grazing heathlands 5443 -...

Grazing management of

lowland heathlands

working today for nature tomorrow

English Nature is theGovernment agency that champions theconservation of wildlifeand geology throughoutEngland.

This is one of a range ofpublications published by: External Relations TeamEnglish NatureNorthminster HousePeterborough PE1 1UA

www.english-nature.org.uk

© English Nature 2005

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Front cover photograph:British White browsing. Rob McGibbon/Surrey CountyCouncil.

English Nature cannot and will notaccept liability for the accuracy ofinformation given in this leaflet.

now widespread and the relativelyuniform sward found on manyheathlands is a direct consequence ofthe absence of grazing.

People like heathland, as a number ofopinion polls have shown, but theinterest today is in the conservation,recreation and landscape values farmore than products like firewood andstock bedding. Extensive grazingcan be an essential part of themanagement of many heathland plantand animal communities whichcannot realistically be supportedusing other management techniques.However, the economic reality meansthat mainstream agriculture no longerdelivers these benefits as a by-product of farming. A moderninterpretation of traditional heathlandgrazing could still become a viable

3Grazing management of lowland heathlands2

Grazing management of lowland heathlands

Sustained by a partnership

between people and the

landscape, lowland heathlands

have developed over thousands

of years into a rich and valuable

part of our natural heritage.

Historically, extensive livestock

grazing has played a pivotal

role in this relationship.

Unfortunately, this practice

virtually ceased on most of our

heathlands by the mid 20th

century, threatening their long-

term future. More recently,

however, grazing has once

again become part of the series

of management techniques

being re-introduced to

heathlands.

This leaflet aims to promote goodpractice for re-introducing livestockgrazing to heathland by drawing onthe wealth of experience availablefrom conservation land managersacross a variety of organisations.

Why grazing?

Over many centuries lowlandheathlands have played an integralpart in the economy of ruralcommunities, providing a host ofproducts including fuel, food andanimal bedding. Food was largelyprovided for cattle, sheep, and othergrazing stock which was put out onthe heath in extensive grazingsystems. This form of managementrestricted the level of scrub invasionand created a myriad of ecologicalniches for plants and animals,making heathlands rich in the varietyof wildlife we now call biodiversity.

Developments in agriculture,especially in the last hundred years,have led to the loss of many of theold farming practices that sustainedheathlands historically. Thesechanges have contributed to thedecline in both the quality andquantity of heathlands that exist inthis country today. Scrub invasion is G

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5Grazing management of lowland heathlands

and economically-realistic land-managemnt option though. Wewould need developing marketslinked to the production of ranged ororganically-produced meat wherepossible and the development ofalternative grazing practices that donot depend on animals being sold inagricultural markets.

There are relatively few areas of thecountry where heathland grazing hassurvived unchanged, although theNew Forest and Cornwall are notableexceptions. In other parts of thecountry successful attempts to re-introduce grazing are proving thevalue of a return to grazing as amanagement tool.

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What does grazing achieve?

Grazing achieves major management objectives for lowland heathland, but thedegree of success depends upon getting the correct grazing animal in the rightplace for the right length of time.

• Grazing can be used to achieve a mosaic of micro-habitats -This is essential for maintaining the richness and diversity of heathlands.

• Grazing can be used to control invasive species - Woody weeds and scrub, bracken, purple moor grass, rank grasses and other invasive species can all be suppressed to some degree by grazing.

• Grazing can be used to remove nutrients from the ecosystem -Even where animals are not removed from a site daily there is a net reductionin the levels of nitrogen, potassium and phosphorus compared with ungrazed sites. This can go some way to maintaining the low nutrient status of heathlands and restricting the opportunity for invasive species to establish.

Prey Heath. Rob McGibbon/Surrey County Council Prey Heath four years later. Rob McGibbon/Surrey County Council

What should I do to re-introducegrazing?

The re-introduction of grazing is nota simple undertaking and there is anumber of issues that need to beaddressed.

EXISTING FEATURES

One of the first questions that shouldbe asked is whether grazing willdamage or destroy any existingfeature on the site. An example mightbe the possible loss of vegetationstructure on sites which supportimportant populations of reptiles, or

the loss of nectar sources forinvertebrates. Expert advice will beneeded on a case-by-case basis, andit may be that measures to isolate thefeature from possible grazing damagewill be needed.

Similarly there may bearchaeological artefacts, such asScheduled Ancient Monuments, thatwill need similar protectionmeasures. Again specialist adviceshould be sought. The best way toproceed is to ensure that all bodieswith an interest are made aware ofyour plans to re-introduce grazing.


British White. Michael Knight/English Nature

Molinia grazing. Rob McGibbon/Surrey County Council


STOCK CONTROL

In the age of the motor car, theinfrastructure that underpinnedtraditional grazing systems is usuallyno longer adequate for the safecontrol of stock. Modern levels ofstock safety and control will need tobe applied and fencing may beneeded as well as gates and possiblycattle grids. Stock-handling andwatering facilities will certainly berequired.

If it proves necessary to use fencingthere are two basic approaches thatcan be adopted; erecting a ring-fencearound the boundary (or at least themajority) of the site and allowing theanimals to roam at will within thefence, or erecting much smaller,

targeted compartments where grazingpressures are more tightly focused.The large ring-fence approach tendsto maintain more of the open‘wilderness’ feel of heathlands whichis important to many heathlandvisitors, but delivering an effectivegrazing regime is more difficult toachieve, especially on a diverse site.Also, the scale of the enclosuremeans that managers tend to preferpermanent fences for these siteswhich brings issues of impact on thelandscape and access. Keep fencingto a minimum and try to follow theline of the land using natural featuresto hide fencing as much as possible.Smaller compartment grazing is morecontrollable, can be achievedsensibly with temporary fencingwhich can be removed when the stock

is not present (which also removesthe landscape and public accessissues) but can create an impressionof paddocks on the open heath.Erecting any kind of fencing mayrequire legal permissions, for examplewhere fence-lines cross public rights-of-way or are erected on commonland. In such circumstances publicconsultation may well be necessary.

The use of cattle grids can oftenovercome difficult fencing needs onfragmented sites. Their initial costcan be very high when used on thepublic highway, as much as £20,000 -£75,000. Cattle grids on farm trackscan cost as little as £1,500 - £2,000.Even so they can be more cost-effective than fencing in the longerterm as maintenance is very muchlower than for long lengths of

fencing. Design and installation ofcattle grids on the public highwaywill also need to be approved andcarried out by the local highwayauthority or, in the case of trunkroads, by the Highways Agency.Again permissions will be needed ifcattle grids are used on commonland.

PUBLIC OPINION

Success or failure on this point canmake or break any project. It isvitally important that you bring localcommunities along with you and thatyou keep them informed ofdevelopments.

Any change of management canpotentially create opposition within a

Erecting a fence at Hartland Moor SSSI. Peter Wakely/English Nature 18,575

Cattle grid. Steve Clarke/English Nature

GRAZING UNIT

Large grazing units are desirable notonly from a cost-effectiveness pointof view but also in terms of habitatdiversity and animal welfare. Havinga range of habitats on the grazingunit to include dry and wet heath aswell as scrub, open water, bog andpoor fen not only increasesbiodiversity within the unit but alsoprovides a range of grazingconditions and shelter for the grazingstock.

In addition to the main grazing unitthere should ideally be someaccommodation land adjacent to theheathland. This can be used tosupport grazing animals duringadverse weather conditions orfollowing some disaster such as anextensive uncontrolled fire.

GRAZING ANIMAL TYPE

Modern breeds of commercialgrazing stock will, almost withoutexception, fail to perform as well onheathland as on farmland. Somebreeds may in fact lose condition.Conversely the more traditional andhardy breeds do perform well and,given the right mix of conditions,will thrive on heathlands. Obviouslysome breeds will fare markedly betterthan others and local knowledge andexperience is invaluable in selectingthe right animals. Research intotraditional breeds will pay dividendsand, even if local breeds are nolonger available, then some nearrelative may be. It is also worthforging links with the local RareBreeds Trust, which might be able tooffer valuable help or even grazinganimals. The Grazing AnimalsProject has produced some usefulreferences on breed selection.

Whether to use cattle, ponies, sheep,or goats depends on the conservationobjectives for the site as each animalor even breed has a different grazingor browsing method which cansignificantly affect the resulting sward.


local community, particularly whereit involves the fencing of commonland. If people are well informed ofchanges and involved at an earlystage, then experience has shown thatthey can be very supportive. Localpress, newsletters and parishmeetings are all ways that a projectcan inform local opinion and gainsupport.

Experience has shown that onceanimals have been re-introduced, andthe public knows that they are therefor positive conservationmanagement, then local communitiesgenerally welcome the return oftraditional livestock to the landscape.

Highland calf at The Lizard Peninsula. Isabel Alonso/English Nature

The effects of grazing. Rob McGibbon/Surrey County Council

GRAZING DURATION

The grazing duration is the periodwhen animals directly grazeheathland. The timing of this can becritical and will have a great bearingon the sward produced at the end ofthe season. In general, grazing ismost often done during the spring,summer and autumn months aswinter grazing can seriously damagethe heather sward and it is harder tomaintain the health of the livestock.Grassy heaths, however, can benefitfrom winter grazing, especiallywhere they support species that needa short sward early in the spring.

Some sites are more sensitive thanothers, especially those that consistalmost exclusively of heather-

dominated dry heath. These siteswill have correspondingly shortergrazing periods which may last foras little as 4-8 weeks. Again, localconditions and objectives will dictatethe best pattern and experience willmodify this further.


Cattle tend to tear at grass and domore trampling, creating an open anduneven structure, whilst ponies tendto bite very close to the ground andcan easily create level ‘lawns’ over afew seasons if grazing densities aresufficiently high. Sheep willselectively remove some rank grassspecies from a sward and manyprimitive sheep breeds will utilizewoody weeds and purple moor grass.Similarly goats have proved useful in

conservation objectives, and muchcare is needed; the existing type ofsward and the characteristics of thetype required need to be matchedcarefully with the grazing orbrowsing properties displayed by theparticular breed being considered. Adetailed analysis is beyond the scopeof this leaflet although the experienceof existing grazing projects will bevery helpful and the advice of projectmanagers must be sought. Exmoor ponies on Skipwith Common. Julian Small/English Nature

Hebridean sheep grazing. Steve Clarke/English Nature

Longhorn on heathland area of Epping Forest. Stephen Ayliffe/English Nature

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controlling woody weeds on someheathland sites.

Mixed grazing, using a variety oflivestock types, can be a particularlypowerful tool as it provides a rangeof sward types and hence increasedhabitat diversity. However, in theearly years of a project it may be thatthe availability of grazing animalswill dictate the type used.

The choice of grazing animal verymuch depends on the desired


Livestock tends to preferentially eatrank grasses and purple moor grassduring spring and early summer, andit is only during the later part of thesummer, when most of the availablegrasses are gone, that heather isutilised to any great extent. This canbe beneficial to introducing structureto the heather sward, although caremust be taken as overgrazing canoccur and this can substantiallydamage heather and promote invasivespecies, such as rank grasses.

STOCKING RATES

The stocking rate is the number ofgrazing animals that is allowed tograze within any given unit ofheathland, usually quoted as livestock units (LSUs)/hectare. A cowis one livestock unit, and there arestandard conversions for other typesof stock, suckling animals withyoung at foot, and so on. Thestocking rate can have a significanteffect on the grazed sward. Too muchand invasive species can be promoted

and desirable species disappear; toolittle and grasses, woody weeds andundesirable species can predominate.Until you know your site thoroughly,it is perhaps as well to start with alower pressure and build up, althoughsome grazing practitionersrecommend higher rates in the firstyear or so of grazing re-introduction.

Normally the stocking rate isexpressed as the number of animalsper hectare for the grazing season. Inpractice the science of grazing is notnearly so neat, as the productivity ofvegetation varies so much betweensites and only general ‘rules ofthumb’ can be applied. Equally some

animals are significantly heavier thanothers and even within breeds therecan be noticeably-differing rates ofconsumption depending on age,gender, and so on. Similarly rates ofvegetation productivity cansignificantly vary on a site betweenone year and the next. Effectivelythis means that there are no hard andfast rules and each site will need tobe individually assessed and grazingpressure modified as a result ofexperience. Be aware that quotedstocking rates can be misleading:1LSU/ha/year could be a cow perhectare throughout the year, ortwelve cows per hectare for a month!However, it is reasonable to assume

Heavily-grazed gorse at Minsmere, Suffolk. Isabel Alonso/English Nature

Beulah speckled-face sheep. Steve Clarke / English Nature

Welfare problems appear to be lessprevalent amongst extensively-grazedherds. Whilst there is no substitutefor good husbandry it would seemfrom experience that there are fewerveterinary interventions associatedwith extensive systems. However,good welfare practices should befollowed and care taken not toexpose animals to the risks ofragwort and bracken.

The use of the Ivermectin-basedanthelmintic treatments is not goodpractice because of the persistentresidues this leaves in animal dungand the potential effect this can haveon insects. It should therefore beavoided as alternatives do exist andlocal suppliers and vets should beconsulted.

ECONOMICS

Until very recently the economics ofheathland grazing militated againstits re-introduction on many sites.However, recent developments havedemonstrated that grazing can bevery cost-effective in puttingheathland into reasonable condition,and in some circumstances a profitcan be made. Where possible it isadvisable that projects seek tointegrate with existing commercialsystems so long as this does notthreaten the conservation objectivesof introducing a grazing regime.This will allow heathlands to becomewoven into the local economic fabric,thereby enhancing their long-term

viability. The production of organicand ranged meat is an example of asector of the market that is starting todevelop a premium niche that couldprove quite profitable in the future.The agri-environmental schemes suchas the new EnvironmentalStewardship can also assist withgrazing and extensification.

Lastly, ensure that any grazingagreement you have with any thirdparty is subject to a formal legalagreement which should take accountof the need to maintain flexibility ingrazing numbers to respond tochanging conditions. Everyone willknow where they stand with a legalagreement; without it you maycompromise your ability to managethe land in the way you want to.

that in general one adult cow canutilise between two and eighthectares of heathland depending onthe rate of productivity. The moreproductive the heathland, the higherthe rate. Ponies generally should begrazed at a much lower intensity ofone pony to every 5 to 12 hectares.Sheep can vary between five ewesper hectare, on more productive grassheaths, to as low as 0.5 ewes perhectare on very unproductive sites(usually heavily dominated by matureCalluna).

ANIMAL HUSBANDRY ANDWELFARE

With the exception of mineral licks,livestock on properly stockedheathland will not normally needsupplementary feeding. Suchfeeding will probably not bepermitted directly on Sites ofSpecial Scientific Interest. It is notconsidered good practice to feedsupplementary hay due to theprobability of introducing aliengrasses and importing nutrients.


East Devon Pebblebed Heaths. Isabel Alonso/English Nature British White browsing. Rob McGibbon/Surrey County Council

Theory put into practice

Further advice on grazing management can be obtained by contacting yournearest project through the contacts detailed below.

Tomorrow’s Heathland HeritageEnglish NatureNorthminster HousePeterborough PE1 1UATel. 01733 455050email: [email protected]: www.english-nature.org.uk/thh

Grazing Animal Projectc/o The KilnMather RoadNewarkNotts. NG24 1WTTel. 01636 670095email: [email protected]: www.grazinganimalsproject.org

Cattle grazing. Steve Clifton/English Nature


Some final points to consider

• Inform and involve the public and local communities.

• Check with statutory bodies and others that your grazing will not damage an existing feature.

• Select appropriate grazing units and suitable grazing infrastructure. Be aware of the need to preserve the landscape and visual integrity of the site.

• Select the correct type and breed of stock that will achieve your conservation goals.

• Ensure you have all legal permissions needed to put up fences.

• Learn from others, and from your own experience. Be prepared to modify your grazing regime to suit changing conditions.

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