grammar, logic and rhetoric

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l sh G am aEnglish Grammar

A Short Guide

Graham Tulloch



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This book was prepared in the English Discipline of the Flinders University of South Australia and printed by Flinders Press.

©1990 Graham Tulloch

FURTHER READING

This is intended as a basic and simple guide to English grammar. For a moredetailed introduction with exercises see J.R. Bernard's excellent book A ShortGuide to Traditional English Grammar (Sydney: Sydney University Press, l975) towhich I am much indebted. For a longer study read Randolph Quirk andSidney Greenbaum, A University Grammar of English (London: Longman, 1973)and for a very detailed, very complex (and very expensive) treatment of thesubject see Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech and JanSvartik, A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (London: Longman,1985).



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PARTS OF A WORD

A word can be divided into its STEM (the basic part of the word containing itsmeaning) and its INFLECTIONS (the endings added to indicate such things asthat a noun is PLURAL or a verb is in the past tense).

Examples: Stem: dogwalk

Inflections: s in dogs ed in walk ed

PARTS OF A SENTENCE

SUBJECT

The subject is the person, thing or topic which the sentence deals with. Todiscover the subject, ask who or what before the verb, e.g. in the sentence Thehouse stands on the hill, what stands on the hill? Answer: the house.

Examples: The house stands on the hill.It overlooks the plain.

PREDICATE

The predicate is all of the sentence except the subject.

Examples: The house stands on the hill.

It overlooks the plain.

OBJECT

The object is the person, thing or topic upon which the subject carries out theaction of the verb. To discover the object, ask who or what after the verb, e.g.the house overlooks what? Answer: the plain.

Examples: The house overlooks the plain.I see him clearly.He watches himself carefully.

In some cases a whole clause can act as object.

Example: He said that the Green Knight was really orange.

Sometimes we apparently have two objects. Where one of these canalternatively be expressed by placing to before it, it is called the indirect object.For example, instead of He gave me the book we can say He gave the book tome. Here the book is the direct object and me the indirect object .

COMPLEMENT



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After the verb to be there is no object since the noun which follows refers to thesame thing as that which precedes the verb (the subject). The noun followingthe verb to be is called the complement.

Examples: I am a man.

This is the question.CLAUSE

There are two kinds of clauses: principal (or main) clauses, and subordinate (ordependent) clauses.

Principal Clauses

A group of words which includes a subject and a finite verb and makes acomplete statement.

Examples: I am a man. The house stands on the hill.When I come home, I will let the cat in.

The following are not principal clauses because they do not make a completestatement which can stand by itself:

Which is a problemThat the house is standing on the hillWhen I come homeThe house which stands on the hill

Subordinate Clause

A group of words which includes a finite or non-finite verb but does not makea statement which stands by itself.

Examples: As soon as the Green Knight entered the room all wereastounded.He said that the Green Knight was really orange. The house, which stands on the hill, is empty.

Subordinate clauses can be classified according to their function:

Adverbial Clause

Example: As soon as the Green Knight entered the room , all wereastounded.

In this sentence the clause fulfills the same function as an adverb such asimmediately in the sentence immediately all were astounded.

Noun Clause



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Example: He said that the Green Knight was really orange.

The clause fulfills the same function as a noun such as the words in He said thewords.

Relative Clause

Example: The house, which stands on the hill, is empty.

Relative clauses are adjectival in nature. The clause fulfills the same role as anadjective such as high-placed in the sentence The high-placed house is empty.

Clauses can also be classified by whether they contain a finite verb.

Finite Clause

A finite clause contains a finite verb and, usually, a subject. It can be a principalclause or a subordinate clause.

Examples: They say nice things about you. (principal clause)When they say nice things about you they are not lying.(subordinate clause)

Non-Finite Clause

A non-finite clause contains a non-finite verb but does not contain a finite verband cannot stand alone. A non-finite clause cannot be a principal clause. Non-

finite verbs include participles and infinitives .

Examples: Singing and dancing, he moved slowly up the aisle.He gave me an invitation to bring you to the party.Having eaten all the cakes , he began to consume the biscuits.Filled with joy, he left the room.

PHRASE

A phrase is group of words without a verb.

Examples: It is on the hill.He went over the sea.

PARTS OF SPEECH

Examples:

house nounThe house article + nounThe house stands article + noun + verbThe house stands firmly article + noun + verb + adverb



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The house stands firmly on the hill article + noun + verb + adverbpreposition + article + noun

The empty house stands on the hill article + adjective + verb + adverb +preposition + article + noun

It stands on the hill pronoun + verb + preposition + article

+ nounSince it stands on the hill it overlooksthe plain

conjunction + pronoun + verb +preposition + article + noun +pronoun + verb + article + noun

NOUN

Nouns can be thought of as 'names'; they denote things, people, abstract ideas.

Examples: The house is old.A king was here.Virtue is its own reward.Accidents will happen.

ARTICLE

The articles are: the , a , an. The is called the definite article; a (and an) is calledthe indefinite article.

VERB

A verb is a "doing word". It expresses the carrying out of an action. With anactive verb this action is carried out by the subject.

Examples: It stands.I am.He adjudicates between the parties concerned.Alfred burnt the cakes.

With a passive verb the action is carried out upon the subject:

Examples: The cakes were burnt by Alfred.The Bible is read in many languages.

Verbs have various qualities:

Tense

This is the feature of the verb indicating when the action took place



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Examples: Present tense: It standsPast Tense: It stoodFuture Tense: It will stand

Aspect

This is the feature of the verb which indicates whether the action is was or will be a completed one or a continuous one. If the verb is unmarked as to whetherit is completed, 'perfect' or continuous, 'progressive', it is called simple. Hencewe can draw up the following scheme:

Simple Present: It standsSimple Past: It stoodSimple Future: It will stand

Present Perfect: It has stoodPast Perfect: It had stoodFuture Perfect: It will have stood

Present Progressive: It is standingPast Progressive: It was standingFuture Progressive It will be standing

The present perfect is often know simply as the perfect and the past perfect issometimes called the pluperfect .

Voice

In English we have the active and the passive voice. In the active voice thesubject carries out the action of the verb; in the passive the action of the verb iscarried out upon the subject.

Examples: Active: I placePassive: I am placed

A full complement of passive verbs exists in English. The passive is formedwith the appropriate tense of the verb to be and the past participle.

Examples: Present Progressive Passive: I am being placed

Past Perfect Passive: I had been placedFuture Perfect Passive: I will be placed

Mood

There are three moods in English.



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1. Indicative:

The indicative mood is the normal one in present-day English (PE):

Example: I was going to the pictures

2. Subjunctive:

The subjunctive mood is much rarer in PE; it expresses a hypothetical action.

Examples: If I were going to the pictures.I wish I were going to the pictures.

3. Imperative:

The imperative mood expresses an order.

Example: Go to the pictures.

Finite and Non-Finite Verbs

Verbs are either finite or non-finite. Non-finite verbs do not include anyindication of tense. One kind of non-finite verb is the infinitive. The infinitiveis the basic form of the verb. It is often combined with to as in I am going tostand here. However the infinitive is not always preceded by to: in the sentenceI will stand the infinitive is stand. Combined with will the infinitive stand makes the finite (future tense) verb will stand. Other non-finite parts of theverb are the participles. The present participle is the form of the verb used in

constructions like:

I am going.He is combing his hair.They are developing rapidly.

The same form of the verb can also be used as a noun (in which case it is calleda gerund or verbal noun:

Examples: Developing is not easy.Walking is pleasant in the summer.

or as an adjective (in which case it is called a gerundive or verbal adjective:

Examples: The third world is made up of the developing countries.She is a growing child.

The past participle is used in constructions like:

I have walked.She has grown.It has developed into a major argument.



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This form is often the same in PE as the past tense (cf. I walked) but not always(cf. I grew). This also appears as an adjective:

A grown man

ADVERB

An adverb modifies a verb; it indicates how the action of a verb is carried out.

Examples: The house stands firmly.She speaks well.He dresses beautifully.

It can also modify an adjective or another adverb.

The house is very firm.She answered most considerately.

PREPOSITION

A preposition connects a noun (with or without an article) or a pronoun tosome other word. Prepositions are the "little words of English".

Examples: It stands on hills.The swagman jumped into the billabong.England is over the sea.She told the good news to him.

ADJECTIVE

An adjective qualifies a noun; it describes the attributes of a noun.

Examples: The house stands on the high hill.Precious purple prose provokes profound professors.

PRONOUN

Pronouns take the place of nouns.

Examples: It stands on the hill.I see myself.The house which stands on the hill overlooks the plain.That stands on the hill.What stands on the hill?

There are a number of different kinds of pronouns:

Personal Pronouns

These are divided into "persons" as follows:



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Singular PluralFirst person I weSecond person you (thou) youThird person he, she, it they

The personal pronouns also include the reflexive and emphatic pronouns.These are the same in form but different in function. They are myself, himself,themselves etc.

Examples: Reflexive: I see myself.People help themselves.

Emphatic: I think myself that it is wrong.They themselves want to stay on.

Relative Pronouns

The relative pronouns are as follows:

People ThingsSubject who, that which, thatObject whom, that which, thatPossessive whose whose

These are used in relative clauses such as:

Examples: This is the man who saw me.This is the man whom I saw.

This s the man whose house I saw.This is the man that I saw.This is the house that Jack built.

Demonstrative Pronouns

These are: This theseThat those

Examples: This is the house.That is the question.

They are also used as demonstrative adjectives:

Examples: This man is green.That house is red.

Interrogative Pronouns

These are used in questions:

People Things

Subject who what, which



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Object whom, who what, whichPossessive whose

Examples: Who(m) did you see?Who is that man?

Which is the right way?Who(m) did you speak to?

What and which can be also used as interrogative adjectives in which case theycan be applied to people.

Examples: Which house stands on the hill?Which Prime Minister was drowned?What sweet do you recommend?

CONJUNCTIONS

Some conjunctions are coordinating (i.e. joining elements of the same kind) likeand or but.

Examples: It stands on the hill and overlooks the plain.I say this but she says that.

Other conjunctions are subordinating (i.e. joining a subordinate clause to amain clause) like when because , since , as.

Examples: Since it stands on the hill it overlooks the plain.Although I say this she says that.

When Gawain saw the Green Knight he did not show that hewas afraid.



Logical Fallacies

Subjectivist Fallacy

Explanation

There are two types of claim: objective and subjective.

Objective claims have the same truth-value for everyone. For example, the claim that the Earth is cuboid is an

objectiveclaim;it’seithertrueforeveryoneorfalseforeveryone.Itisn’tpossiblefortheEarthtobecuboidfor

me, spherical for you, but flat for everyone else, because whatever shape the Earth is it is only one shape.

Subjective claims can have different truth-values for different people. For example, the claim that running a

marathon takes more than three hours is a subjective claim: for many people it is true, but for a good number of

runners it is false.

The subjectivist fallacy is committed when someone resists the conclusion of an argument not by questioning

whethertheargument’spremisessupportitsconclusion,butbytreatingtheconclusionassubjectivewhenitisin fact objective. Typically this is done by labeling thearguer’sconclusionasjustan“opinion”,a“perspective”,a

“pointofview”,orsimilar.

This is one of those cases where the objectionable logic is so underdeveloped that it is difficult to pin down

preciselywhatiswrongwithit.Someonewhojustgrunts“that’sjustyouropinion”isclearlytrying to imply

something,buttheirreasoningisn’texplicit.

They might have in mind something like the following:

(1) Your argument concludes that p is objectively true.

(2) P is subjective.Therefore:

(3) Your argument fails.

This argument is fine as long as its premises are true, but where (2) is false it commits the subjectivist fallacy.

Alternatively, they might mean something like this:

(1) Your argument concludes that p is true.

(2)Manypeopledon’tacceptthat p is true.

Therefore:

(3) Your argument fails.

Thisargumentdoesn’tcommitthesubjectivistfallacy;ithasnothingtodowithobjectivityandsubjectivity.

Instead it is an example of an appeal to popularity,givingfartoomuchweighttotheopinionofthosewhodon’t

accept the conclusion of the argument, failing to recognize that even an argument for a conclusion that many

peopledon’tacceptcanbesound.

Ad Hominem (Personal Attack)

Explanation

Itisimportanttonotethatthelabel“adhominem”isambiguous,andthatnoteverykindofadhominemargument is fallacious. In one sense, an ad hominem argument is an argument in which you offer premises that



youthearguerdon’t accept, but which you know the listener does accept, in order to show that his position is

incoherent (as in, for example, the Euthyphro dilemma). There is nothing wrong with this type of argument ad

hominem.

The other type of ad hominem argument is a form of genetic fallacy. Arguments of this kind focus not on the

evidence for a view but on the character of the person advancing it; they seek to discredit positions bydiscrediting those who hold them. It is always important to attack arguments, rather than arguers, and this is

where arguments that commit the ad hominem fallacy fall down.

Example

(1) William Dembski argues that modern biology supports the idea that there is an intelligent designer who

created life.

(2)Dembskiwouldsaythatbecausehe’sreligious.

Therefore:

(3)Modernbiologydoesn’tsupportintelligentdesign.

This argument rejects the view that intelligent design is supported by modern science based on a remark about

the person advancing the view, not by engaging with modern biology. It ignores the argument, focusing only on

the arguer; it is therefore a fallacious argument ad hominem.

Appeal to Authority

Explanation

An appeal to authority is an argument from the fact that a person judged to be an authority affirms a

proposition to the claim that the proposition is true.

Appeals to authority are always deductively fallacious; even a legitimate authority speaking on his area of

expertise may affirm a falsehood, so no testimony of any authority is guaranteed to be true.

However, the informal fallacy occurs only when the authority cited either (a) is not an authority, or (b) is not an

authorityonthesubjectonwhichheisbeingcited.Ifsomeoneeitherisn’tanauthorityatall,orisn’tan

authorityonthesubjectaboutwhichthey’respeaking,thenthatunderminesthevalueoftheirtestimony.

Example

(1) Marilyn vos Savant says that no philosopher has ever successfully resolved the problem of evil.

Therefore:

(2) No philosopher has ever successfully resolved the problem of evil.

This argument is fallacious because Marilyn Vos Savant, though arguably an authority, is not an authority on the

philosophy of religion. Her judgment that no philosopher has ever successfully resolved the problem of evil

therefore carries little evidential weight; if there were a philosopher somewhere that had successfully resolved

the problemthenthere’sagoodchancethatMarilynvosSavantwouldn’tknowaboutit.Hertestimonyis

therefore insufficient to establish the conclusion of the argument.

Appeal to Pity

Explanation



An appeal to pity attempts to persuade using emotion—specifically, sympathy—rather than evidence. Playing

on the pity that someone feels for an individual or group can certainly affect what that person thinks about the

group; this is a highly effective, and so quite common, fallacy.

This type of argument is fallacious because our emotional responses are not always a good guide to truth;

emotions can cloud, rather than clarify, issues. We should base our beliefs upon reason, rather than on emotion,if we want our beliefs to be true.

Examples

Pro-life campaigners have recently adopted a strategy that capitalizes on the strength of appeals to pity. By

showing images of aborted fetuses, anti-abortion materials seek to disgust people, and so turn them against the

practice of abortion.

A BBC News article, Jurors shown graphic 9/11 images, gives another clear example of an appeal to pity:

“AUSjuryhasbeenshowngraphicimagesofpeopleburnedto death in the 11 September 2001 attack on the

Pentagon. The jurors will decide whether al-Qaeda plotter Zacharias Moussaoui should be executed or jailed for

life…Prosecutorshopesuchemotionalevidencewillpersuadethejurytooptforthedeathpenalty.”

Appeal to Popularity

Explanation

Appeals to popularity suggest that an idea must be true simply because it is widely held. This is a fallacy because

popular opinion can be, and quite often is, mistaken. Hindsight makes this clear: there were times when the

majority of the population believed that the Earth is the still centre of the universe, and that diseases are caused

by evil spirits; neither of these ideas was true, despite its popularity.

Example

(1)Mostpeoplebelieveinagodor‘higherpower’.

Therefore:

(2) God, or at least a higher power, must exist.

This argument is an appeal to popularity because it suggests that God must exist based solely on the popularity

of belief in God. An atheist could, however, accept the premise of this argument (the claim that belief in God is

widespread) but reject its conclusion without inconsistency.

Red Herring

Explanation

The red herring is as much a debate tactic as it is a logical fallacy. It is a fallacy of distraction, and is committed

when a listener attempts to divert an arguer from his argument by introducing another topic. This can be one of

the most frustrating, and effective, fallacies to observe.

The fallacy gets its name from fox hunting, specifically from the practice of using smoked herrings, which are

red, to distract hounds from the scent of their quarry. Just as a hound may be prevented from catching a fox by

distracting it with a red herring, so an arguer may be prevented from proving his point by distracting him with a

tangential issue.



Example

Many of the fallacies of relevance can take red herring form. An appeal to pity, for example, can be used to

distract from the issue at hand:

“Youmaythinkthathecheatedonthetest,butlookatthepoorlittlething!Howwouldhefeelifyoumadehim

sititagain?”

Straw Man Fallacy

Explanation

A straw man argument is one that misrepresents a position in order to make it appear weaker than it actually is,

refutes this misrepresentation of the position, and then concludes that the real position has been refuted. This,

of course, is a fallacy, because the position that has been claimed to be refuted is different to that which has

actually been refuted; the real target of the argument is untouched by it.

Example

(1) Trinitarianism holds that three equals one.

(2) Three does not equal one.

Therefore:

(3) Trinitarianism is false.

This is an example of a straw man argument because its first premise misrepresents trinitarianism, its second

premise attacks this misrepresentation of trinitarianism, and its conclusion states that trinitarianism is false.

Trinitarianism, of course, does not hold that three equals one, and so this argument demonstrates nothing

concerning its truth.

Begging the Question

Explanation

An argument is circular if its conclusion is among its premises, if it assumes (either explicitly or not) what it is

trying to prove. Such arguments are said to beg the question. A circular argument fails as a proof because it will

only be judged to be sound by those who already accept its conclusion.

Anyonewhorejectstheargument’sconclusionshouldalsorejectatleastoneofitspremises(theonethatisthe

same as its conclusion), and so should reject the argument as a whole. Anyone who acceptsalloftheargument’s

premisesalreadyacceptstheargument’sconclusion,socan’tbesaidtohavebeenpersuadedbytheargument.In neither case, then, will the argument be successful.

Example

(1) The Bible affirms that it is inerrant.

(2) Whatever the Bible says is true.

Therefore:

(3) The Bible is inerrant.

This argument is circular because its conclusion—The Bible is inerrant —is the same as its second premise—

WhatevertheBiblesaysistrue.Anyonewhowouldrejecttheargument’sconclusionshould also reject itssecond premise, and, along with it, the argument as a whole.



Real-World Examples

The above argument is a straightforward, real-world example of a circular argument. Other examples can be a

little more subtle.

Typical examples of circular arguments include rights-claims:e.g.,“IhavearighttosaywhatIwant,therefore

youshouldn’ttrytosilenceme”;“Womenhavearighttochoosewhethertohaveanabortionornot,therefore

abortionshouldbeallowed”;“Theunbornhasarighttolife,thereforeabortionisimmoral”.

Having a right to X is the same as other people having an obligation to allow you to have X, so each of these

arguments begs the question, assuming exactly what it is trying to prove.

False Dilemma

Explanation

The bifurcation fallacy is committed when a false dilemma is presented, i.e. when someone is asked to choose

between two options when there is at least one other option available. Of course, arguments that restrict theoptions to more than two but less than there really are similarly fallacious.

Examples

(1) Either a Creator brought the universe into existence, or the universe came into existence out of nothing.

(2)Theuniversedidn’tcomeintoexistenceoutofnothing(becausenothingcomesfrom nothing).

Therefore:

(3) A Creator brought the universe into existence.

The first premise of this argument presents a false dilemma; it might be thought that the universe neither was

brought into existence by a Creator nor came into existence out of nothing, because it existed from eternity.

Another example emerged when George W Bush launched the war on terror, insisting that other nations were

either for or against America in her campaign, excluding the quite real possibility of neutrality.

Complex questions aresubtleformsoffalsedilemma.Questionssuchas“Areyougoingtoadmitthatyou’re

wrong?”implicitlyrestricttheoptionstoeitherbeingwrongandadmittingitor being wrong or not admitting it,

thus excluding the option of not being wrong.

Slippery Slope Fallacy

Explanation

Slippery slope arguments falsely assume that one thing must lead to another. They begin by suggesting that if

we do one thing then that will leadtoanother,andbeforeweknowitwe’llbedoingsomethingthatwedon’t

wanttodo.Theyconcludethatwethereforeshouldn’tdothefirstthing.Theproblemwiththeseargumentsis

that it is possible to do the first thing that they mention without going on to do the other things; restraint is

possible.

Example

(1)IfyoubuyaGreenDayalbum,thennextyou’llbebuyingBuzzcocksalbums,andbeforeyouknowityou’llbe

a punk with green hair and everything.(2)Youdon’twanttobecomeapunk.



Therefore:

(3)Youshouldn’tbuyaGreenDayalbum.

This argument commits the slippery slope fallacy because it is perfectly possible to buy a Green Day album

without going on to become a punk; we could buy the album and then stop there. The conclusion therefore

hasn’tbeenproven,becausetheargument’sfirstpremiseisfalse.

Equivocation Fallacy

Explanation

The fallacy of equivocation is committed when a term is used in two or more different senses within a single

argument.

For an argument to work, words must have the same meaning each time they appear in its premises or

conclusion.Argumentsthatswitchbetweendifferentmeaningsofwordsequivocate,andsodon’twork.Thisis

because the change in meaning introduces a change in subject. If the words in the premises and the conclusion

mean different things, then the premises and the conclusion are about different things, and so the former cannot

support the latter.

Example

(1) The church would like to encourage theism.

(2) Theism is a medical condition resulting from the excessive consumption of tea.

Therefore:

(3) The church ought to distribute tea more freely.

This argument is obviously fallacious because it equivocates on the word theism. The first premise of the

argument is only true if theism is understood as belief in a particular kind of god; the second premise of the

argument is only true if theism is understood in a medical sense.

Real-World Examples

(1) Christianity teaches that faith is necessary for salvation.

(2) Faith is irrational; it is belief in the absence of or contrary to evidence.

Therefore:

(3) Christianity teaches that irrationality is rewarded.

Thisargument,whichisareasonablyfamiliarone,switchesbetweentwodifferentmeaningsof“faith”.Thekindof faith that Christianity holds is necessary for salvation is belief in God, and an appropriate response to that

belief. It does not matter where the belief and the response come from; someone who accepts the gospel based

on evidence (e.g. Doubting Thomas) still gets to heaven, according to Christianity.

For the kind of faith for which (1) is true, (2) is therefore false. Similarly, for the kind of faith for which (2) is

true, (1) is false. There is no one understanding of faith according to which both of theargument’spremisesare

true, and the argument therefore fails to establish its conclusion.

Another argument relating to Christianity that crops up from time to time goes like this:

(1) Jesus is the Word of God.(2) The Bible is the Word of God.



Therefore:

(3) Jesus is the Bible.

This is usually used to support some further conclusion about the authority of the Bible or something similar,

butthere’snoneedtogoanyfurthertoseethatthere’saproblemhere:thephrase“WordofGod”meansvery

different things in the two premises, so this argument rests on an equivocation.

What is Classical Rhetoric?

The classical ideal of a great person was a good man speaking well.

This meant that, in his education, a great man must not only study the rules and principles of eloquent

expression, but he must know and do the good; he must not only have mastered certain techniques, he needed

to be familiar with the Good, the True, and the Beautiful. The discipline that taught a man these things was

called classical rhetoric.

While modern books on speaking and writing have plenty of emphasis on technique, they are almost devoid of

any treatment of those other things necessary to truly persuasive expression. To get a full understanding of what it is to be able to express yourself persuasively, you have to go back to the ancients. The three greatest

ancient writers on rhetoric were Aristotle, Cicero, and Quintilian. Aristotle was the greatest theoretician of

rhetoric, Cicero its greatest practitioner, and Quintilian its greatest teacher. Classical rhetoric begins and ends

with these three men.

Although the study of rhetoric truly begins at a young age with practice in imitating the writing of others, it

extends in later years into the specific study of persuasive expression. There is no better place to begin this

latterkindofstudythanwithAristotle’sRhetoric.Aristotletaught that there were three elements of

communication: the speaker, the audience, and the speech itself. In fact, his book is broken down into three

parts, one on each of these elements of rhetoric.

There are also, says Aristotle, three kinds of persuasive speech: political speech, legal speech, and ceremonial

speech. In political speech, the audience is some body of decision-makers like a political assembly. Its subject is

the future, and its object is to move the audience to take some course of action. The end of this kind of speech is

expediency, which is a kind of good. Political rhetoric, therefore, is highly moral or ethical in character.

In a legal speech, the subject is the past, and the object is the determination of what has or has not in fact

happened. A lawyer arguing a case in court would be an example of a legal speaker, although anyone who

argues to an audience about past events would count as a legal speaker. The end of legal speech is the

determination of the truth, making it very logical in nature.

A ceremonial speaker would address the present and would concern himself with the present honor or

dishonor of someone. He would engage in the praise or blame to achieve his object. The person giving a eulogy

and certain kinds of sermons would engage in this sort of rhetoric. Because of its ceremonial nature (which is

why it is often referred to as the rhetoric of display), ceremonial rhetoric is considered to have an emphasis on

the aesthetic; in other words, on the beautiful.

In addition to the three kinds of speech studied in rhetoric, there are also three modes of rhetoric—three ways

in which persuasion is accomplished. They are ethos, logos, and pathos.

Ethos refers to the character of the speaker. We generally determine very early on whether the speaker or

writerisworthyofourtrust.Weaskthequestion,“Isthisthesortofpersonwecanbelieve?”Whendiscussing



Climax – (used loosely) a building up of argument or effect, usually by presenting three elements, each more

impressive than the last. (Used strictly, a.k.a. gradatio): a succession of clauses, where the final element of one

becomes the first element of the following: the seed became a shoot, the shoot a sapling, the sapling the most

magnificent of trees.

Euphemism – a mild word for one which might cause offence – e.g., “pass away” for “die”. 2

Hyperbole – deliberate (and sometimes ridiculous) exaggeration.

Hypocorisma – use of pet names or childish words for things – My Booky Wook by Wussell Bwandy-Wandy.

Ignoratio – where you pretend you don’t know something when you do: “Unaccustomed as I am to public

speaking…”

Litotes – exaggeration by saying the opposite plus the negative of what you mean, e.g., “not a little” for “a lot”.

Meiosis – similar to the above: an understatement such as “he didn’t half swear”.

Metonymy – where you use a name which suggests the thing you mean, rather than the thing itself, e.g. “Uncle

Sam” for “The United States of America”.

Oxymoron – as used in Romeo and Juliet Act 1 Scene 1, by Romeo about Rosaline, a contradiction in terms, e.g.,

“Jack Dee is a miserable comic”.

Paranomasia – a play on words, or a pun.

Periphrasis – where you go “round the houses” saying something, using a lot of words instead of a few.

Personification – where you describe an object as if it were human: “depressed and gloomy, the sky wept great

tears on the sleeping earth”.

Rhetorical question – a question you pose to your audience, but don’t expect an answer to: “Who among us can

believe the lies the Government tells us?”

Simile – where you say something is like or as something else.

Suggestio falsi -- where you accuse some someone else through omission, e.g., “I’m not saying he is a dishonest

man – in fact he is honourable – it’s just that there a things I’m not prepared to tell you about him.”

Syllepsis– where a single word is made to cover two different roles in relation to two other words or phrases,

e.g. “My dear wife went home in a flood of tears and a taxi”.

Synonym – use of different words with similar meanings for emphasis: “It’s astonishing, marvellous,

wonderful!”

Tu quoque – suggestion to the audience or an opponent that they should do the thing themselves – “If you’re so

clever, then come up here and speak to all these people yourself”. 3

Here is a short sales pitch by a market trader selling dinner services out of the back of his van. See how

many rhetorical devices you can spot. Ladies and gentlemen, this isn’t my usual trade, but a friend asked me

to sell these magnificent dinner sets for him. All legal stuff, of course – my mate’s an honest fellow, at least

between the hours of dawn and dusk. Have you ever seen such splendid examples of bone china? This is thevery selfsame pattern that Her Majesty herself dines from in Sandringham – and you too, today, could dine in



royal splendor. I have only twelve of these dinner sets – yes, just a round dozen, like the French football team

including the ref – and how much, you are asking yourselves, how much does he want for the greatest dinner

service from the greatest porcelain manufacturer in the world? If you went down to Harrods’s today you would

see the selfsame sets on sale for a mere £500. I swear on my mother’s grave, the resting place of my dear old Ma,

that outside this market that’s the least you could pay. Ma, strike me down now if I lie! But I don’t want £500.

What if I were to offer them to you at half – I say at just 50% - of that price? That’s right, missus, your hubbiecould be eating his fish fingers like a king tonight for 250 quid. But I don’t want 250; I don’t even want a

hundred. What do you think? What do you think this is worth – thirty-six pieces of blushing beauty with the

Royal Crown underneath? To you – and only now, today, this minute – because I see the boys in blue this very

moment on the horizon – fifty pounds only. Can you believe your ears? I don’t half do myself a mischief – it’s a

wonder I can afford to pay my accountant to fob off the taxman. A mere fifty sovs. Me, I offer real bargains,

others just dream. If any of you can do better I suggest that they get up on this lorry right now, and I’ll

straightaway take my hat and my leave. You, sir? No? You are the weakest link, goodbye! But finding someone

who could match this would be like finding a barking duck – you’ll never come across another bargain like this

for the rest of your lives. Not many! It’s the glory of the ages, madam, the splendor of the aristocrats, the taste of

a Duchy Original – in short, it is a dinner set of your genuine Royal Doulton. Two sets, love? You w on’t regret it.

grammar, logic and rhetoric

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