establishments
usually associated with deforestation, peat fire, and peat drainage which resulted in
high amount of GH(i emissions due to carbon losses in peat soil. Therefore, further
studies should be done for determining oil palm plantation impact to the greenhouse
effects.
1.4 Problem Statement
There are uncertainties and knowledge gaps in determine (ill(i emissions from
pcatlands. According to Page et al. (2OO8). although tropical peatlands have global
4
significant carbon sinks that store large amount of carbon, the data on this
information are subjcctd to uncertainly and errors due to inaccuracy of precise
pcatlands locations because of rapid land-use change developments in recent years.
Since the smog episode in 1997 in Southeast Asia, oil palm has been at the
centre of an environmental controversy as oil palm was seen to be a polluter which
use substantial input such as fertilizers and pesticides, discharging considerable
amounts of effluent from oil mills, and consuming large amounts of water during
processing (Lamadc and Bouillct, 2005). However, oil palm itself has high carbon
sequestration which can help to reduce atmospheric (ilIG through carbon fixation.
Therefore, this paper focuses on determining the major GIIG fluxes in pcatforcst and
oil palm plantation establishment.
1.5 Scope of Study
This study focused on extensive literature review on the greenhouse gas
emissions from tropical peat forest and peat oil palm plantation. It is concentrated on
data compilation and statistical data analysis from journals, scientific magazines,
news, engineering websites etc which is related about greenhouse gas emission from
peat forest and oil palm plantation. GlIG are compared based on its types, emission
rate, and global warming potential under different situations such as waterlevel, types
of vegetation. drainages, peat fire etc. By reviewing and comparing all the available
data and information, it comes out with problem identification and recommendations.
5
1.6 Aim and Objectives
The purpose of this research is to compare the amount of GHG emissions from
peat forest and peat oil palm plantation. It is essential for determining the
effectiveness of carbon sequestration in peat forests and oil palm ecosystems in
order to find the best solution to mitigate global climate change which caused by
GHG emissions.
The main objectives arc:
o To study the amount of greenhouse gases produced by peat forest and palm
oil plantation under different situations.
o To determine the types of greenhouse gases produced by peat forest and palm
oil plantation.
o To compare the emission rate of GI IG in peat forest and oil palm plantation.
o To investigate the causes for GIIG formations and emissions from peatfbrest
and peat oil palm plantations.
o To study the effectiveness of peat oil palm plantations in reducing (111(1
emissions.
o To search for effective solutions for mitigating (i i(I emissions.
6
1.7 Structure of Thesis
This thesis consists of five chapters which aim to clarify the concepts in
determining the major GHG emissions from peat forest and peat oil pal plantations.
Chapter 1 gives general information related to grccnhousc gases effects,
grccnhousc gases (GHG) emissions from peat forest, and oil palm plantations in
Southeast Asia. Figure 1 illustrate about carbon cycle in natural peat forest.
Chapter 2 is the literature review on journals and wcbsitcs about greenhouses
gases (GHG) emissions from natural peat forests, degraded peat forests, and peat oil
palm plantation. It focuses on the major fluxes between sources and sinks of GI IG in
peatforest and oil palm plantation establishment. It also mentioned about pcatland
distribution and carbon storage in Southeast Asia. (ill(; formation and emissions
from different peat ecosystems are also studied.
Chapter 3 describes the methodology which is formed from analysis of data and
information collected. The steps are background study, data collections, results and
discussions, and finally, conclusion and recommendations.
Chapter 4 focuses on the results and discussions of this study. Graphs and tables
have been plotted for indicating the results. Discussions are made based on the given
results.
7
Chapter 5 assimilates the conclusion of this research. It consisted of the overall
results for GHG emissions from different land use in peatlands. Effectiveness and
suitability of method to mitigate greenhouse gases emissions in oil palm plantations
arc discussed and recommendations are given for improving the problems.
8
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Tropical Peatland: Distribution and Carbon storage
Tropical pcatlands arc found in mainland East Asia, Southeast Asia, the
Caribbean and Central America. South America and southern Africa with current
estimate of the total area of undeveloped tropical pcatland is in the range 30 45
million hectares, which is approximately 10-12% of the global peatland resource
(Immirri & Maltby. 1992; Riclcy ct al., 1996). In lowland Southeast Asia, pcatlands
form part of the mosaic of rain forest types that includes mangrove, lowland
diptcrocarp, heath, montane and cloud forests (Riclcy ct al., 1996, Page et al., 1999).
Most tropical peatlands arc located at low altitudes where peat swamp forest
occurs on top of a thick mass of organic matter, to which it has contributed over
thousands of years, forming accumulated deposits up to 20 in thick (Anderson.
1983). According to Fargione et al. (2008), soil and plant biomass arc the two
largest biologically active stores of the terrestrial carbon which both of them contain
9