GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

Synthetic & analytical types of languages

Analytical verb-forms:

function word + full word

Synthetic verb-forms:

inflectional morphemes + inner flexions

GRAMMAR

- study of rules governing the use of a language

Prescriptive approach

Descriptive approach

In traditional terms: morphology and syntax.

MORPHOLOGY (Greek: morphé + logos)

how words are formed out of smaller units -morphemes

Morpheme: smallest meaningful unit in a given language

(L. Bloomfield)

different realisations (morphs) in different context(do, does, don´t)

Allomorphs = variants of a single morpheme, e.g.pl. -s: /-z/,/-s/,/iz/

MORPHEMES

Free morphemes:

lexical & functional

Bound morphemes:

derivational & inflectional

WORD CLASSES / PARTS OF SPEECH

Full / content / notional words

Function words

NOUNS (Latin nomen = name)

= person, place, thing, idea, animal, quality, activity, state, event, …

Some nouns:

the same form as verbs

graphically different

phonetically different

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF NOUNS

noun-forming derivational affixes

the threefold inflectional sibilant

marking by determiners

fixed position in the sentence

substitutable by pronouns

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS

PROPER NOUNS: names of individuals/group of indiv.

COMMON NOUNSCountable : concrete (a book), abstract (an idea) Uncountable: concrete (water), abstract (honesty)

CONCRETE NOUNS - definite objects

ABSTRACT NOUNS - quality, action, state, ideas, …

COLLECTIVE NOUNS - groups of people / things

MATERIAL NOUNS - no limiting modifiers, no pl.

MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF NOUNS

1) SIMPLE NOUNS: no affixes

2) DERIVATIVE NOUNS:prefixes: un-, mis-, pre-, for-; anti-, co-, ex-, il-, -in-, non-, semi-, sub-, super-, vice-, …suffixes (from Vs): -al, -ance, -ence, -ant, -ar, -er, -or,-ion, -our, -ledge, -ment, -y, -ee; (from Adj): -age, -ce, -cy, -ry, -ity, -ness, (from Ns):-ation, -dom, -ess, -hood, -ian, -ism, -ist,-ship-ing forms used as nouns- diminutives: -let, -ing, -ie, -ock, -ette- names of nationalities: -ian, -er, -ese, -an, -ish, -ite

3) COMPOUND NOUNS

N+NAdj+NAdv+NV+N

Derivational CNs

CNs with -ing forms

CNs with a linking element

Other word formation processes:conversion, blending, clipping, …

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF NUMBER

Countable Ns: sg & pl valley; country; BUT:photo; BUT:

VOICING PLURAL: wife; BUT:

MUTATED PLURAL: Englishman; BUT:

-en PLURAL: child; BUT:

UNINFLECTED PLURAL: sheep; BUT:

FOREIGN PLURAL: phenomenon; analysis; bacterium; BUT:

PLURAL IN COLLECTIVE NOUNS

- in sg. followed by Vs in sg.: foliage;

- in sg. followed by Vs in pl.: vermin;

- in sg. used with Vs in sg. or pl.: committee;

N with -s: V in pl.: scissors;

V in sg: mumps; news; BUT:

V in sg. or pl.: series; species;

PLURAL

IN COMPOUNDSbedroompostman brother-in-law passer-byforget-me-not

OF NAMES OF NATIONSSwitzerland: sg. a Swiss, pl. many Swiss, nation: the Swissthe Netherlands (Holland):sg. Dutchman, pl. Dutchmen, nation: the Dutch

COUNTABILITY

CNs: living beings or things with a definite form; some abstract Ns; sg/pl; articles; numerals; How many?

UNs: sth can be measured but not counted, without shape/limits; 1 form; the; no num.; How much? material, liquids, substances abstract qualities & ideas

UN in EN, BUT countable in SlovakUN in sg BUT in pl.= kinds, extension, intensityBoth CN/UN

PARTITIVES

general: piece, bit, item

specific:ball, bar, cube, lump, sheet, slice ,…

„containers“: bag, box, cup, jar, packet, tube,…

Collective Ns followed by OF:

board, flock, swarm, bunch, crop, set, …

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF GENDER

Gender in OE & in ModE masculine; feminine; neuter;

gender-forming suffix -ess other suffixes: -ine, -er, -ette

gender expressed lexically:- by different words- by pronouns- by words indicating the gender

Ns with a generic term & a pair: horse; pig; sheep; monarch

COMMON GENDER

singer, journalist, neighbour, student, foreigner, …= pronouns: male or female;

A pet: F = cat, parrot; M = dog, horse, canary

Personification (in poetry):

MASCULINE GENDER:

Ns - strength, inflexibility, resistance, necessity names of winds, rivers, mountains winter, the sun, anger, love, murder, war, death,

fatherland

FEMININE GENDER

Ns denoting tenderness, feableness, loveliness

names of universities; countries, cities, & towns denoting political or economic units (indicating geographical units = neuter)

the moon, the earth, mercy, charity, faith, hope,modesty, justice, nature, luck, religion, ships, car

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF CASE

OE = 4 cases: N, G, D, Acc.

ModE:

the common case = uninflected form

the possessive/genitive case = inflected by:

-´s in sg:

a girl´s book;

my mother-in-law´s book;

Peter and Paul´s quarrel;

-´ in pl: girls´ school;

BUT: children´s toys; Dickens´/ Dickens´s novel;

DEPENDENT GENITIVE

proper names

personal nouns

personal indefinite pronouns

names of animals

collective nouns

geographical names

institutional names

DEPENDENT GENITIVE

expressions of time, space, weight, distance

names of seasons/months/days

with words: sun, moon, earth, world

with words: ship, boat, vessel

with personification (in poetry)

fixed expressions

THE ABSOLUTE / ELYPTICAL GENITIVE

= without a following noun:

when it is clear what / who we are talking about

when referring to work-places, shops, banks, houses

THE DOUBLE GENITIVE

= when a noun is determined by:

articles numerals some demonstrative pronouns

THE OF-CONSTRUCTION / OF-GENITIVE

refers to:

things when we cannot form a compound

parts of things

abstract nouns

partitives

geographical notions

other nouns

DETERMINERS= words used in front of common nouns= determine (affect) the meaning of Ns

CENTRAL DETERMINERS = mutually exclusive

1) articles

2) possessive

3) demonstrative

4) assertive; nonassertive

5) negative

6) universal

7) dual

8) WH-determiners

PREDETERMINERS

= precede the required CD in a N phrase:

quantifying fractional intensifying multiplying

POSTDETERMINERS

= follow the required CD in a N phrase

cardinal numerals ordinal numerals many, much & its relatives the forms of other the phrasal quantifiers

THE DEFINITE ARTICLE: the

= from OE demonstrative pronoun sé

- particular object; sth that is known; specific or definite reference;

- C in sg.; C in pl.; U; the definite object;

- we know exactly from the context;

- unique things

- political parties; the whole family; nouns of nationalities;

- in proverbs

- ordinal numerals; superlative degree – adj.; substantivized adj.

- with some places, even if we don´t know exactly which

- with: same, very, right, wrong; the weather;

- some, many, none, most + preposition of;

- abstract Ns modified by an attribute in post-position

THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE: a / an

= from OE numeral án (one)

- meaning “one“: Ns denoting time, measure, weight, numerals

- people or things in general

- all the representatives of the class = “every“

- Ns introduced for the 1st time - CNs

- object belonging to a class = “some, any“

- with jobs, Ns of nationalities; some illnesses;

- proper Ns (member of family; literature, art)

- Ns: period, population, distance, height, salary + OF constr.

- after “there is“, “what a ...“, “such a ...“

- personal names modified by “certain“

THE ZERO ARTICLE

= shows that Ns are used in a general sense

- with pl CNs in general statements

- abstract Ns; UNs of material

- some illnesses; illnesses in -s

- activities + sport games

- in general: names of periods of a year, months, days, holidays

- languages; names of subjects; names of food;

- names of persons; forms of addressing people; titles + names;

- Ns expressing relationship

- in certain prepositional phrases

THE USE OF ARTICLES

No article: Articles:

I like spring. It happened in the spring of 1968.

It was spring. It was a cold spring.

Day is meant for work, He won´t forget the day when...

night for sleep. The night was warm.

to be in prison (= prisoner) to be in the prison (= building)

to leave school/at school (study) to leave the school; a good school

Is dinner ready? The dinner we had today was ...

speak French use the French language at work

Dickens, the great novelist, ... It´s a Dickens novel. /a Picasso

THE USE OF ARTICLES

NO ARTICLE: THE DEFINITE ARTICLE:

Africa, Asia, Europe the Antarctica, the Continent (Europe)

England, Germany the UK, the Vatican, the Ukraine

- the Pacific (Ocean), the Black Sea, the Nile

Lake Ontario, Lake Geneva the Ontario (no: lake)

Mount Everest, Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, the Jungfrau,

Elbrus, Snowdon, Ben Nevis the Alps, the Himalayas,

Malta, Sicily, Madagaskar the Isle of Capri, the Isle of Man

groups of islands: the Bahamas, the Azores, the Canaries

- the Gobi (Desert), the Sahara

London / Westminster Bridge the Golden Gate Br., the Tower Br.

PRONOUNS point out objects / qualities without naming them

Specific: personal possessive demonstrative reflexive interrogative elative reciprocalIndefinite: universal partitive quantifying

PERSONAL PRONOUNS

=refer to the person speaking, spoken to, spoken about

Gram. categories of P, N, C, G – 3rd sg.

Common case is replaced by: subjective case

objective case

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS

=refer to parts of the body & personal belongings

Gram. categories: P, N, G

2 forms: the dependent / attribute form

(possessive determiners)

the independent / the nominal form

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS

express the number contrast

point at what is nearer or farther in time & space

Such = of this/that kind; such as = for example

Same = always with “the“

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

= indicate - action expressed by V passes back to S

Gram. categories: P, N, G – 3rd sg.

as direct or indirect O after a preposition; after “by“ meaning alone; as part of the predicative of the V to be in fixed phrases to emphasize sth. used with reflexive Vs

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS

= form questions; always precede the V

Who: 3 case-forms - S; O; G/Possessive (determiner); only for persons

What: for things, for an activity, to ask for a person´s

profession, character, etc., in idiomatic expressions

Which: choice among a certain number of sth for things & persons; sg. / pl; s or O; often followed by an of-phrase

Compound interrogatives = used for emphasis

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

= point out back to a N/Pron. = antecedent. Forms: personal non-personal

That: for persons/things in restrictive relative clauses- left out of a sentence; no preposition;- after the superlative; after most indefinite pronouns;after opening phrases; antecedent = person & thing

What is used when an antecedent is not expressed

Compound relative pronouns

Relative as: after such & after the same (also: that)

RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS

express mutual action or relation

the subject = always in pl.

Each other implies only two

One another = two or more persons

The common case

The genitive case

UNIVERSAL PRONOUNS

ALL: persons/things; in sg/pl; = unity as a pronoun meaning: everything as an adjective meaning: the whole of; in some expressions

EACH: 2 or more persons/things = separately a limited number; after of & at the end pronoun & determiner

EVERY: more than 2 = meaning: altogether - unlimited Nr; after: nearly, not; only as Determ.- in idiomatic phrases; Compounds;

BOTH: with pl N & pl V;

PARTITIVE PRONOUNS

SOME: determ./nominal; CNs & UNs; compounds indef. quant./Nr; contrast; particular but unidentified affirmative; interrog.=positive reply; before numerals

ANY: no matter who/which/what; CNs & UNs; comp. interrog.; negative; indirect quest.; condit. cl.; adv.

NO: determiner function; “not any, not a“; CNs + UNs;Compounds = nominal fun., sg V; replaced by any-;NONE = nominal function; sg & pl; of-constructions

THE OTHER, ANOTHER, THE OTHERS, OTHERS; EITHER:1/the other of 2; both; NEITHER

QUANTIFYING PRONOUNS

MANY, FEW: pl., used with CNsMUCH, LITTLE: sg., used with UNs in affirm. = a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a good deal of,

MANY, MUCH: interrog. & neg.; MUCH= adverbiallyFEW, LITTLE: neg.meaning; A FEW, A LITTLE: posit.

SEVERAL: in pl.; determ. & nom., with of-construction

ENOUGH: with CNs + UNs; determ. & nom. function;

ONE:- numerical, replacive (word-substitute, not with UNs) - indefinite = “people in general“, after WHICH;

ADJECTIVES / MODIFIERS

= limit or qualify words by describing them

According to the position in a phrase or sentence:

Attributive adjectives

Predicative adjectives

Constructions with comparison:

as … as

not as … as

not so … as

than

GRADABILITY OF ADJECTIVES

GRADABLE (with words: very, too, enough)

the positive

the comparative

the superlative

2 types:

synthetic (by inflections)

analytical (by gram. particles)

NON-GRADABLE (absolute in their meaning)

Irregular (suppletive) forms

Spelling rules

ADJECTIVES

According to their meaning:

QUALITATIVE/descriptive: size, shape, colour, mental & physical qualities

RELATIVE:through their relation to materials, place, time, action

SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES: wholly or partially

Pre-modifiers x post-modifiers

Word order of adjectives: O – S – A – Sh – C – O – M (past part.)

MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES

primary / simple

secondary converted

derivative: prefixes: pre-, hyper-, neg.: im-, in-, il-, ir-, un-, dis-;

suffixes:-ic, -y, -less, -ish, -ful, -able, -ible, -ive, -ant, -ent, -ous, -en-, -an, -al, -ly, -like, -some, -ward;

compound: N+Adj, N+pres. part., N+past part., Adj+Adj,

Adj+N+-ed, N+N+-ed, Num+N+-ed, Adv+N+-ed;

ADVERBS

express some circumstances that attend an action, state, or point out some characteristic features of an action or a quality

answer questions: HOW? WHEN? WHERE? HOW OFTEN? TO WHAT EXTENT? IN WHAT ORDER?

can modify: Vs, Adj., Indefinite Pron., Other Adv., Ns, sentences;

The modifying adverb is usually an intensifier.

ADVERBS

According to their structure:

simple

derivative

compound

composite

Adverbial phrases

ADVERBS

According to their meaning = adverbs of:

manner

place & direction

time

frequency

degree, measure & quantity

GRADABILITY OF ADVERBS

GRADABLE: synthetic analytical

Irregular forms of comparison

NON-GRADABLE

2 forms of adverbs;

the same forms of adverbs without -ly & adjectives;

POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE

- manner:

Look at this photo carefully.

It snowed heavily.

Mary angrily slammed the door.

Quietly, he moved towards the door.

- degree:

quite good

quite well

I quite like it.

POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE

- place and direction:

She read quietly in the library all the afternoon.

I went to London by train.

Outside it was cold but indoors it was warm.

She lives in a small house in a village outside Norwich in Norfolk

POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE

- of time:

We went to the theatre yesterday.

Yesterday we went to the theatre.

I have just finished.

He is still working.

He still works.

Have you finished yet?

No, I haven´t finished yet.

POSITION OF ADVERBIALS IN A SENTENCE

- frequency:

He seldom smiles at her.

Sometimes we go to the cinema.

Do you usually have cream in your coffee?

I get paid on Fridays usually.

OFTEN:

Do you come here often?

I don´t come here often.

VERBS = word class (in syntax: clause element)

Grammatical categories of Vs: tense, aspect, voice, mood

A sentence: single verb: finite verb phrase (VP) = simple cluster of Vs: VP = complex

A complex VP= up to 4 auxiliaries in front of the main V

BASIC TYPES OF THE COMPLEX FINITE VP

modal

perfective

progressive

passive

VERBS

According to the function within a VP

3 classes of Vs:

primary auxiliary Vs

modal auxiliary Vs

lexical (main, full) Vs

According to the finiteness:

finite V forms

non-finite V forms

VERBS

According to morphological forms:

regular Vs

irregular Vs

REGULAR VERBS = 4 morphological forms: the base form the -ed form the -s form -ing form

IRREGULAR VERBS

= either 5 or 3 forms, classified into:

3 forms alike

3 forms different

past tense equals -ed participle

V base equals -ed participle

V base equals the past tense

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS=assist the main V to express gram. contrasts

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERB TO BE:

unique, 8 forms; (un)contracted negative forms2 functions: as an aspect auxiliary for the progressive as a passive auxiliary

Forms: present, past, present perfect, past perfect, future, future perfect, present progressive, past progressive

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERB

TO HAVE:

Forms: base, -s, past, -ing, (-ed participle only as a lexical V) (un)contracted negative

present, past, present perfect, past perfect, future, future perfect;

HAVE x HAVE GOT = interchangeable.

Questions in BrE = by inversion, in AmE = by operators

PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERB

TO DO

Forms: present, -s, past, (un)contracted negative -ing, ...Used in: negated imperative, questions, tag questions, emphatic or persuasive constructions, inversion caused by introductory words

(negative adverbs: never, hardly, seldom)

MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS

the speaker´s attitude toward the action or state indicated by the infinitive

defective, not inflected

followed by bare infinitive

cannot form imperative

do not have infinitive forms

negative & interrogative = without auxiliaries

MODAL CAN

I CAN / COULD (+ periphrastic form)

CAN = ability, capability;

CANNOT/CAN´T = inability, incapability

CAN expresses: physical & mental abilities asking & giving permission with Vs with perception possibility

MODAL CAN, COULD

CAN´T + perfect infinitive (have + -ed participle)COULD + perfect infinitiveCOULD NOT + perfect infinitive

referring to the past

CAN + passive infinitive (to be & past participle)CAN´T + passive infinitive

translated into Slovak: možno, dať sa

MODAL MAY, MIGHT

I MAY / MIGHT (+ periphrastic form) permission in questions MAY = more formal than CAN

MIGHT in more polite requests

MUSTN´T used in the negative stronger prohibition than MAY NOT

MAY possibility (= it is possible) + present infinitive: expect/guess about pres./future

MODAL MAY, MIGHT

MAY + present infinitive about present/future happenings

MAY/MIGHT + perfect infinitive expect/guess about past happening

MIGHT expresses reproach

MIGHT + perfect infinitive action not carried out in the past

MAY as a subjunctive auxiliary (expresses wish)

MODAL MUST

I MUST (to have to) = to be obliged to/ to be compelled to inescapable obligation, duty or necessity

NEEDN´T, DON´T HAVE TO absence of obligation

MUSTN´T a strong way of forbidding to do sth.

MODAL MUST

MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO = interchangeable

obligation comes from the speaker stronger obligation for other persons

MUST in notices, documents, commands

MUST in pressing invitation and emphatic advice

MUST + present infinitive deduction refers to the present

MUST + perfect infinitive deduction about the past

MODAL SHALL

volition (mostly for 1st sg.)

in questions = obligation or suggestion

insistence, threat

in legal documents = in 2nd, 3rd person

MODAL SHOULD

SHOULD

in reported speech

in offers, suggestions, requests

escapable obligation, duty

probability

after if & in case = suggests a less strong possibility

recommendations from an outside authority

our own subjective opinion=connected: If I were you

MODAL OUGHT TO

OUGHT TO

more objective

talk about laws, duties

SHOULD/OUGHT TO + perfect infinitive

action not carried out

MODAL WILL

WILL prediction about the future about the present giving orders habitual predictive meaning in conditional willingness to do sth. intention to make promises or threats to make requests or to give orders

WILL + perfect infinitive logical deduction about the past

MODAL WOULD

WOULD

past form of will in reported speech about past habits + characteristic behaviour

(not with state V) as conditional more polite request than WILL after I wish / If only I ... to express willingness

MARGINAL MODALS / SEMI-MODALS

NEED

in the negative Yes/No questions after negative adverbs (hardly, seldom, rarely) in formal style, expressing doubts in informal use = ordinary (lexical) V form

NEEDN´T + perfect infinitive sb did it but it was not necessary

MARGINAL DARE, USED TO

DARE in questions & negatives with bare infinitive or a full V in informal style the negative DAREN´T: YOU DARE! or: DON´T YOU DARE! = to discourage I DARE SAY = probably

USED TO past habit = in simple past; also with state VUSED NOT or USEDN´T: in the negative & in questions

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF VOICE:THE ACTIVE VOICE

The clause with transitive Vs contains:

3 grammatical elements: S+V+O3 semantic units: A + P (Action) + G

SUBJECT = AGENT if V is in the active voiceOBJECT = GOAL

If the WO (= an important element in EN) – change:= both grammatical & semantic roles of Ns change

In SK: if the WO is reversed, the roles remain clear.

THE PASSIVE VOICE

= the subject - not interpreted as the agent

AGENTpreposition by, or unexpressed (if unknown/unimport.)

Emphasis = on the action, not on people performing it.

Sth that the AGENT perform the action = prep. with

After ditransitive Vs:either OBJECT = SUBJECT of a passive clause

THE FORMS OF THE PASSIVE VOICE= to be + -ed participle

present simple: John is helped by Mary. present progressive present perfect simple past past progressive past perfect simple future future perfect present infinitive perfect infinitive -ing form perfect -ing form

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF ASPECT

reflects the way in which the verb action is “regarded“ or „experienced“ with respect to time

is closely connected in meaning with tense

Present perfective: action continuing up to the pres.

He has been at school for two hours.

(probably still there).

This meaning of current relevance contrasts with past

tense meaning:

He was at school an hour ago. (Now he is out.)

TWO TYPES OF ASPECTUAL CONTRAST

1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT

2) THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) ASPECT

1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT

is associated with time orientation+ various time indicators: for, already, since, so far, lately, recently, up to now, how long, ever...

1.1 THE PRESENT PERFECT

= have + -ed participle

“past happening related to present time“ past events with results in the present time indefinite events in a period leading up to the present

time habit in a period leading up to the present time state leading up to the present time

1.2 THE PAST PERFECT

= had + -ed participle

“past in the past“ conjun. after, when = which event took place earlier describing one event following another in the past event in -when clause = completed before the event

in the past simple started in reported speech after past Vs in events looking back from a point in the past to express an unrealized hope, wish

1.3 THE FUTURE PERFECT

= will + perfect infinitive

at a certain time in the future sth will be completed / achieved (often used with by & time reference)

2 THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT

= to be + -ing form

refers to activity in progress, & therefore suggests that:

a) the activity is temporary (i.e. of limited duration)b) it need not be complete

2.1 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

= am/is/are + -ing

actions in progress at the moment of speaking(now, just)

temporary situation, activity is taking place in thepresent time & will continue for a limited period

future reference with Vs of motion(arrive, come, go, leave)

activities planned for the future repeated actions – unexpectedly/annoyingly

(always, constantly)

2.2 PAST PROGRESSIVE

= was/were + -ing

an action in progress at a specified time in the past

an action started before the event in the past simple

& was in progress when the event in the PS occured

two parallel actions were in progress at the same time (while)

progress with adverbials beginning with all

(all morning, all day, all night)

repeated actions

the background for a narrative in the past

2.3 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

= has/have been +ing

an activity taking place in the recent period up to the present

started in the past & continues up to the present &possibly into the future (since, for)

2.4 PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

= had been + -ing

describes an activity looking back from the past

2.5 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE

= shall/will be + -ing

an activity going on at a particular time or over a particular period in the future (we mention the future time)

future activity is the result of a previous decision (arrangement)

planned activities in the future asking (politely) about people´s plans

2.6 FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

= shall/will + have been + -ing

activity leading up to time in the future.

Usually mentioned – both the particular point in the future (on Saturday, soon, next year)& the period of time until this point (for a year, for 20 minutes)

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF MOOD

indicates the factual, nonfactual, or counterfactual status of prediction

THE INDICATIVE/DECLARATIVE MOOD facts of which the speaker = relatively confident

THE IMPERATIVE MOOD commands, instructions

2nd sg/pl (no distinction) = the base of the V 1st & 3rd sg/pl = periphrastically

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

replaced by other constructions in contemporary EN

MANDATIVE SUB.: lack of regular concord btw S + FV

in subord. that-clause after Vs in the main clause: advise, ask, beg, decide, demand, desire, insist, intend,

after Adj (anxious, determined) with a personal S or (essential, important, urgent) & impersonal it-constr.

after Ns (demand, intention, order, request, suggestion)

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

The FORMULAIC Subjunctive in certain set expressions

The WERE-Subjunctive hypothetical conditional & wish clauses

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF TENSE

relates the time of the action, or state of affairs referred to in the sentence to the time of utterance.

Time = extra-ling. notion (past, present, future time)

Tense = ling. category (no identity between time & tense)

EN: PRESENT & PAST

FUTURE: by modals, simple present & progressive

To be + infinitive: formal arrang., instructions, orders

in if-clauses: sth takes place first before sth else

Be about to, be on the point of:refer to the next m.

Be due to: refers to scheduled times

PRESENT TENSE

the state present: timeless statements, eternal truths

the habitual present: repeated events & adv. of freq.

the instantaneous present = with dynamic Vs

the historic present=past time narrative, event described vividly

referring to future time:

action in future & time adverbials

in conditional & temporal clauses:

if, unless, after, before , when, as soon as

PAST TENSE

- denotes definite past time, adv. referring to the past

(specific) events

states

habitual action

attitudinal past = reflects a tentative state of mind (= more polite effect than by using the present)

hypothetical past = contrary to the speaker´s beliefs (if, wish)

indirect (reported) speech (so-called back-shift)

NON-FINITE VERB FORMS

1) THE INFINITIVE

Forms: present infinitive active, present infinitive passive, present progressive infinitive active, perfect/past infinitive active, perfect/past infinitive passive, perfect/past progressive infinitive active

bare infinitive: modals, let, make, had better, would rather, Vs of perc.

to-infinitive:some lexical Vs, to be + adj., Vs + Obj., indic. purpose;

NON-FINITE VERB FORMS

2) THE ING-FORM

-ing participlein progressive aspect or as participial adjective

gerundcan take place of V or N: UN, CN, after the Genitive

Forms: present active, present passive, past/perfect active, past/perfect passive

Used after: Vs of (dis)liking, some lexical Vs, Adj + prep, phrasal Vs

NON-FINITE VERB FORMS

3) THE -ed FORM

Used: to form the passive (to be + -ed) to express perfective aspect (have/had + -ed) to begin a subordinate clause: Provided that…