grammar points full

GRAMMAR POINTS FOR THE ENTRANCE EXAM

“For high school students who wish to attend the entrance exam”

Do Nguyen Dang Khoa

7/8/2013

2 GRAMMAR POINTS FOR THE ENTRANCE EXAM

Compiled by Do Nguyen Dang Khoa

PREFACE This book is compiled privately for high school students who wish to attend the entrance exam. It is written mainly as a grammar manual for students to do research on. There are 10 chapters in the book; each one comprises a particular area of grammar. Theses grammar points are considered as the MOST ESSENTIAL and MOST DIFFICULT for students to learn; others considered easy, unnecessary or trivial are not included in the book. Students can either use the book to learn in class with a teacher or self-study at home. It is not necessary to work through the chapters in order, but it is highly recommended, because it was compiled in a logical way so that students can find it comprehensible when learning in the order provided.

As this is a very first edition and I am a user and a student of English as a second language, the book may inevitably have certain mistakes that need correction. Anyone who has suggestions on any mistake or on how it might be improved, please feel free to contact me so that I can do better in the later editions or in other books.

I would like to express my gratitude to Ms. Elinda Chan, Mr. Phước Đinh, Ms. Diệu Viên and Ms. Quỳnh Anh Durian – The four enthusiastic young students who helped me to improve the quality of the book.

Finally, my gratitude is to you – the one who chose this book and my Entrance Exam course. Good luck to you in the forthcoming Entrance Exam.

July, 28th, 2013

Đỗ Nguyễn Đăng Khoa



TABLE OF CONTENTS

TENSES .....................................................................................................................................5

I. The present tenses ....................................................................................................................... 5

II. The past tenses ............................................................................................................................ 8

III. The future .................................................................................................................................. 10

MODALS & SEMI-MODALS ............................................................................................... 12

I. Speculation ................................................................................................................................ 12

II. Obligation and necessity ............................................................................................................. 13

III. Giving advice: SHOULD and OUGHT TO ....................................................................................... 14

IV. Expressing ability: CAN, COULD and BE ABLE TO ......................................................................... 14

V. Permission and concession: MAY, MIGHT, CAN, COULD .............................................................. 15

VI. Habitual behavior in the past: WOULD and USED TO .................................................................. 16

ARTICLES & DETERMINERS ............................................................................................ 17

I. Articles ....................................................................................................................................... 17

II. Determiners ............................................................................................................................... 21

SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT .......................................................................................... 25

VERB COMPLEMENTATION ............................................................................................. 29

I. Transitive and intransitive verbs ................................................................................................. 29

II. Verbs + two objects .................................................................................................................... 29

III. Verbs + (object) + to-infinitives or gerunds ................................................................................. 30

INVERSION & EMPHASIS .................................................................................................. 34

I. Creating emphasis ...................................................................................................................... 34

II. Inversion .................................................................................................................................... 35

SUBJUNCTIVES & CONDITIONALS ................................................................................. 39

I. Subjunctives ............................................................................................................................... 39

II. Conditionals & structures relating to subjunctives ...................................................................... 39

REPORTED SPEECH ............................................................................................................ 45

I. Basic rules .................................................................................................................................. 45

II. Verb patterns in reported speech ............................................................................................... 47



RELATIVE CLAUSES ........................................................................................................... 49

I. Two kinds of relative clauses ...................................................................................................... 49

II. Relative clauses – advanced points ............................................................................................. 50

PARTICIPLE CLAUSES ....................................................................................................... 52

I. Participle clauses – reduced relative clauses ............................................................................... 52

II. Participle clauses – other usages ................................................................................................ 52

APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................... 54

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 59



TENSES I. The present tenses

A. The present simple tense

1. Habitual behavior in the present The present simple tense is used for habitual actions or permanent situations in the present. I go for a run twice a week. She lives near the station.

Frequency adverbs are used to indicate how often an action occurs. They are usually placed:

Before the main verb

I always go to bed before midnight.

After the verb to be or an auxiliary verb

She is often late for work.

Usually, normally, frequently, sometimes, (very/quite) often and occasionally can also be placed at the beginning of the sentence or clause.

Occasionally we go out to the cinema, but usually we stay in and watch a video.

*Always, rarely, seldom, hardly ever and never cannot be used in the same way.

2. Other usages The present simple can be used to:

Talk about timetabled or scheduled events

The film starts at 9.15, just after the news.

To refer to the future after time linkers such as when, before, after, until, by the time, as soon as

Give me a call as soon as you arrive.

Referring to the facts or theories

The sun rises in the East.

Water boils at 100oC.



B. The present continuous tense

1. Continuous or temporary actions

2. Other usages the present continuous + always is used to talk about things which occur frequently and

which the speaker finds annoying.

He’s always complaining about something!

The present continuous is used to talk about future arrangements which have already been made. (see Tenses – III-1 for more details)

Sue and Alan are getting married on June 21st.

3. Stative verbs Stative verbs (See appendix 1-A for common stative verbs) describe unchanging states, rather than changing actions or events. Therefore, they are not normally used in the Continuous.

However, there are some stative verbs that can be used to refer to actions.

This cheese tastes delicious.

The chef is tasting the soup.

Thus, these verbs can be used in the Continuous.

(See appendix 1-B for some stative verbs referring to actions)

C. The present perfect tenses

The present perfect links past events and situations with the present.

1. Present perfect simple The present perfect simple can be used:

To describe situations which started in the past and continue to the present

We’ve had these saucepans since we got married 43 years ago.

To talk about events which occurred at some time between the past and present. The exact time they occurred is either unknown or unimportant.

I’ve already seen United play three times this season.

To talk about recent past events which have some relevance to the present/an obvious result in the present.



I’ve twisted my ankle. (That’s why I’m limping)

after some time expressions: This/that/it is the first/second/third etc time… It’s (two/three etc) years/a long time since…

This is the fourth time I’ve seen United play this season.

It’s years since I’ve had bacon for breakfast.

(Note: The past simple is also possible, and even more used in exercises)

It’s years since I (last) had bacon for breakfast.

Some “signals” of the present perfect tense: lately, recently, until now, up to now, so far, just, already, never…before, yet etc.

2. Present perfect continuous – comparing with the simple form The present perfect continuous is used to:

Emphasize the duration of a situation or activity

He’s been working on his first novel for over ten years.

Suggest that a situation or activity is temporary or incomplete

My kitchen’s being redecorated so I’ve been eating at my mum’s.

I’ve been reading a book you lent me – I think I know how it’s going to end.

Both simple and continuous forms of the present perfect can be used to talk about the present effects of a past events. When we talk about the result of circumstances or an activity, we use the present perfect simple, rather than the present perfect continuous. When we focus on the process we often use present perfect continuous (some materials suggest that we can use either when focusing on the process)

I’m exhausted! I’ve been cleaning the house all morning.

Sally can’t drive for a while; she’s broken her leg.

We use the present perfect continuous to emphasize that an activity is ongoing and repeated, while the present perfect suggests that the activity happened only once or on a specified number of occasion:

Joseph has been kicking a football against the wall all day. (more likely than…has kicked…)

He has played for the national team in 65 matches so far. (not He has been playing for the national team in 65 matches so far.)



II. The past tenses

A. The past simple tense The past simple is used to refer to:

Completed actions, events or situations which happened at a specific time or over a specific period of time in the past

I sold my car about three months ago.

When we lived in York, my father ran a small bakery.

Habitual actions or behavior in the past

Did you bite your nails when you were a child?

When I was a teenager, my mum got really angry if I didn’t tidy my bedroom.

for the use of “use to” and “would”, see “modals and semi modals – VI”

A series of consecutive events in the past

He kissed her, said goodbye and closed the door.

B. The past continuous tense The past continuous can be used to refer to:

situations or actions in progress at a particular moment in the past

This time last year I was taking the CAE exam.

A past situation or action which was in progress when another action occurred

We were still having breakfast when Mark and Marian called round.

Past actions or situations occurring at the same time

She was working hard to earn some extra money and he was spending it all on drink.

Repeated past actions, which the speaker finds annoying

(With a frequency adverb, similar to the use of present continuous to express annoyance)

She was always complaining about something.



C. The past perfect tenses

1. The past perfect simple The past perfect simple can be used

to show that a past event or situation occurred before another past event or situation

As soon as the film started, I realized I had seen if before.

They had known each other for several years before they got married.

After some time expressions: that/it was the first/second/third etc time…; it was (two/three etc) years/a long

time since… certain time linkers: after, before, by the time, as soon as, once, when, until

It was dark by the time I had finished repairing the roof.

*The past simple can be used if the order of events is clear, or if the second event occurred as a result of the first.

I had a relaxing bath after I got home from work last night.

When the music started, everyone got up to dance.

Participle clauses can sometimes be used in place of clauses with when or after and the past perfect.

Having eaten his sandwich, he put his coat on and left.

(= After he had eaten his sandwich, he put his coat on and left.)

(refer to…)

2. The past perfect continuous The past perfect continuous can be used in similar ways to the present perfect continuous, but instead of linking past events and situations with the present, it links them with another point in the past. It is not used with stative verbs. I’d been waiting for over an hour when she finally arrived.



III. The future

1. Plans and arrangements We can often use either the present continuous or be going to with a similar meaning to talk about planned future events. However:

Be going to describes intentions or plans

I’m going to work really hard this year.

The present continuous describes fixed arrangements

I’m having lunch with Brian tomorrow.

2. Predictions Will and be going to can be used to make predictions based on opinion or experience. I don’t think I’ll be/I’m going to be well enough to go to work tomorrow.

(However, we use be going to rather than will when we make a prediction based on some present evidence)

*Note:

NEVER use the present continuous for the future when we make or report predictions about activities or events over which we can’t arrange these:

I think it’s going to rain soon.

Many people avoid be going to + go/come and use the present continuous forms of go and come instead:

I’m going to town on Saturday. (rather than I’m going to go to town…)

Are you coming home for lunch? (rather than Are you going to come…?)

3. The future continuous and the future perfect The future continuous is used:

to talk about actions or events which will be in progress at a certain time in the future.

Don’t call after eight – I’ll be watching the match then.

to talk about a future action that will happen because it is regular or decided. It can be used to ask about someone’s plans politely

I’ll be seeing Joe later – I’ll give this to him then.

Will you be coming out with us tomorrow night?



4. Other ways of talking about the future Verbs of thinking, such as believe, doubt, expect and think, are followed by will when

referring to the future. Hope can also be followed by a present tense I expect I’ll lose again – I always do.

I hope they (will) keep in touch with us.

Be (un)likely to + infinitive expresses probability

The situation is likely to get worse.

Be bound to + infinitive expresses certainty

It’s a ridiculous plan and it’s bound to fail.

be (just) about to + infinitive/be on the point of + gerund can be used to talk about the immediate future

I’ll call you back – I’m just about to go into a meeting.

He is on the point of leaving her when his head begins to ache violently.

be due to + infinitive refers to scheduled times

The new supermarket is due to open in April.

The present simple also refers to scheduled times. (as mentioned in part I-A-2)

Conclusions and comments on this chapter:

After reading and learning all these things, I guess you now think that tenses aren’t easy at it seems. I myself find tenses the most difficult thing to learn in my process of learning English. Generally, knowing tenses seems easy but getting the hang of it is no easy task when it comes to the “core” of tenses.



MODALS & SEMI-MODALS

I. Speculation

1. Certainty Must, can’t and couldn’t can be used to express your certainty about something.

For present situations: modal verbs + bare infinitive

“I haven’t slept for two days.” “You must be exhausted!”

Everyone here is wearing a football scarf, so we can’t be very far from the stadium.

The continuous infinitive can also be used.

Why is he wearing his uniform? He couldn’t be going to school – it’s Saturday today.

For past situations: modal verbs + have + past participle

I can’t find my book. I must have left it at school.

This composition isn’t very good. You can’t have spent very long on it.

The continuous form can also be used.

“And then I lost control of the car.” “You must have been driving so fast.”

2. Possibility May (not), might (not) or could can be used if you are not certain about something but think it’s possible.

For present situations: modal verbs + bare infinitive

“Ed’s not answering my emails.” “He might be on holiday.”

The continuous infinitive is also possible.

He could be telling the truth, but it’s hard to believe.

For past situations: modal verbs + have + past participle

I think we may have taken the wrong road. This doesn’t look familiar.

The continuous form is also possible.

“Sean looked a little sad.” “He might not have been feeling very well.”



II. Obligation and necessity

1. Obligation: MUST and HAVE TO Both must + infinitive and have to + infinitive are used to talk about obligations.

All questions must be answered.

We have to wear a swimming cap in the indoor pool.

*Note:

Mustn’t expressed prohibition, whereas don’t have to express lack of obligation or necessity.

You mustn’t touch this, darling – it’s very hot.

You don’t have to come if you don’t want to.

When you want to express obligation or necessity in the past, you have to use had to + infinitive. Must have + past participle is just used to speculate about past situations. (See Tenses – I-1). Compare:

Sean’s late – he must have got stuck in a traffic jam.

The bus broke down so I had to walk.

2. Necessity: NEED and NEED TO Need + infinitive is not used in ordinary statements; need to + infinitive is much more

common for expressing necessity.

I need to get some new shoes. (NOT I need get…)

What do we need to take with us?

Usually, there is no difference in meaning between needn’t + infinitive and don’t need to + infinitive. They both indicate a lack of obligation to do something.

Needn’t have + past participle and didn’t need to + infinitive

Needn’t have + past participle is used to talk about an action which was performed but which was unnecessary.

You needn’t have bought those batteries – we’ve got plenty in the drawer.

didn’t need to + infinitive is used t talk about an action which was unnecessary. It usually indicates that the subject did not perform the action.



I didn’t need to spend very long on my homework last night – It was quite easy.

III. Giving advice: SHOULD and OUGHT TO

Should + ought to + infinitive are used to give advice or express opinions about what is right and wrong.

You shouldn’t play/oughtn’t to play with matches – it’s dangerous.

Had better can also be used to give strong advice, or tell people what to do.

You’d better turn that music down before your Dad gets angry.

Should have + ought to have + past participle can be used to criticize past actions, express regret or talk about things which were supposed to happen but didn’t.

You really shouldn’t have shouted at him like that.

You ought to have asked Jill if she wanted to come.

Where’s Bob? He should have been here ages ago.

IV. Expressing ability: CAN, COULD and BE ABLE TO

Can and am/is/are able to can be used to express ability or inability in the present.

She can/is able to speak three languages fluently.

When we talk about general ability in the past, both could and was/were able to are possible.

She could sing really well when she was a child.

My grandfather could play the trumpet when he was 90.

When we talk about ability to do something on one occasion in the past, could is NOT possible. Instead, was/were able to, managed to or succeeded in have to be used.

I managed to/was able to speak to Frank last night.

Firefighters succeeded in controlling the flames.

However, when we talk about inability to do something on one occasion in the past, couldn’t, weren’t/wasn’t able to, didn’t manage to and didn’t succeed in are all possible.



I couldn’t do the homework; it was too difficult.

I didn’t manage to/wasn’t able to repair the washing machine.

V. Permission and concession: MAY, MIGHT, CAN, COULD

1. Permission Can and may (more formal) can be used to:

give or refuse permission

You may/can borrow up to three videos at any one time from the library.

You can’t/may not go until you have finished.

make offers

May I be of assistance?

Can I carry that for you?

Can and could can be used to

make requests

Can/could you give me a hand, please?

ask for permission

Can/could I open the window?

The more formal “may” can also be used.

May I ask a personal question?

2. Concession Might and may can be used to express concession

He might have failed his degree, but he’s earning much more than me.

(Although he failed his degree, he’s earning much more than me.)

She may be famous, but that doesn’t give her the right to behave like that in public.

may and might can also be used to suggest what one should do when there is no better alternative (usually used with “as well”)

I might as well go shopping with my parents – I’ve got nothing else to do.



You’ll find out the truth sooner or later, so I may as well tell you now that what happened.

VI. Habitual behavior in the past: WOULD and USED TO

Used to + infinitive is used to refer to past habits and situations which no longer occur or exist now.

We used to have a cat, but he died last year.

I always used to walk to work until I bought a car.

Would + infinitive is used to refer to past habits, but not past situations.

Habit: My dad would often read to me when I was a young boy.

Situation: I used to (NOT would) have a bicycle.

(Stative verbs are not used with would. For further information about stative verbs, see tenses – I-B-3)


In the entrance exam, questions about modal verbs seem to be the easiest… only if you learn the theory thoroughly; otherwise you will be soooo baffled. Learning modal verbs not only helps you to do grammatical questions, but does you good in the function questions as well. Some conclusions we can draw from the chapter:

“must + infinitive” expresses obligation in the present, but “must have + past participle” expresses certainty.

“could” is sometimes used as the past tense of “can”, but it can also be used in present situations to express possibility; and to politely ask for help.

“must” and “have to” in the positive form are both used to express obligation, but are totally different in the negative form.

…and many more things to say. Feel free to write your own conclusions and new points about modal verbs in the chart below.

What conclusions I draw/points I haven’t known yet about modal verbs…



ARTICLES & DETERMINERS I. Articles

A. Definite article – “the”

1. The – “you know which one(s)” We use the before a noun when our listener/reader knows (or can work out) which particular person(s), thing(s) etc. we are talking about. The listener/reader may know which one(s) we mean because:

we have mentioned it/them before

She’s got two children: a boy and a girl. The boy’s fourteen and the girl’s eight.

“So what did you do then?” “Gave the money straight back to the policeman.”

(The speaker uses the because the listener has already heard about the money and the policeman.)

we say which one(s) we mean

Who’s the girl over there with John?

Tell Pat the story about John and Susie.

What did you do with the camera I lent you?

It is clear from the situation which one(s) we mean

Could you close the door? (Only one door is open.)

What’s the time?

2. The – other usages We usually use the when we talk about things which are unique – there is only one of

them (or one set of them), for example: the world, the sky, the atmosphere, the sun, the ground, the climate, the sea, the horizon, the human race, the environment, the travel industry, the arms trade.

We usually use the with the superlatives because there is normally only one best, biggest etc. individual or group (so it is clear which one(s) we are talking about). We also use the with first, next, last, same, and only for the same reason.

I’m the oldest in my family.



Can I have the next pancake?

We went to the same school.

We can also use the with:

Titles

The director of studies

The Independent, The Sunday Times

Musical instruments

Jane plays the flute.

Geographical names

Rivers: the Thames

Mountain ranges: the Alps

Oceans: the Mediterranean

Unique features: the Channel, the Arctic

Compass point/areas: the East, the Middle East

Countries (collective or plural): The United Kingdom, The Netherlands

A family as a whole

The Robinsons are away this weekend.

The + adjective is used to refer to a group of people

The rich get richer, the poor get poorer.

Some expressions: in the morning, in the afternoon, in the evening, in the country, in the fields, in the mountains…

I wake up in the morning and I wonder why everything’s the same as it was. (The End Of The World - Arthur Kent and Sylvia Dee)

*Note: We don’t use the with these following cases:

Proper names

Mary lives in Switzerland. (NOT The Mary lives in the Switzerland.)



Notice that we can use the to emphasize that the person we are referring to is the well-known person (the in this case is pronounced / ði/) or there are two people with the same name and we want to specify which one we are talking about:

Do they mean the Roland Reagan, or someone else?

That’s not the Stephen Fraser I went to school with.

Possessives and demonstratives

This is my uncle. (NOT… the my uncle.)

I like this beer. (NOT… the this beer.)

B. Indefinite article – “a/an” We can use a/an to talk about:

a person or thing that the listener/reader does not know which one is meant, or when it does not matter which one.

My brother’s going out with a French girl.

(The listener does not know which particular French girl it is.)

Jobs

Tony is a builder

(But: Tony was the builder of that house.)

In measuring

Three times a week.

Fifty kilometers an hour.

£3.50 a kilo.

Formally, per can replace a/an.

Unknown people

A Mr. Jones called while you were out.

We can use the structure a… of mine/yours/etc instead of using a/an together with a possessive.

He’s a friend of mine. (NOT He’s a my friend.)



*A and An

The choice between a and an depends on pronunciation, NOT spelling. We use an before a vowel sound, even if it is written as a consonant.

an hour an MP

And we use a before a consonant sound, even if it is written as a vowel.

a university a one-pound coin

C. Zero article Some uses of zero article are assumed known:

names

Picasso is one of my favorite artists.

(However, if we say “a Picasso”, it is implied that we are talking about a painting of Picasso.)

Streets

Green Road Godwin Street

Exceptions are:

The High Street The Strand

Common expressions without articles:

Names of holidays, special times of the year, months and days of the week including Easter, Ramadan, New Year’s Day. However, compare:

I’ll see you on Saturday. (next Saturday)

We met on Saturday. (last Saturday)

They arrived on a Saturday as far as I can remember. (we are only interested in the day of the week, not which particular Saturday)

Times of the day and night such as midday, midnight, and noon:

If possible, I’d like it finished by midday.

Midnight couldn’t come quickly enough.

We use by + zero article to talk about means of transport and communication, including go/travel by car/taxi/bus/plane/train/air/sea; contact/communicate by post/email/phone.



I generally go by bus to work.

II. Determiners Determiners are words that come before nouns and can be used to indicate which things you are referring to, or to talk about quantities and amounts. (these referring to quantities and amounts are also called quantifiers). The articles a/an and the are also determiners.

We can divide determiners into two groups (according to “Practical English Usage”, Michael Swan)

A. Group A determiners This group helps to identify things – to say whether they are known or unknown to the hearer, which one(s) the speaker is talking about, whether the speaker is thinking of particular examples or speaking in general, etc.

articles: a/an, the

possessives: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their, one’s, whose

demonstratives: this, that, these, those

We cannot put two group A determiners together. We can say the house, my house or this house, but not “the my house”, “the this house”, “this my house” or “my this house”. In order to put together the meanings of possessive and article/demonstrative, we have to use the structure a/this… of mine/yours etc.

That policeman is a friend of mine.

I met another boyfriend of Lucy’s yesterday.

B. Group B determiners Most of these are quantifiers: they say how much or how many we are talking about.

Use the following with singular countable nouns: another, any, each, either, every, neither, no, one, some, this, that.

Can I have another sandwich, please?

Use the following with plural nouns: all, any, both, enough, (a) few, a lot of, a number of, the number of, many, more, most, no, other; several, some etc.

We haven’t got enough eggs to make an omelette.

Use the following with uncountable nouns: all, any, enough, less, (a) little, a lot of, more, most, much, no, some, a great deal of, an amount of etc.



He’s nearly bald – he’s got very little hair left.

Here are some usage notes for some important determiners.

1. Either, neither, each and every Either and neither are used to talk about two things. Each is used to talk about two or more things; every is only used to talk about more than two. All four determiners are followed by a singular verb.

I’ve got two suits and neither fits me very well.

2. Another and every Read the following example:

We’ve still got another forty miles to go.

The buses go every 10 minutes.

We will wait for another few days.

He comes every few days.

We can see that another and every can be followed by a number/few and a plural noun.

3. Few and a few; little and a little Plural nouns Uncountable nouns “Not as many/much as desired or expected” few little

“some” A few A little

There are very few apples left. We need to buy some.

We’ve still got a few eggs – enough to make an omelette.

I understood little of what he said.

This sauce needs a little salt.

4. Either, neither, both vs any, none, all “X/X” “-X/X”

“2” Both Neither/not…either “more than 2” All None/not…any

None of his friends was able to help him.

Neither of his two brothers could help him.



I have two sisters. Both of them live in London.

All horses are animals.

They have two brothers, but I don’t know either of them.

I didn’t eat any meat.

For “neither of, either of…”, see Articles and Determiners – II-C

C. Using of in quantifiers We can also divide quantifiers into 2 groups:

Group 1: quantifiers that always contain OF

a lot of

lots of

a number of

a great deal of

a majority of

plenty of

A lot of books are paperbacks.

A lot of my books are paperbacks.

Group 2: quantifiers that sometimes contain OF

Quantifiers (Group B determiners) can be used directly before nouns, without of.

Have you got any sugar? (NOT …any of sugar.)

Most people agree with me. (NOT Most of people…)

But if we want to put a Group B determiner before a noun which has a Group A determiners (article (only the), possessive or demonstrative) we have to use of.

Compare:

some people some of the people

each child



each of my children

*Note: With both, all and half we can omit of before the:

Both (of) the candidates believed they had won.

All (of) the people in the room were silent.

Half (of) the fruit was bad.

When each, every, either and neither are used directly before nouns without of, the noun are singular. Compare:

- each tree

each of the trees

- neither partner

neither of the partners

Group B determiners can also be used with of before pronouns

neither of them most of you

Many determiners can also be used as pronouns. Every, no and other cannot be used as pronouns: each is used instead of every, none instead of no, and others instead of other.

Bad reviews are better than no reviews/none.


“The correct use of the articles (a/an and the) is one of the most difficult points in English grammar.” (Michael Swan – Practical English Usage)

I have to admit that this is hurtfully true… even when you have learnt all those dull, lengthy theories of articles, you still don’t know how to do your evil exercises!!! But apart from articles, determiners aren’t really hard when you are experienced in doing determiners’ exercises. This chapter has close relationship with the following chapter “Subject-verb agreement”, so be sure to learn this chapter thoroughly before coming to the next one. The blank space below is for you to jot down any notes of the chapter. You can draw your own portrait, if you like.



SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT 1. Some instances

INSTANCES VERB FORM NOUN/PRONOUN FORM EXAMPLES

S1 + together with/ along with/ accompanied by/ as well as + S2

Following S1

- Mary, along with her manager and some friends, is going to a party tonight. - Mr. Robbins, accompanied by her wife and children, is arriving tonight.

S1 + or + S2 Following S2 - The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.

Either + S1… or S2…

Neither + S1… nor S2… Following S2

- Neither John nor his friends are going to the beach today.

- Neither the boys nor Carmen has seen this movie before.

S1 + and + S2 Plural

- Mary and her manager are going to a party tonight.

S1 + and + S2 used as a single item

Singular

- This gin and tonic isn’t very strong.

(Some phrases like this: fish and chips, bread and butter, salt and pepper, meat pie and peas,



research and development…)

One of

Each of

Either of

Neither of

Singular

- One of my friends is a doctor.

- Each of the students needs to do it.

Every-

Some-

Any-

No-

Singular

- Everybody who wants to buy a ticket should be in this line. Something is in my eye. - Anybody who has lost his ticket should report to the desk.

Any of

None of

The majority of

A lot of

Plenty of

All (of)

Some (of)

Depending on nouns uncountable/plural

- None of the counterfeit money has been found. - None of the students have finished the exam yet.

A number of Plural Plural A number of refugees have been turned back at the border.

The number of Singular Plural The number of books in the library has risen to over five millions.



2. Other instances If a subject is a clause, we usually use a singular verb To keep these young people in prison is inhuman.

Having overall responsibility for the course means that I have a lot of meetings.

Whoever took them remains a mystery.

That Rangers won both matches was a great achievement.

Some nouns with a singular form, referring to groups of some kind, can be used with either a singular or plural form of the verb. The usage depends on what we focus on: If the focus is on the institution or organization as a whole unit: singular verb If the focus is on a collection of individuals: plural verb

These words (sometimes called collective nouns) are: army, association, audience, class, club, college, committee, community, company, crew, crowd, department, electorate, enemy, family, generation, government, group, jury, opposition, orchestra, population, press, public, school, team, university and the names of specific organizations such as the Bank of England, the BBC, IBM, Sony, the United Nations.

When names and titles ending in –s refer to a single unit, we use a singular verb.

At this time of the year the Netherlands is one hour ahead of UK.

The Los Angeles Times lists Derek Jones as the fifth richest man in the world.

The Machine Gunners was one of Robert Westall’s most successful books.

“Daps” is the word used in the south west of the country for sports shoes.

Some nouns are usually plural and take a plural verb.

These include belongings, clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods, outskirts, overheads, particulars (information), premises (building), riches, savings, stairs, surroundings, thanks, police, people, and staff.

The company’s earnings have increased for the last five years.

Police believe that Thomas is in Brazil.

Staff say that the new computer system has led to greater levels of stress in their work.

Some nouns always end in –s and look as if they are plural, but when we use them as the subject they have a singular verb.



These words are: means (“method” or “money”), some academic subjects, e.g. economics, linguistics, mathematics, phonetics, physics, politics, statistics; some sports, e.g. athletics, gymnastics; and some diseases, e.g. diabetes, measles, rabies.

D. However, compare: Academic subject General use

Politics is popular at this university Her politics are bordering on the fascist. (=political belief)

Statistics was always my worst subject. Statistics are able to prove anything you want them to. (= numerical information)

Economics has only recently been recognized as a scientific study.

The economics behind their policies are unreasonable. (= the financial system)

With a phrase referring to a measurement, amount or quantity we usually use a singular verb.

A hundred thousand dollars is a big sum of money.

Five minutes is not enough for me to do it.

Twenty kilometers is too far to ride.

After per cent (percent or %) (of) we use a singular verb if the per cent phrase refers to a singular or uncountable noun and a plural verb if it refers to a plural noun.

An inflation rate of only 2 per cent makes a big difference to export.

I would say that about 50 per cent of the houses need major repairs.


This thing seems to be the MOST confusing grammar point I’ve learned... Many of my friends learnt by rote these rules and eventually forgot all of them… There’s no way else but do many exercises on this topic that can help you remember these.



VERB COMPLEMENTATION

I. Transitive and intransitive verbs Some verbs are usually followed by nouns or pronouns that can act as direct objects. In grammars these verbs are called “transitive.”

Let’s invite Sally. (NOT Let’s invite.)

You surprised me. (NOT you surprised.)

Some verbs are not normally followed by direct objects. These are called “intransitive”.

Do sit down. (NOT Do sit that chair.)

I usually sleep well. (NOT She slept the baby.)

Many verbs can be both transitive and intransitive.

England lost. Let’s eat. England lost the match. Let’s eat this.

Some transitive verbs can be followed by two objects. (see verb followed by gerunds/infinitives – II)

Some verbs are used transitively and intransitively with different kinds of subject; the intransitive use has the meaning rather like a passive. Modern grammarians call these verbs “ergative”. Compare:

She closed the door. I can’t start the car. The door closed. The car won’t start. Some examples are begin, bend, break, burn, change, decrease, drop, finish, increase, move, open, rip, sell, shut, start, vary, wake.

II. Verbs + two objects Some verbs can be followed by two objects. Usually the first object (= the Indirect Object (IO)) is a person or group or group of people and the second object (= the Direct Object (DO)) is a thing:

Can you bring me (= IO) some milk (= DO) from the shops?

I read Suzanne (= IO) a story (= DO).



He made himself (= IO) a cup of coffee (= DO).

With many verbs that can have two objects, it is possible to reverse the order of the objects if we put for or to before the IO (this is then called a prepositional object). Compare:

I built my daughter a doll’s house. Can you pass me that bandage? I built a doll’s house for my daughter. Can you pass that bandage to me? We use for + object with verbs such as book, build, buy, catch, choose, cook, fetch, find, get, make, order, pour, save. (For suggests that the IO receives and benefits from goods or services.)

We use to + object with verbs such as award, give, hand, lend, offer, owe, pass, show, teach, tell, throw. (To suggests a transfer of the DO to the IO.)

Some verbs such as bring, leave, pay, play, post, read, sell, send, sing, take and write can be used with either for or to, depending on whether you want to suggest that there is a transfer of something to someone (to), or that someone benefits from something. Compare:

I hadn’t got time to visit Ann, so I wrote a letter to her.

Ann had broken her wrist and couldn’t hold a pen, so I wrote a letter for her.

But somehow the meaning is very similar.

III. Verbs + (object) + to-infinitives or gerunds

1. Verbs + object + to-infinitives

Everyone expected her to win.

advise allow believe cause challenge

command enable encourage entitle expect

force invite order persuade recommend

remind show teach tell urge

If advise and recommend are used without an object, the gerund is used.

I recommended her to apply to King’s College.

I recommended applying to King’s College.

2. Verbs + object + bare infinitives: help, let, make Can you help me tidy up, please?

Let your body relax.



In the passive, make is followed by the to-infinitive.

We were made to do all the dirty jobs.

3. Verbs + to-infinitives If you need any help, don’t hesitate to contact me. agree appear arrange ask attempt

choose decide demand deserve expect

help hesitate hope learn manage

offer prepare pretend refuse threaten

4. Verbs + gerunds She admitted having driven the car without insurance. admit appreciate advise avoid can’t help

can’t stand consider delay deny detest

dislike dread enjoy imagine involve

recommend resent resist risk suggest

5. Verbs + either (to) infinitives or gerunds attempt, begin, continue, intend, plan, propose, start

There is no difference in meaning whether we use gerund or to-infinitive. Intend, plan and propose can be followed by that-clause.

It began to rain/raining.

forget, remember

forget/remember + to-infinitive: forget/remember to perform a responsibility, duty, or task

forget/remember + gerund: remember (recall)/forget something that happened in the past

Judy always remembers to lock the door.

I had to phone the office but I forgot to do it.

I don’t remember learning to walk.



I will never forget seeing Karen Carpenter.

(forget followed by a gerund usually occurs in a negative sentence or in a question: e.g., I’ll never forget, I can’t forget, Have you ever forgotten, can you ever forget etc.)

Both can be followed by that-clause.

try

try + to-infinitive: make an effort

try + gerund: experiment with a new or different approach to see if it works

I tried to warn him, but it was too late.

Try taking an aspirin. You’ll feel better.

regret

regret + to-infinitive: refer to the speaker’s regrets about what is going to be said. It is normally used with verbs such as say, tell and inform.

regret + gerund: regret something that happened in the past.

We regret to inform you that your application has been unsuccessful.

I regret lending him money. He never paid me back.

mean

mean + to-infinitive: intend

mean + gerund: involve

I didn’t mean to hurt you; I’m sorry that I made you cry… (Jealous Guy – John Lennon)

Changing jobs also meant changing house.

stop

stop + to-infinitive: refer to an intention

stop+ gerund: refer to the ending of an activity

Jane stopped to check the oil level in the engine.



The baby has stopped waking up during the night now.

hear, see, watch

hear/see/watch + object + bare-infinitive: the action is complete

hear/see/watch + object + gerund: the action is still in progress.

We watched all the cars cross the finishing line.

I heard someone coming up the stairs.

6. Verbs + prepositions + gerunds Some verbs can be followed by to + gerunds where to is a preposition: adapt/adjust to,

admit to, confess to, get round to, get used to, look forward to, object to, resort to.

She confessed to stealing the money.

You don’t object to working late tonight, do you?

Other verbs can be followed by different prepositions + gerunds, for example:

on + gerund/on + object + gerund: concentrate, count, depend, focus, insist, rely

Clare insisted on (Jack) wearing a suit to the party.

of + gerund/of + object + gerund: approve, hear, know, speak, talk, tell

I don’t approve of (them/their) hunting animals for sport.

object + from + gerund: deter, discourage, hinder, keep, prevent, prohibit

The noise from next door prevented me from sleeping.

There are many more verbs followed by prepositions that you may encounter later on.


I recommend not holding the book and learning by rote all these rules, as you will forget all these things for good. The best way to remember – just as the two previous chapters – is doing your exercises.



INVERSION & EMPHASIS

I. Creating emphasis If you want to give particular importance to a person, a thing or a clause in a sentence, we can use these structures: It is/was … that or What… is/was…

It was Norman’s incredible sense of humour that first attracted me to him.

What I find strange is (the fact) that he never talks about his father..

In each case, the underlined part of the sentence is being emphasized.

1. It is/was… that… It is/was… that… can be used:

with (only) when, while, or not until to emphasize a (period of) time

It was while he was in Spain that Lennon wrote “Strawberry Fields Forever.”

It wasn’t until he took off his hat that I recognized him.

with because to emphasize reasons

Perhaps it’s because I’m a chef that people never invite me to their dinner parties.

to emphasize a thing or a person. “Who” can be used in place of “that” if we are referring to a person.

It was Gary who broke the chair.

It’s his left arm that’s broken, not his right one.

Modal verbs + be can be used instead of is and was.

It can’t be my mobile phone that’s ringing – it’s switched off.

It might have been the fish that made me ill.

2. What…is/was… what…is/was… can be used to emphasize:

a noun

What I most wanted to see in the Louvre was the Mona Lisa.



An action or series of actions

What you do then is (to) add the flour and stir it in thoroughly.

What happened was (that) I left my wallet in the café and had to go back.

All can be used instead of what to mean “the only thing that”

All he (ever) did during the school holiday was (to) play on his computer.

All I really want is a little house in the countryside.

II. Inversion Certain adverbs and adverbial phrases with a negative or restrictive meaning can be placed at the beginning of a sentence for emphasis. In this case, the position of the subject and verb is reversed as in question forms. This occurs mainly in written English or more formal speech.

A. Inversions after negative adverbials Inversion is used after negative adverbials. The rule of inversion is normally auxiliary verb + subject. The following shows some negative words and phrases:

1. Never/seldom/barely/scarcely/hardly (ever)/little: almost not Never did he fail any exams during his schooldays.

Seldom do we have goods returned to us because they are faulty.

2. Some negative phrases at no time

in no way

on no account

under/in no circumstances

never before

nowhere

on no condition

Under no circumstances should you take that offer.

In no way will we give in to their demands.



At no time were you in any danger.

3. Certain phrases with “not” (not since, not until, not only…but also, not a + noun) Not until August did the government order an inquiry into the accident.

Not until we got to my parents’ house did we realize we’d left all the Christmas presents at home.

Not a word had she written since the exam had started.

Not since I was little have I enjoyed myself so much.

Not only did he leave dirty footprints all over our carpet, but he also sat on my glasses.

B. Inversion with time adverbials: no sooner… than and hardly/barely/scarcely… when…

These phrases mean “as soon as”, “immediately after” or “soon after”. We use the past perfect in this case. Look at the examples:

No sooner had I got into the shower than the phone rang. (As soon as I got into the shower…)

Hardly had everybody taken their seats when Dr. Smith began his lecture.

We can use “no sooner… than…” with the simple past tense:

No sooner was the team back on the pitch that it started raining.

C. Inversion with only + time expression/prepositional phrases (only after, only later, only if, only once, only then, only when, only by…, only in…, only with…, etc.)

Only by chance had Jameson discovered where the birds were nesting.

Only in this way was she able to complete the report by the deadline.

Only when she apologizes will I speak to her again.

Only later did she realize that she’d been given the wrong change.

*Notice that inversion can occur after a clause beginning only after/if/when or not until:

Only when the famine gets worse will world governments begin to act.

Not until the train pulled into Euston.



D. Inversion with if-clause Three types of If-sentence can be inverted without if. This makes the sentences more formal and makes the event less likely. If you should need more information, please telephone our main office. It would be a serious setback, if the talks failed/ were to fail. If Alex had asked, I would have been able to help.

Should you need more information, please telephone our main office. It would be a serious setback, were the talks to fail. Had Alex asked, I would have been able to help.

Notice that in negative clauses with inversion, we don’t use contracted forms:

Had the plane not been diverted, they would have arrived early. (NOT Hadn’t the plane…)

For details about if-clause, see Subjunctives & Conditionals – II-A

E. Inversion with so… that and such…that We can use so + adjective/adverb at the beginning of a clause to give special emphasis to the adjective/adverb. Compare:

Her business was so successful that Marie was able to retire at the age of 50.

So successful was her business that Marie was able to retire at the age of 50.

The weather conditions became so dangerous that all mountain road were closed.

So dangerous did the weather conditions become that all mountain road were closed.

We can use such + be at the beginning of a clause to emphasize the extent or degree of something. Compare: The play is so popular that the theater is likely to be full every night. Such is the popularity of the play that the theater is likely to be full every night. Such can be used with the meaning “so much/so great”. Such was the force of the storm that trees were uprooted. (The (force of the) storm was so great that trees were uprooted.)

F. Inversion with as and than In formal written language we commonly use inversion after as and than in comparisons:

The cake was excellent, as was the coffee.

I believed, as did my colleagues, that the plan would work.

Research shows that parents watch more television that do their children.



G. “Whole verb” inversion When an adverbial expression of place or direction comes at the beginning of a clause, intransitive verbs are often put before their subjects. Here are some common cases: after here comes + noun/There goes + noun

Here comes the bus.

There goes Nigel Slater, the footballer.

after adverbs of place Next to the bookshelf was a fireplace.

In front of them stood a crazy man.

after adverbs expressing direction of movement, such as along, away, back, down, in, off, out, up.

The door opened and in came the doctor.

As soon as I let go of the string, up went the balloon, high into the sky.

H. Special word order: as/though As and though can be used in a special structure: adjective/adverb + as/though + noun/pronoun. In this case they both mean “although”, and suggest an emphatic contrast.

Cold as/though it was, we went out. (Although it was very cold,…)

Conclusions and comments on this chapter: “Inversion” is my favorite English grammar point… although it took me months to understand the “core” of it. To sum up, there are some circumstances of inversion (the “special word order” is not really considered as a kind of inversion, but it’s pretty similar. Some Vietnamese teachers teach it as a circumstance of inversion.): - Inversion with negative adverbials

- Inversion with time adverbials

- Inversion with only…

- Inversion with if-clause

- Inversion with so/such… that…

- Inversion with as and than

- Inversion with adverbials of place and direction (“whole verb” inversion) See? There are just 7 circumstances in total! Just as easy as 7 Dragon Balls…



SUBJUNCTIVES & CONDITIONALS I. Subjunctives

1. Present subjunctive Generally, the present subjunctive is a special kind of present tense which has no –s in the third person singular. It is sometime used in that-clauses in a formal style, after words which express the idea that something is important or desirable. The present subjunctive is used:

with verbs: agree, ask, command, demand, insist, order, propose, recommend, request, require, suggest, urge.

The judge recommended that Simmons remain in prison for at least three years.

The president requests that you be present at the meeting.

with adjectives: advisable, crucial, desirable, essential, important, imperative, mandatory, necessary, recommended, vital.

It is important that Helen be present when we sign the papers.

It is essential that every child have the same educational opportunities.

British people usually prefer should + infinitive in that-clauses.

It is essential that every child should have the same educational opportunities.

The doctor recommended that he should give up smoking.

certain fixed phrases

God save the Queen!

Long live the bride and groom!

God bless you. 2. Past subjunctive

The past subjunctive exists as a distinct form only for the verb be, which has the form were. The past subjunctive is used in conditional clauses and certain structures expressing preferences about the past. See the second part of this chapter for more details.

II. Conditionals & structures relating to subjunctives

A. Conditionals

1. Zero conditional Pattern: If + present simple, present simple



We use the zero conditional to talk about situations which are everyday situations, scientific facts or instructions.

If you don’t look after tomato plants, they die very quickly.

We can also use other present tenses in both clauses (e.g. present perfect or present continuous) modal verbs (especially can and may)

Prawns can be very risky to eat if they haven’t been kept at the right temperature.

We can use an imperative instead of a present tense in the main clause to give a general instruction:

If a chip pan sets alight, throw a fire blanket, not water, on it.

2. First conditional Pattern: If + present simple, will/be going to + infinitive

We use the first conditional to talk about possible future situations and their probable results.

If you don’t water the plant soon, it will die.

We can use other present tenses in the if-clause.

If you’re coming on the motorway, you’ll need change for the tolls.

We can also use modal verbs in either clause, especially can, may and should:

If the regime can keep the loyalty of the army, they may retain power.

If + should/happen to/should happen to makes the event seem more unlikely

If I happen to see Mr. Dee there, I’ll ask him for you.

If you should happen to miss the train, I could drive you there myself.

3. Second conditional Pattern: If + past simple, would/could/might + infinitive

(With be in the if-clause, we usually use the subjunctive form “were” for all persons. )

We use the second conditional to talk about imaginary, unlikely or impossible situations in the present and future.

If I had an extra pair of hands, then I could help you!

We can also use the past continuous or was going to in the if-clause, and modals (especially could and might) in the main clause.



If a celebrity were staying in the hotel, security arrangements would be tightened.

More funding for AIDS research could be secured if people were more aware of the dire situation in Africa.

If +were to + infinitive makes the event seem more unlikely

If you were to walk in that direction for another thousand miles, you’d eventually arrive in Warsaw.

4. Third conditional Pattern: If + past perfect, would/might/could + have + past participle

We use the third conditional to describe a hypothetical situation or event in the past.

If you had asked me, I would have told you.

We can use the past perfect continuous in the if-clause.

If someone had been teasing your child so nastily, you would have behaved in the same way.

*Note

We can use if it were not for + noun phrase (in the second conditional) and if it had not been for + noun phrase (in the third conditional) to say that one situation is dependent on another situation or on a person.

If it weren’t for my savings, I wouldn’t be able to survive.

(Thanks to my savings, I can survive.)

If it hadn’t been for that traffic jam on the motorway, we would have got here on time.

(= Because of the traffic jam, we arrived late.)

For inversion with conditional, see Inversion – II-D

5. Mixed conditional Mixed conditional are a combination of a second and a third conditional. They can express an imaginary past event and a possible or probable present result.

If you had listened to my advice, you would not be in this situation now.

6. “hidden” ifs Many words and expressions can be used with a similar meaning to if, and often with

similar structures. Some of the commonest are imagine (that), suppose (that), supposing (that) (used to talk about what might happen), and providing (that), provided (that), as/so long as, on condition (that) (used to make conditions)



Imagine we could all fly. Wouldn’t that be fun!

Supposing you fell in love with your boss, what would you do?

You can borrow my bike providing/provided you bring it back.

I’ll give you the day off on condition that you work on Saturday morning.

You’re welcome to stay with us as/so long as you share the expenses.

Unless has a similar meaning to “if…not/except if”

I will take the job unless the pay is too low. (…if the pay isn’t too low.)

However, we use if…not but not unless:

o when we say in the main clause that an event or action in the if-clause is unexpected

I’ll be amazed if Christie doesn’t win.

o usually in questions

If you don’t pass the test, what will you do?

o when the “only if” implication does not apply

If it wasn’t the best performance of Hamlet I’ve seen, it was certainly the strangest.

But for has a similar meaning to “if not”

If you hadn’t helped us, we would have been in trouble.

Otherwise/or/or else are used to state what the result would be if something did not happen. Otherwise is normally used after a semi colon or a full stop.

My parents lent me the money. Otherwise, I couldn’t have afforded the trip.

Turn the heat down or/or else it will burn.

Sometimes the if-clause is implied

I would have gone with you, but I had to study. (… if I hadn’t had to study.)

I wouldn’t have succeeded without your help. (… if you hadn’t helped me.)

B. Structures relating to subjunctives

1. Wish Wish is used when the speaker wants reality to be different. The use of wish is similar to that of conditionals. Study the following examples:



a wish about the future

I wish she would tell me. (She won’t tell me.)

I wish he were going to be here. (He isn’t going to be here.)

I wish she could come tomorrow. (She can’t come tomorrow.)

a wish about the present

I wish I knew French. (I don’t know French.)

I wish it weren’t raining right now. (It is raining right now.)

I wish I could speak Japanese. (I can’t speak Japanese.)

a wish about the past

I wish John had come. (John didn’t come.)

I wish Mary could have come. (John couldn’t come.)

*Note

We can use wish + (object) + to-infinitive to mean want. (Wish is very formal in this sense.)

I wish to see the manager, please.

We do not wish our names to appear in the report.

Wish is used with two objects in some fixed expressions of good wishes.

We wish you a Merry Christmas.

Wish + would can be used to express irritation, annoyance or a critical request.

I wish you would stop smoking.

I wish you wouldn’t drive so fast.

2. As if/as though We use as if and as though to say what a situation seems like. The verb form here depends on whether the situation is true or unreal. Compare:

He looks as if he knows the answer. (He knows, or at least, seems to know the answer.)

He looks as if he knew the answer. (He gives the impression that he knows the answer, but he doesn’t.)



As if/as though + past perfect (it is called past perfect subjunctive to be more precise.) is used to refer to an unreal past situation.

They treated me as if I had done something wrong.

3. Would rather/ would sooner Would rather/would sooner is used to express preferences about the present or the past.

Without an object: we use would rather/would sooner + infinitive in the present, and would rather/would sooner + have + past participle in the past.

I would rather be a sailor than a soldier. (present)

I would rather have lived in Ancient Greece than Ancient Rome. (past)

With an object: would rather/ would sooner is used in the same way as wish.

I’d rather you didn’t smoke in here.

I’d rather you hadn’t done that.

4. It’s (high/about) time… It’s (high/about) time is followed by a subject with a past tense verb, but the meaning is present.

It’s time she went to bed.

Note: It’s time can be followed by to-infinitive.

It’s time (for you) to buy a new car.


These things are pretty similar to each other, so you don’t have to learn all of them. Just learn the conditionals and you can infer the others.

Nothing more to say, no more aces to play…



REPORTED SPEECH When reporting what someone has said or written we can use either direct speech or reported speech. When we use direct speech we report the exact words which someone has used.

‘I’m staying here tomorrow,’ said Heather.

When we use reported speech, changes may have to be made to verb tenses, pronouns and certain words indicating place and time.

I. Basic rules

1. General changes The following changes are usually made to verbs. In each case the verb “moves back” one tense.

Direct speech Present simple ‘I work in an office,’ she said. Present continuous ‘We are going away on holiday,’ she said. Present perfect ‘I’ve known her for a long time,’ he said. Present perfect continuous ‘He’s been playing tennis,’ she said. Past simple ‘I saw Nigel in town,’ he said. Past continuous ‘We were trying to help him,’ she said.

Reported speech Past simple She said he worked in an office. Past continuous She said they were going away on holiday. Past perfect He said he’d known her for a long time. Past perfect continuous She said he’d been playing tennis. Past perfect He said that he’d seen Nigel in town. Past perfect continuous She said they’d been trying to help him.

The following changes may also need to be made to words indicating place and time.

Direct speech now today this these tomorrow next week yesterday two days ago last week here come

Reported speech then that day that those the next/following day the next/following week the day before, the previous day two days before/earlier the week before, the previous week there go



The modal verbs will, must, may and can change to would, had to, might and could.

Pronouns in direct speech may have to change when we use reported speech.

‘I’ll see you soon,’ said Peter. Peter said he would see me soon.

*Note:

No changes are made in the verb tense:

if the verb in the direct speech is in the past perfect

‘He had never spoken about if before,’ she said. She said he had never spoken about it before.

if the direct speech contains one of the following modal verbs: would, might, could, should, ought to

‘You should go to the doctor’s,’ he said. He said I should go to the doctor’s.

If the statement being reported is still true.

‘I like fish,’ she said. She said she likes fish.

2. More changes in reporting questions When we report questions, we make the same changes to verb tenses, pronouns and words including place and time as we do when we report statements. The following changes are also made:

Auxiliary verbs which are “borrowed” are omitted (do, does, did).

Word order is the same as for statements.

Yes/no questions are reported with if or whether.

Question marks are not used.

‘Where’s Paul?’ He asked me where Paul was.

‘Did you enjoy it?’ She asked if/whether I had enjoyed it.

3. Basic ways of reporting requests or commands We use ask/tell + object + to-infinitive to report requests or commands.

‘Can you help me, please?’ He asked me to help him.

‘Put your coat on.’ She told him to put his coat on.



II. Verb patterns in reported speech Several different verb patterns can be used in reported speech. Some reporting verbs can be used with more than one verb pattern. For example:

He asked to leave.

He asked them to leave.

He asked that they should leave.

1. Verbs + that-clause These include add, admit, announce, assure, claim, complain, concede, conclude, confirm, emphasize, estimate, explain, mention, point out, predict, remark, reassure, remind, repeat, say, state, stress, tell, warn.

Note that assure, reassure, remind and tell are followed by an object.

Critics predicted that the film would be a success.

My daughter reminded me that I had promised to take her to the zoo on her birthday.

2. Verbs + (that) + S + (should) + bare-infinitive These include agree, ask, command, demand, insist, order, propose, recommend, request, require, suggest, urge. They demanded that he should resign.

We suggested he apply for the job.

3. Verbs + to-infinitives These include agree, ask, claim, demand, offer, promise, refuse, threaten.

He claimed to be an expert on ghosts.

She offered to take the children into town.

4. Verbs + object + to-infinitives These include advise, ask, beg, convince, encourage, forbid, instruct, invite, order, persuade, recommend, remind, tell, urge, warn.

She urged him not to get involved.

5. Verbs + gerunds These include admit, advise, deny, recommend, regret, suggest.

He denied taking the money.



6. Verb + preposition + gerund These include:

advise, argue, protest, warn + against

They advised me against sending cash by post.

He warned use against pickpockets.

apologize, blame, criticize, forgive, praise, tell off, thank + for

She apologized for her being late.

He told me off for singing!

discourage, dissuade, hinder, prevent + from

They dissuaded him from giving up his job.

My mother prevented me from using the phone.

accuse, speak + of

He accused me of having stolen his bicycle.

congratulate, compliment, insist + on

I insisted on his/him wearing a suit.

admit, confess, consent, object + to

He confessed to sleeping through most of the film.

She objects to being called his assistant.


This seems to be one of the shortest and easiest chapters of this textbook… You may notice that one word can have many uses, for example the word “advise” can be used in the 3 following ways :

- He advised me to borrow money from Mr. Jones. (advise + O + to-infinitive)

- She advised buying tickets in advance. (advise + gerund)

- I strongly advised against going out on your own. (advise + preposition +gerund)

Read the chapter thoroughly and discover yourselves more multi-use words like this.



RELATIVE CLAUSES Relative clauses give extra information about something or someone in the main clause.

I. Two kinds of relative clauses

A. Defining relative clauses Defining relative clauses contain information which is essential for our understanding of the whole sentence.

The man who normally comes to clean our windows is on holiday this month.

He’s got a computer program which translates texts from Spanish into English.

In each case, the relative clause identifies which person or thing is being talked about .

*Features of defining relative clauses

No commas are required either at the beginning or the end of the relative clause. That can be used instead of who/whom for people and which for things.

For people For things Subject who/that which/that Object who/that/whom* which/that Possessive whose whose/of which

*whom is more formal than who.

The relative pronoun can be omitted if it is the object of the verb in the relative clause.

I’m enjoying the book (which/that) you lent me.

B. Non-defining relative clauses Non-defining clauses contain information which is not essential for our understanding of the sentence, as we can identify the information in the relative clause.

Their new house, which has five bedrooms and a games room, is much larger than their previous one.

At the party she spoke to Mr. Peterson, whose father owned the company she worked for.

*Features of non-defining relative clauses

Commas are required both at the beginning and the end of the relative clause (except when the end of the relative clause is also the end of the sentence).

That cannot be used in place of who, whom or which.



For people For things Subject who which Object who/whom* which Possessive whose whose/of which

*whom is more formal than who.

Relative pronouns cannot be omitted from non-defining relative clauses

Her maths teacher, who/whom everyone in the class adored, announced that he was leaving the school.

Which is used in non-defining relative clauses to refer to a whole clause.

No one phoned him on his birthday, which made him feel rather depressed.

II. Relative clauses – advanced points

1. Relative clauses and prepositions Prepositions usually come at the end of relative clauses.

The town I grew up in has changed a lot since I left.

Keith Rolf, who I used to work with, lives in Paris now.

In more formal English, prepositions often come before the relative pronouns whom for people and which for things (in which case the pronoun cannot be omitted.)

We shall be visiting the room in which Turner painted some of his greatest works.

The head waiter, to whom we addressed our complaint, was not particularly helpful.

2. Relative pronouns: where, when and why Where, when and why can be used in relative clauses after nouns which refer to a place (where), a time (when) or a reason (why).

Where has the meaning “in/at which”

Defining: They’ve booked a week in that campsite where we stayed last year.

Non-defining: She’s in Southlands Hospital, where you were born.

When has the meaning “on/in which” and can be omitted in defining relative clauses

Defining: Do you remember that day (when) we went to Rhyl and it snowed?

Non-defining: I’m going on holiday in September, when most people are back at work.

Why has the meaning “for which” and can be omitted in defining relative clauses



Defining: The reason (why) I’m phoning is to ask you for Tina’s address.

3. Quantifiers + of + whom/which/whose In non-defining clauses, quantifiers (some, any, none, all, both, several…) can be used with of whom and of which (and sometimes with of whose, but I’ve hardly ever seen it in the entrance exam).

They picked up five boat-loads of refuges, some of whom had been at sea for several months.

We’ve tested three hundred types of boot, none of which is completely waterproof.

4. Other ways of adding information by adding a second item; the items are usually separated by a comma

A hooded cobra, one of the world’s most dangerous snakes, has escaped from Dudley Zoo.

However, when the second item is a name (which acts like a defining relative clause), there is usually no comma between them.

My friend Jim has moved to Sweden. (rather than My friend, Jim…)

with a conjunction such as and or or:

My business partner and great friend Tom Edwards is getting married today.

Phonetics or the study of speech sounds is a common component on courses in teaching English as a foreign language.

with the adverb namely and the phrase that is

This side-effect of the treatment, namely weight gain, is counteracted with other drugs.

The main cause of global warming, that is the burning of fossil fuels, is to be the focus of negotiations at the international conference.


When I was about 8 or 9 years old, I used to have HUGE problems learning these things (I even felt that “inversion” was easier!!!). However, “relative clauses” seems to be among the easiest now. At first, I didn’t intend to compile this chapter as I think it was easy, but I wasn’t able to find any other appropriate grammar point to fill in the blank (“passives” and “comparatives” are even easier, I think), so… that’s it. See you in the next and final chapter of the textbook – “Participle clauses”.



PARTICIPLE CLAUSES Participle clauses are clauses which begin with a present participle or a past participle. They help to express ideas concisely, and add variety to written English.

I. Participle clauses – reduced relative clauses Defining relative clauses can be reduced

with the present participle when the meaning is active

The people living next door come from Italy.

with the past participle when the meaning is passive

The weapon used in the murder has now been found.

Note that we use to-infinitive with

the superlatives

He’s the oldest athlete ever to win an Olympic gold medal. (or … who has ever won…)

first, second, third, etc.; next, last and only

Who was the first person to climb Everest without oxygen? (or …who climbed…)

She’s the only scientist to have won three Nobel prizes. (…who had won three Nobel prizes.)

II. Participle clauses – other usages Participle clauses can also be used to reduce certain clauses. The way of reducing these clauses is the same as that of the relative clauses. The following are some conjunctions that participle can be used instead.

conjunctions of time: as, while, when, once, after

Looking out of the window last night, I saw a shooting star.

(As/while I looked out of…)

Having worked out how much you can afford to pay for your computer, you need to decide on the model.

(When/once/after you had worked out how much…)

conjunctions of cause and effect: because, so

Not wanting to offend my host, I ate everything on my plate.



(Because I didn’t want to offend my host, I…/I didn’t want to offend my host, so I…)

Conjunctions of condition: if

Cooked in their skins, potatoes retain most of their nutrients.

(If they are cooked in their skins, potatoes…)

and

He fell off the ladder, breaking a leg and three ribs.

(…, and he broke a…)

*Note:

Participle clauses, present participle particularly, can be used after various conjunctions and prepositions, such as: when, while, before, after, on, without, instead of.

Remember to take all your belongings with you when leaving the train.

I sprained my ankle while playing tennis.

The subject of a participle clause is usually the same as the subject of the main clause. However, it is possible to have a particular clause with different subject by putting that subject before the participles.

Her bicycle having been damaged by vandals, Helen had to walk.

(NOT Having been damaged by vandals, Helen…)

With is sometimes used to introduce a different subject.

With both my parents working all day, I have to cook on my own lunch.


This is the last and the shortest chapter of our beloved book. This is also the newest grammar point that you have learnt so far (along with “inversion”). It may be unfamiliar to you, but it’s not hard at all.

THIS IS THE END OF OUR BOOK

HOPE THAT I WILL NEVER SEE YOU USING THIS BOOK FOR THE ENTRANCE EXAM AGAIN!



APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Stative verbs

A. Common stative verbs

Appearances Emotions Mental States

Perception and the Senses

Possession Wants and Preferences

Appear Be Concern Exist Indicate Look Mean Parallel Represent Resemble Seem Signify

Abhor Admire Adore Appeal Appreciate Care Desire Despise Detest Dislike Doubt Empathize Envy Fear Forgive Hate Hope Like Love Pity Regret Respect Satisfy Sympathize Trust

Agree Amaze Amuse Assume Astonish Believe Bore Care Consider Deem Deny Disagree Disbelieve Entertain (amuse) Estimate Expect Fancy Forget Remember Revere See (understand) Suit Suppose

Favor Feel (believe) Figure (assume) Find (believe) Guess Hesitate Hope Imagine Imply Impress Infer Know Mean Mind Presume Realize Recognize Recollect Suspect Think (believe) Tire Understand Wonder

Ache Feel Hear Hurt Notice Observe Perceive See Sense Smart Smell Sound Taste

Belong Consist Contain Have Own Pertain Possess

Desire Need Prefer Want Wish

Other Cost Depend Deserve Equal Fit Include Intend Lack Matter Measure Owe Refuse Suffice Weigh



B. Stative verbs that can be used to refer to actions

ache

admire

agree

amuse

annoy

anticipate

attract

assume

appeal

be

bore

consider

cost

deny

depend

disagree

doubt

empathize

entertain

expect

favor

feel

figure

find

guess

have

hear

hesitate

hope

hurt

imagine

imply

impress

include

indicate

lack

like

look

love

mean

mind

notice

observe

perceive

presume

realize

refuse

represent

see

sound

weigh

sense

smell

sympathiz-e

taste

think

weigh

wonder

Appendix 2: common conjunctions



Appendix 3: common irregular verbs

Infinitive Simple Past Past Participle to awake awoke awoken to be was been to beat beat beat to become became become to begin began begun to bend bent bent to bite bit bitten to bleed bled bled to blow blew blown to break broke broken to bring brought brought to build built built to burn burnt/burned burnt/burned to buy bought bought to catch caught caught to choose chose chosen to come came come to cost cost cost to cut cut cut to deal dealt dealt to dig dug dug to do did done to draw drew drawn to dream dreamt/dreamed dreamt/dreamed to drink drank drunk to drive drove driven to eat ate eaten to fall fell fallen to feed fed fed to feel felt felt to fight fought fought to find found found to fly flew flown to forget forgot forgotten to freeze froze frozen to get got got to give gave given to go went gone to grow grew grown to hang to hang

hung hanged

hung hanged



to have (got) had had to hear heard heard to hide hid hid to hit hit hit to hold held held to hurt hurt hurt to keep kept kept to know knew known to lay laid laid to lead led led to learn learnt/learned learnt/learned to leave left left to let let let to lie lay lain to light lit lit to lose lost lost to make made made to mean meant meant to meet met met to pay paid paid to prove proved proved/proven to put put put to read read read to ride rode ridden to ring rang rung to rise rose risen to run ran run to say said said to see saw seen to sell sold sold to send sent sent to shake shook shaken to shine shone shone to shoot shot shot to show showed showed/shown to shut shut shut to sing sang sung to sit sat sat to sleep slept slept to smell smelt/smelled smelt/smelled to speak spoke spoken to spend spent spent to stand stood stood



Appendix 4: The passive

Present simple: Goods worth £750 million are stolen from shops each year. Present continuous: A man is being questioned in connection with the robbery. Present perfect: Photos of the suspects have been put up around the town. Past simple: He was taken away in a van. Past continuous: The burglar didn’t realize he was being filmed. Past perfect: Two people had been mugged there on the previous day. Future simple: All football supporters will be searched at the airport. Gerund I can’t even remember being hit on the head. Modal verbs He should be sentenced to life imprisonment.

Appendix 5: The structure of the entrance exam (Vietnamese)

Lĩnh vực Yếu tố/chi tiết cần kiểm tra Số câu

Ngữ âm - Trọng âm từ (chính/phụ). - Trường độ âm và phương thức phát âm.

5

Ngữ pháp, từ vựng

- Danh từ/ động từ (thời và hợp thời)/ đại từ/ tính từ/ trạng từ/ từ nối/ v.v… - Cấu trúc câu. - Phương thức cấu tạo từ/sử dụng từ (word choice/usage) - Tổ hợp từ/ cụm từ cố định/ động từ hai thành phần (phrasal verb). - Từ đồng nghĩa/ dị nghĩa

7 5 6 4 3

Chức năng giao tiếp

- Từ/ ngữ thê hiện chức năng giao tiếp đơn giản… (khuyến khích yếu tố văn hóa)

5

Kỹ năng đọc

- Điền từ vào chỗ trống: (sử dụng từ/ ngữ; nghĩa ngữ pháp; nghĩa ngữ vựng); một bài texr độ dài khoảng 200 từ. - Đọc lấy thông tin cụ thể/đại ý (đoán nghĩa từ mới, nghĩa ngữ cảnh, ví von, hoán dụ, ẩn dụ, tương phản, đồng nghĩa/dị nghĩa…) một bài text, độ dài khoảng 400 từ chủ đề: phổ thông.

10

10

Kỹ năng viết

1. Phát hiện lỗi cần sửa cho câu đúng (đặc biệt lỗi liên quan đến kỹ năng viết) 2. Viết gián tiếp. Cụ thể các vấn đề có kiểm tra viết bao gồm: - Loại câu - Câu cận nghĩa - Chấm câu - Tính cân đối - Hợp mệnh đề chính – phụ - Tính nhất quán (mood, voice, speaker, position…) - Tương phản - Hòa hợp chủ - vị - Sự mập mờ về nghĩa (do vị trí bổ ngữ…) - … Với phần này, người soạn đề có thể chọn vấn đề cụ thể trong những vấn đề trên cho bài thi.

5 10



REFERENCES - Advanced Grammar In Use, Martin Hewings, Cambridge University Press, 2005.

- Advanced Language Practice, Michael Vince, Macmillan, 2003.

- Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, Cambridge University Press, 2008.

- Longman Advanced Learner’s Grammar, Hall, D & Foley, M, Pearson, 2003.

- Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, A.S Hornby, Oxford University Press, 2010.

- Practical English Usage, Michael Swan, Oxford University Press, 1995.

- Ready for CAE (coursebook), Roy Norris, Macmillan, 2008.

- Ready for FCE (coursebook), Roy Norris, Macmillan, 2008.

- Understanding and Using English Grammar, Betty S. Azar, Pearson, 2002.

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