Graphics Revision

Materials And Components

Paper:There are 2 ways of changing the property of changing the properties of paper and card:• Laminating – gluing together

layers• Coating – China clay or chalk

sprayed onto the surface to give a smooth finish

• Sizing – Sealed by chemical agent

Paper is made by squeezing together damp, fibrous material which is dried to form paper. There are 2 types of paper:• Virgin Paper – never used• Recycled Paper – contains a

minimum of 75% waste

Photocopier Paper• 80gsm• Inexpensive in bulk• Writing, sketching, photocopying

or home printing• Range of colours, coatings,

textures and sizes

Cartridge Paper:• 120gsm – 150gsm• Slightly more expensive• Illustrating, brochures, pamphlets

and booklets• Logos and initials can be pressed

or embossed

Layout Paper:• 50gsm• Inexpensive• Used for tracing• Strong, heavy-weight and smooth• Used to develop designs

Bleed proof Paper:• 120gsm – 150gsm• Quite Expensive• High quality presentations• Able to absorb and hold inks and

water-based paints

Tracing Paper:• 40gsm – 90gsm• Quite Expensive• Tracing designs and drawings

Cardboard:Cardboard is available in different sizes, thicknesses and finishes. They are recyclable unless laminated, but only 4/5 times. Card is measured in microns – 1000 microns = 1mm. They can be classified as:• Corrugated cardboard: which is

often used in packaging• Flat cardboard: which is used to

make products such a cereal packets

Cardboard can be quite expensive.

Corrugate Cardboard:• Made up of liners and fluting• Versatile, light, robust, economic and

practical form of packaging• Used for making any thing – complex

or simple models• Inexpensive

Mounting Board:• 1000 – 1500 microns• Useful, versatile, stiff but lightweight

and easy to cut • Picture mounting, framing model-

making and presentations• Expensive

Duplex Board:• 230gsm – 420gsm• Food packaging, liquid containers

(can have a waterproof liner) and carton manufacturing

• Can be suitable for printing

Solid Whiteboard:• Top-quality • Best card for printing on• Point-of-sale, frozen food, cosmetic

packaging and hardback books• Expensive

Greyboard:• 100% recycled fibre• Thick but light-weight, strong and

good for screen printing• Ring-binders, jigsaws and book biding

Carton Board:Carton boards are mainly used in the packaging industry. They can be treated and laminated to give it specific properties;• Solid Bleached Board: High

quality used for perfume, chocolates and cigars

• Solid Unbleached board: Used in drinks industry

• Folding Box Board: Used for printing on toy and games packaging

• White Lined Chipboard: Used to package soap and detergents

Some of the coating make it harder to recycle:• Plastic coating: used for

water resistance• Aluminium Foil: For food to

give bacterial barrier• Greaseproof Paper: Used for

Muffins and cupcakes• Wax Coating: Used for drinks

containers

Foam board:• Lightweight and easily cut• Variety of sizes, colours and

thicknesses• Used for displaying work and

model-making.

Plastic:Plastic can be thermoset (cannot be reworked) or thermo (can be reheated and reworked). The most common types used in graphics are high-impact polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride, polypropylene, acrylic and self-adhesive vinyl.• Rigid Plastics are ideal for

model making, can be shaped and joined

• Flexible plastics (e.g. self-adhesive) can be laminated and cut into lettering, symbols and shapes

• Plastic sheet can be used to form a composite material

Corriflute:• Lightweight and easily cut• Available in different colours,

sizes and thicknesses• Signs, constructing plastic

containers and packaging• Recyclable

Styrofoam• Smooth, fine surface, stable,

easily shaped and has no odor• Doesn’t absorb water and can

be cut, sawn and sanded• Very versatile, ideal for

modeling

Making Judgments:The functionality of material can be described using its properties:• Hardness• Toughness• Strength• Flexibility • Rigidity• Ductility • Elasticity • Plasticity• Conductivity• Weight• Colour

Non-physical Properties:• Finish• Environmental and sustainability• Cost

Properties and Uses of Thermoplastics:Thermoplastic plastic will soften when heated, allowing the shape to be changed through forming, thermoset plastic cannot be reformed.

Plastics are not cheap, they are a complex blend of chemicals that give the material different properties. Additives are often used in plastics to increase a specific performance, change the colour or feel.

Name Name (Abbrev.)

Recycling symb

ol

Properties Uses Process Stock forms Cost 1- 5 (5=

high)

Low-density Polythene

Ldpe Range of colors, good electrical insulator, good

chemical resistance, soft

waxy plastic

Plastic sacks, toys

Extruded, injection molded

Powder granules,

sheet, film

3

High-Density Polythene

Hdpe Can be sterilized, range of colours,

soft material

Buckets, bowls, milk

crates

Extruded, injection molded

Powder, granules,

sheet, film

PVC PVC 3 Range of colours, exterior use,

tough, hard plastic

Pipes and gutters, flooring

Extruded, Injection

forming and vacuum forming

Powder, granules,

extrusions and sheet

3

Acrylic (Perspex)

Perspex Acrylic

Optically clear, hard, variety of colors, durable, easily polished,

weather resistant

Signs, aircraft

canopies, baths

Injection, extrusion,

vacuum forming

Sheet, rod, tube

4

High-Impact Polystyrene

HPs 6 Can be clear, lightweight, rigid

Models, cups

Extruded, injection molding,

vacuum foaming

Sheet, granules

4

Polymide Nylon Resilient; hard-wearing; self-

lubrication

Gears, bearings,

combs

Extruded, Injection Moulded

Sheet, tube, rod, granules

4

Name Name (Abbrev.)

Recycling

symbol

Properties Uses Process Stock forms Cost 1- 5 (5= high

)

Bioplastic Biodegradable; starch based

Food packaging

Vacuum formed

Sheet, film 4

PET PET 1 Cost Effective Bottles Blow moulding, vacuum forming

Granules 1

Polystrene PS 6 Good forming, hard and rigid

CD cases, yoghurt

pots

Vacuum forming, injection moulding

Granules, sheet

2

Expanded Polystyrene Foam

Styrofoam 3 Lightweight, impact resistant

Protective infill

packaging, models

Foam Injected 1

Polypropylene PP 5 Flexible, scratch resistant, low

friction

Cutting boards,

crisp packets

Injection Moulded

Film, sheet, granules

3

Polycarbonate Impact resistant, easily scratched

Riot shields, safety

goggles

Extrusion, injection moulded, vacuum

formed after drying

Sheet, granules, film

5

Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

ABS Strong, heat resistant plastic,

can take rigid form

Kettles, hairdryers, casing of

many small products

Extruded, injection

moulding, vacuum forming

Sheet, granules

4

Thermoplastics are used regularly in graphic products. Vacuum-formed food-grade thermoplastics are used to form clear containers for shop-bought sandwiches. PVC bubbles allow the buyer to see the product while protecting it from damage.

Use of Sheet and Block modeling materials:Block modeling is important as it supports sketching and allows ideas to be considered in a quick format. Modeling in 3D allows the form of the product to be viewed from all angles. Several materials are used to manufacture block models. They are usually lightweight, quick, and easily adhered to, e.g.:- Foam core board- Corrugated plastic- Expanded PVC- Styrofoam (Expanded

polystyrene)- Clay- Card- Paper

The creation of the test model is to help develop the product form, not to be a realistic version of the outcome.

Finishes:The type depends on what you want the model to do.

• Sanding Sealer: Necessary for models that need to be painted or lacquered.

• Primer: Basecoat paint that helps to spread the paint evenly.

• Cellulose Paint: Spray paints give an even, run-free finish but must be done in a well-ventilated area.

• Emulsion paint: Gives a smooth finish, and often used as a sealant.

• Varnish: Apply a gloss, satin or matt finish to wood. Two or three coats are needed to give a smooth, even finish. It protects the wood.

• Wood stains: Allows the colour of wood to be changed, but doesn’t protect against scratches.

• Polishes: Used to remove scratches from the surface of metals and plastics

• Using Adhesives: Good method of fixing parts together, and can be permanent or temporary.

• Tensol: A cement for fixing acrylic to acrylic.

• Epoxy Resin: Used for joining parts that are made from different materials together.

• PVA: Gives a strong fix between timber-based products.

• Superglue: Most materials will adhere together with superglue.

• Hot glue gun: A quick way of fixing different materials together, but it tends to be applies as a thick layer so can be unaesthetic.

• Double-sided tape: Used as a quick fixing of most materials.

Smart Materials:A range of materials that change their property when exposed to an outside influence. This influence could be; heat, light, pressure, electricity, moisture or magnets. • Photo-sensitive material reacts

to light• Thermo-sensitive material

reacts to heat• Hydro-sensitive material reacts

to water or moisture• Pies-sensitive material reacts

to pressure• Electro-sensitive materials

react to electricity

• Thermo-chromatic materials change their colour depending upon temperature. E.g. t-shirts, mugs and labels

• Hydro-chromatic inks change colour as they dry out. E.g. umbrellas, potted plants

• Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) will return to their original shape when an electric current is passed through them.

• Polymorph is a material that softens at 62ºC, can be moulded and then cooled where it acts like plastic. When heated again it can be remolded.

Modern Materials:• Precious metal clays (PMC):

Minute particles of silver or gold are mixed with a binding material, and can be moulded like clay. Mostly used in the jewellery as when heated the metal melts making it look like it’s pure metal.

• Cornstarch Polymers: Can be vacuum formed, and act like a thermoplastic. However will biodegrade in water. Used as trays for chocolates.

• Paperfoam: Made of natural fibres, it’s shaped in an injection moulding process and can be used to make products such as CD or DVD packaging. Lightweight, strong and fully biodegradable.

• Potatopak: Ecofriendly, taken from food industry when making potato products. The starch is put into moulds, pressurised and heated until it takes the shape.

Adhesives:

• Polyvinyl acetate (PVA) : What?: General purpose glueUses: Wood, paper, card, foam board/blocks• Epoxy resin: What?: Two part glue, must be mixedUses: Joining different materials• Spray Adhesives:What?: Adhesive in an aerosol canUses: Large areas of paper and card• Solvent Cements:What?: Stiff liquid in tubes/cansUsed: Joining plastics, esp. polystyrene• Hot-melt glues:What?: Adhesive sticks/pellets in glue gunUses: Joining different materials• Glue Sticks:What?: Solid stick in a tubeUses: General purpose• Adhesive tape (tape):What?: Single or double-sided tape on rollUses: Paper, card, lightweight materials• Masking tape:What?: paper-based low-tack tape on a rollUses: Temporary fixing• Low-tack film:What?: Adhesive filmUses: Masks for spraying and airbrush work

Graphic Tools:

• Scalpels and craft knives: Allow for intricate and accurate cutting, but must be used with care. Must be used with a cutting mat and safety rule (for straight lines)

• Scissors: Often used for paper and card, sometimes for fabric

• Rotary Cutter: (Like pizza cutter) a circular blade mounted onto a frame so as you cut, the blade rotates

• Compass Cutter: Like a pair compasses, but a blade instead of a pencil – to cut a circle out

• Fret saw: Small, electric, table-mounted, reciprocating saws used on a variety of materials e.g. model boards, balsa wood and Styrofoam

• Creasing bar: Bar attached to a board. You place your piece of card on the board, position the creasing bar correctly, and then score a line to create an accurate fold

• Die cutter: Blades in a fixed position so that when static pressure is applied it cuts out shapes from materials, e.g. card

Fastenings:Temporary fastenings:• Drawing pins fix paper and

card to wooden backing or hold model part together

• Mapping pins are used to locate information on a chart

• Dressmakers’ pins are used fix work on display board

• Paper fasteners fix moving parts in pop-up model and books

• Paper clips can be bent into small hooks for models

• Rubber bands and elastic are in pop-up models and crashlock models

Permanent fastenings:• Nails and panel pins join

large pieces of wood and fixing decorative features on models

• Wood screws join wood, metal, or plastic, and for moving parts in 3D models

• Nuts, bolts and washers join wood, metal or plastic, and for moving parts in 3D models

• Set screws and washers join wood, metal, plastic, and for pivots for moving parts in 3D models

Design And Market Influences:

Designers• Harry Beck: Designed

the London Underground map of 1933

• Alberto Alessi: Produces everyday objects that are very aesthetically pleasing

• Jock Kinnear and Margaret Calvert: Designing UK road signs

• Wally Olins: A brand consultant who does logos

• Robert Sabuda: Author, Illustrator and pup-up book designer

A company's name, logo, typeface, colors, slogan, etc., are elements that help comprise its corporate identity.

Ideograms: Symbols conveying a message without text

Sequential Illustration: Drawings done in a sequence to depict a story/message

A schematic map represents the element of a system using abstract graphic symbols

Prototyping and testing is important because it will show you if your product is suitable for the audience and if you product is serving it’s purpose.

Product Life Cycle:

- In the launch and growth stages sales rise

- In the maturity stage, revenues flatten out

- At some point sales begin to decline and the business has to decide whether to withdraw the item or use an extension strategy to bolster sales.

- Extension strategies include

updating packaging, adding extra features or lowering price

Social, Moral and cultural issues:

The designer must think about the social, moral and cultural issues when making a product.Things to consider could be;• Most people want low cost,

but good quality products• Though using computer

controlled machines reduces costs, it reduces jobs

• But computer controlled machines could create jobs for highly skilled workers to develop, program and maintain these systems

• Another way of reducing costs, is manufacturing in countries where labor is cheap – but sometimes it means poor working conditions

• Environmental cost in transporting goods all over the world

Ergonomics is the relationship between people and the products they use.Anthropometrics is the study of the sizes of people in relation to products.

The 6 R’s

They are used by designers to reduce the environmental impact of products. They can also be used to evaluate the environmental impact of other products.

• Reduce: Is it possible to reduce the amount of materials used? This helps to protect valuable resources.

• Rethink: Is there a better way to solve this problem that is less damaging to the environment?

• Refuse: This means not accepting thins that aren’t the best option for the environment. E.g. is this packaging really needed?

• Recycle: Could recycled materials be used, or is the product made from materials easily recyclable?

• Reuse: Could the product have another use? Could it’s parts be used in other products? Is this information clearly communicated on the product? This will extend it’s life.

• Repair: Is the product easy to repair? This will extend its life.

Computer Aided Design (CAD):Used by engineers, architects and designers to produce detailed design plans and technical drawings. Advantages:• Greater accuracy• Can be created in 2D, 3D, 2D CAD

and 3D CAD• Images can be viewed from any angle• Powerful scaling, rotation and

reflection options• Libraries of engineering components

can be imported• Links to packages to calculate costsDisadvantages:• Software is expensive• Staff must be trained• Requires a PC

Computer Aided Manufacture (CAM):Advantages:• In a large-scale production, the results

are consistent• Enables very high accuracy levels in

large-scale production• Usually speeds up productionDisadvantages:• The software is expensive• Can be slower that traditional

methods for one-off or low-volume production

• Staff need to be trained how to use the software and machinery so adds to costs

Advantages of Recycling:• Preserves the environment• Saves energy• Reduces pollution

Disadvantages of Recycling:• Factories must be set up • Energy needed to recycle• Expensive• Transport needed to take waste

to factories

Advantages of Reusing:• Less waste• Preserves raw materials• Preserves landfill sites

Disadvantages of Reusing:• Can be unhygienic• Transport needed to take items

to factories• Energy need to reuse the items

and make something new

This symbol is used to represent quality assurance

• Registration marks are used in colour printing to make sure that colours line up, they are usually shown in a cross shape.

• Colour bars are standard bars of colour with different tones f each colour printed. This shows the strength and evenness of the ink and the registration of the colour is correct.

• Trim marks show the printer where to cut the paper

Cutting tools and safety precautions:• Craft Knife:o Hazard: Cuts caused by incorrect

and careless useo Risk Control: hold the cork

correctly, use safety ruler, use a cutting mat

• Paper Drill:o Hazard: Cuts caused by incorrect

and careless use, puncture wounds caused by broken drill wounds

o Risk Control: Use a cutting mat, check drill bits aren’t damaged, clean drill bits with caution

• Scissors:o Hazard: Cuts caused by incorrect

and careless useo Risk Control: Hold the cork

correctly, carry with the clade enclosed

• Sanding disc:o Hazard: flying debris, hands in

contact with abrasive surface, inhalation of dust

o Risk control: safety goggles, apron and no loose clothing, dust extraction

• Fretsaw:o Hazard: Flying debris, hands in

contact with blade, inhalation of dust

o Risk control: Goggles, apron and no loose clothing, dust extraction, hold work flat

Production Methods:• One off production: only one of the product is made. Labour-

intensive as each product is different. E.g. souvenir for a special event

• Batch production: a set quantity is made. Requires a lot of labour, but jigs, templates are used to aid production. E.g. programmes for a play or concert

• Mass production: a very large number of the product is made, usually on a productions line. E.g. newspapers and magazines

• Continuous-flow production: When many thousands of products are made. It is kept running to eliminate the expense of stopping and restarting the production process. E.g. cereal packaging

• Just in time production: When a company only buys enough stock to cover its immediate needs, ensuring that the right amount of material arrives when needed. The product is more economical because, it reduces storage cost, allows production runs to change more quickly and reduces overstocking of materials.

Printing Methods:

• Screen Printing: A stencil is placed under the screen and ink forced through the stencil onto the material below. Screen printing with stencils is best for blocks of colour

• Block printing: Shapes are cut into blocks made of wood, metal or linoleum. Ink is applied to the block, and the block is pressed onto paper. They can be quite detailed, but normally is only 1 colour. Can be used for wallpaper, paper table cloths.

• Photocopying: Can enlarge and reduce images, process paper, card and clear acetate. They are expensive.

• Letterpress printing: Relief printing where the parts to be printed are raised up from the base plate. Used for both type and illustrations. But time consuming, and the range of fonts/styles is limited. E.g. business cards.

• Flexography: Uses relief image on thin, flexible, rubber printing plates. Used on cellophane, polythene and metallic films e.g. plastic bags, newspapers and paperback books.

• Lithography: A printing plate with a relief image is dampened with water, then coated with ink. The ink only sticks to the parts of the plate that aren’t wet. The printing plate is fixed to a roller and the image is transferred onto the paper fed under the roller. In offset-lithography the paper doesn’t come into contact with the printing plate, but it transferred through a rubber roller. E.g. magazines, packaging and books.

• Gravure: The image is made up of small holes sunk in the surface of the printing plate. The holes are filled with ink and any excess is removed. Paper comes into contact with the ink in the holes when pressed against it. Used for long, high-quality print runs – e.g. magazines, mail-order catalogues and packaging.

Processing colours:• Cyan• Yellow• Magenta• Black

Finishing Techniques:• Cutting and creasing: Some

printed materials need to be cut or creased after printing. Cutting and creasing are used when making packaging, pop-up books and cards, and press-out shapes for model making

• Die cutting: Can be used to make multiple, identical shapes. A sharped blade called a die is used to cut through multiple layers of material

• Varnishing: Protects and enhances, used on book covers and packaging. Low cost and easy, but ink must be dry

• Laminating: Protects and enhances, used on book covers, packaging and special print jobs. Expensive, but good for products that are handled a lot

• Embossing: Gives visual and tactile effect, used for business stationary, invitations and packaging. Expensive, as it requires special tools

• Foil applications: Enhances on special work, used for book covers and photograph albums. Expensive, the design is stamped on the material through a metal foil forcing the foil onto the material

Levers:A lever is a rigid piece of material that turns about a fixed pivot point called a fulcrum. An input force applied to one end of a lever is transmitted to the other end of the lever to move the output forces (the load). Levers can be used to apply a force, change the amount of force, movement or direction.

Linkages:Linkages are mechanisms which allow force or motion to be directed where it’s needed. A reverse-motion linkage changes the direction of motion. A parallel-motion linkage creates an identical parallel motion.A jig is used to make sure the part, during production, are made exactly the same, without the need for marking out. E.g. if a hole is drilled in a piece of wood, it will make sure that it’s drilled in the same place in each component.

A former is used to make sure that the parts are shaped of bent to exactly the same shape.

A template is something that you can draw around to mark the shape onto material, so that it can be cut or shaped.

A pattern is used to make a mould when casting in metal or plastic. It is a replica of the finished object and may be made in wood or another soft material. Patterns are also used when shaping plastics in a vacuum-forming machine.

A mould is a hollow shape used when casting metal or plastic resin. Moulds for casting resin can be made of plastic or rubber. Increasing Efficiency of Production:• Resource optimization• Reuse of scrap material• Improved quality control and

process monitoring• Waste exchanges – where one

production’s waste is used as another’s raw material

• Ship to point use – Deliveries of raw materials go directly to point of assembling

Function of

Packaging

Protect: Stop the product from being damaged or contaminated by micro-organisms, are, moisture and toxins

Contain: To keep all the parts together, so it doesn’t spill Identify: To

advertise and identify the product

Ease of Transport: Should be designed to make it easy to transport, move and lift

Stacking and Storage: Should be designed with space wastage in mind

Information: Useful to the customers, e.g. ingredients, sell by date, barcode etc.

Copyright: The exclusive legal right, given to an originator to print, publish, perform, film, or record literary, artistic or musical material, and to authorize others to do the same

Patent: A government authority to an individual or organization conferring a right or title especially the sole right to make, use, or sell some invention

Trademark: A symbol, word or words legally registered or established by use as representing a company or product

Registered Design: A form of legal protection against the copying by a competitor of the external appearance of a product

Quality Assurance: The maintenance of a desired level of quality in a service or product, especially by means of attention to every stage of the process of delivery and production

Quality Control: A system of maintaining standards in manufactured products by testing a sample of the output against the specification

Self Assembly Drawing

Sectional Drawing

• Prototype manufacture: In this part of the manufacturing process where you make a preliminary model of your product. Taking photos is a good way of recording lots of information and showing how your work has progressed. Reasons for making prototypes:– Unlike a computer model, a prototype

can be physically handled by the designer, a design team and potential customers.

– Making a scaled prototype allows the designer / manufacturer to work out the method of construction/manufacture. This cannot be done accurately when using CAD.

– Making a prototype allows the manufacturer to determine the ‘flow’ of production on a production line, in a factory.

– Design errors are often detected when making a scaled model / prototype. Often design or manufacturing problems can be solved at this stage.

– The designer can display the prototype at meetings and there is no need to rely on an expensive computer system.

– A prototype can be tested by potential customers and focus groups.

– A prototype can be used as an integral part of a questionnaire. A computer model is not as effective as a real life object, as it cannot be handled.

Modelling is the process of making a 3D model or a 2D plan from the earlier CAD or drawn ideas.

A computer model can be as useful as a 3D model made from actual materials. A CAD drawing can be revolved, sectioned and viewed in a variety of ways. Computer models allow the designer to apply colour and texture very easily change the very nature of the product in seconds. If a potential client is viewing the computer model it can be changed and updated at the time of the meeting / interview. 

Advantages of Just in time production – Reduced storage costs, production run can be more easily changed, reduced over-stocking of production