gravelly soil liquefaction...gravelly soil liquefaction mark d. evans, ph.d., p.e. associate...

Gravelly Soil Liquefaction

Mark D. Evans, Ph.D., P.E.Associate Professor

United States Military AcademyDepartment of Civil and Mechanical Engineering

Mahan HallWest Point, NY 10996

ABSTRACT

Gravelly soils are sometimes present in tailings dams and these soils are potentially liquefiable. In this presentation, experiences in assessing the liquefaction potential of gravelly soil in dams using both laboratory and in situ techniques are discussed. These techniques are: large scale cyclic triaxial testing with correction for membrane compliance; and large scale Becker Hammer penetration testing. The results from a laboratory investigation into cone penetration testing to assessgravelly soil behavior is also presented. The results from several investigations will be summarized and compared to approaches and results obtained for investigations targeting sandy soil. Shear modulus and damping properties for gravelly soils are also presented.

INTRODUCTION

Evaluating dynamic properties and liquefaction behavior of gravelly soils has become a high priority in the geotechnical engineering community. Due to high hydraulic conductivity, gravels and gravelly soils were once thought to be unliquefiable. Gravel blankets and drains are often used as remedial measures to improve liquefaction resistance by rapidly dissipating high pore pressures generated during earthquake loading. However, several liquefaction-induced failures in gravel and gravelly soil prompted a critical reevaluation of the behavior of gravelly soils subjected to dynamic loading. In recent years, the liquefaction behavior of gravelly soil has been investigated in the laboratory by many investigators (see Reference list). Also, field evidence has shown that most liquefied gravelly soils are comprised of both sand and gravel.

EMBANKMENT DAMS

Embankment dams consisting of gravelly soil or founded upon gravelly soil where gravel liquefaction has been considered include:

•Aswan High Dam, Egypt•Folsom and Mormon Island Dam, CA•Ririe and Mackay Dams, Idaho•Oroville and Seven Oaks Dams, CA•Shimen and Baihe Dams, China•Terzaghi and Seymour Dams, British Columbia•Daisy Lake Dam, British Columbia•Scott’s Flat and Santa Felicia Dams, CA•Vern Freeman Diversion Structure, CA•Devil Canyon Second Afterbay, CA

Grain size distributions for these soils range from rockfill to sandy gravel or gravelly sand.

Aswan High Dam Analyzed for Liquefaction Potential

Triaxial Specimen of Aswan High Dam Sluiced Rockfill

Triaxial Specimen of Aswan High Dam Rockfill (gravel)

Triaxial Specimen of Gravel

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

0 3 6 9 12 15

Number of Stress Cycles

Pore

Pre

ssur

e R

atio

GC=0%, Dr=40%

(a)

0.00

0.20

0.40

0.60

0.80

1.00

0 3 6 9 12 15


Pore

Pre

ssur

e R

atio

GC=20%, Dr=40%

(b)

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1.00

0 3 6 9 12 15


Pore

Pre

ssur

e R

atio

GC=40%, Dr=40%

(c)

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0.20

0.40

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1.00

0 3 6 9 12 15


Pore

Pre

ssur

e R

atio

GC=60%, Dr=40%

(d)

Pore Pressure Response for Sand and Gravel Mixtures

-100

-50

0

50

100

-2 -1 0 1 2

Axial Strain (%)

Dev

iato

r St

ress

(kPa

)GC=0%GC=20%

First Stress Cycle(a)

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-2 -1 0 1 2

Axial Strain (%)

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r St

ress

(kPa

)

GC=40%GC=60%

First Stress Cycle(b)

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0

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Axial Strain (%)

Dev

iato

r St

ress

(kPa

)

GC=0%GC=20%

Fifth Stress Cycle(c)

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-2 -1 0 1 2

Axial Strain (%)

Dev

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r St

ress

(kPa

) GC=40%GC=60%

Fifth Stress Cycle(d)

Stress – Strain Response for Sand and Gravel Mixtures

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1 10 100 1000


CSR

Cau

sing

5% D

oubl

e A

mpl

itude

Str

ain

Confining Pressure=100 kPaMatrix Relative Density=40%Corrected for Membrane Compliance

(a)

GC=40%

GC=0%0.00

0.20

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1.00

0 3 6 9 12 15


Pore

Pre

ssur

e R

atio

(b)

GC=40% GC=0%

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0 3 6 9 12 15


Axi

al S

trai

n (%

)

GC=40%GC=0%(c)

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-2 -1 0 1 2

Axial Strain (%)

Dev

iato

r St

ress

(kPa

)

GC=40%GC=0%

Fifth Stress Cycle(d)

CSR, PP, and S-S Response for Sand and Gravel Mixtures

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1 10 100 1000


CSR

Cau

sing

5% D

oubl

e A

mpl

itude

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ain

(a)

Dr=65%, GC=0% Dr=40%, GC=40%

Confinging Pressure =100 kPaCorrected for Membrane Compliance

0.00

0.20

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0.80

1.00

1.20

0 3 6 9 12 15


Pore

Pre

ssur

e R

atio

Dr=65%, GC=0%

Dr=40%, GC=40%

(b)

-15

-10

-5

0

5

0 3 6 9 12 15


Axi

al S

trai

n (%

) (c)

Dr=65%, GC=0%

Dr=40%, GC=40%

-100

-50

0

50

100

-2 -1 0 1 2

Axial Strain (%)

Dev

iato

r St

ress

(kPa

)

Fifth Stress Cycle

(d)

Dr=65%, GC=0%

Dr=40%, GC=40%

CSR, PP, and S-S Response for Sand and Gravel Mixtures

0

0.1

0.2

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0.5

1 10 100 1000


CSR

Cau

sing

5%

D

oubl

e A

mpl

itude

Str

ain

GC=0%GC=20%GC=40%GC=60%

Confining Pressure=100 kPaRelative Density=40%Corrected for Membrane Compliance

Cyclic Stress Ratio (CSR) for Sand and Gravel Mixtures

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

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3

3.5

0 20 40 60 80 100 120Effective Confining Pressure (kPa)

Tot

al V

olum

etri

c St

rain

(%)

Sand-Gravel Composites2.8-in. Diameter SpecimensTwo MembraneRelative Density = 40%(GC=Gravel Content)

GC=100%

GC=0, 20, 40, and 60%

εv

εvt

εvt

Volumetric Strain Caused by Membrane Compliance

0

0.1

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Effective Confining Pressure, σ' (kPa)

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umet

ric

Stra

in, ε

v (%

)

Total Volumetric Strain

Volumetric Strain Due to System Compliance

Volumetric Strain of Soil Skeleton

Volumetric Strain Due to Membrane Rebound

Sand-Gravel CompositeGravel Content=20%71 mm Diameter SpecimenTwo Membranes, 0.3 mm Thick/EachRelative Density=40%

εvt

εvs

εvm

εve

Volumetric Strain Caused by Membrane Compliance

0.00

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1 10 100

Number of Stress Cycles, N

Cyc

lic S

tres

s Rat

io C

ausi

ng 5

%D

oubl

e A

mpl

itude

Str

ain,

σd/2

σ'

Without Water InjectionWith Water Injection

Sand-Gravel CompositeGC=100%Dr=40%

σ'=200 kPa

Effect of Membrane Compliance on CSR Causing Liquefaction

0

50000

100000

150000

200000

0.001 0.01 0.1 1

Shear Strain, γ (%)

Shea

r M

odul

us, G

(kPa

)

GC=0%

GC=20%

GC=40%

GC=60%

Sand-Gravel CompositesConfining Pressure = 100 kPa

Relative Density = 40%

Shear Modulus – Shear Strain for Gravelly Soils

0.0

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0.8

1.0

0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1Cyclic Shear Strain (%)

G/G

max

This StudyGoto et al. (1994)Goto et al. (1992)Hatanaka et al. (1988)Hatanaka and Uchida (1995)Hynes (1988)Iida et al. (1984)Kokusho et al. (1994)Konno et al. (1994)Seed et al. (1986)Shamoto et al. (1986)Shibuya et al. (1990)Souto et al. (1994)Yasuda and Matsumoto (1994)Yasuda and Matsumoto (1993)

Best-Fit Curve and Standard Deviation Bounds, This Study

Normallized Shear Modulus – Shear Strain for Gravelly Soils

Becker Hammer Setup in Field (after Harder)

Large Scale Chamber Test at ERDC

15’’

SPTSPT#7 Intermediate

1.4” cone 1.4” cone #6 Intermediate

0.70” dummy cone0.70” dummy cone#5 Intermediate

0.35” cone0.35” cone#4 Intermediate

0.70” cone0.70” cone#3 Intermediate

1.4” cone1.4” cone #2 Intermediate

SPT 1.4” cone#1 Center

Bottom Half (36 in.)Top Half (36 in.)Probe Location

Large Scale Chamber Test at ERDC

Placing Gravel Specimen in Large Scale Chamber Test at ERDC

1 tsf Stress vs. Ratio(semi-log scale)

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12000.00

1.00 10.00 100.00

Ratio (Tip Diameter/Particle Diameter)

Stre

ss (p

si)

Data Corrected to:Dr50Chamber/Tip Ratio 50Data Plotted:GravelSand#1Sand#2

Preliminary Results of Cone Tests in Large Scale Chamber

3 TSF Stress vs. Tip/Particle Raito(semi-log)

0.00

2000.00

4000.00

6000.00

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10000.00

12000.00

1.00 10.00 100.00Ratio (Tip Diameter/Particle Diameter)

Stre

ss (p

si)

Preliminary Results of Cone Tests in Large Scale Chamber

GRAVELLY SOILS IN DAMS REFERENCES

• Ansal, A.M. and Erken, A., “PostTesting Correction for Membrane Compliance Effects on Pore Pressure”, Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, Vol. 122, No. 1, January, 1996.

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