WheatWheat

Wheat

Scientific classificationKingdom: PlantaeDivision: MagnoliophytaClass: LiliopsidaOrder: PoalesFamily: PoaceaeGenus: Triticum

Wheat is a cereal grain that people can eat. It is a kind of grass whose fruit is a "head of wheat" with edible seeds. It was first grown in the Levant, a region of the Near East. Now it is cultivated worldwide.

World trade in wheat is greater than for all other crops combined.[1] Globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetable protein in human food. It has a higher protein content than other major cereals such as maize (corn) or rice.[2] In terms of total production, it is second to rice as the main human food crop and ahead of maize (maize is used more for animal feeds).

Wheat was a key factor enabling the emergence of city-based societies at the start of civilization. It was one of the first crops that could be easily cultivated on a large scale, and its seeds could be stored for long periods in a dry climate. Wheat helped the growth of city-states in the Fertile Crescent, including the Babylonian and Assyrian empires.

Wheat grain is a staple food used to make flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads, biscuits, cookies, cakes, breakfast cereal, pasta, noodles, couscous.[3] It can also be fermented to make beer,[4] alcohol, vodka,[5] or biofuel.[6]

An allergy to wheat can cause coeliac disease, which makes the sufferer have diarrhoea if they eat any food containing wheat.

Description

The wheat plant has long, slender leaves, stems that are hollow in most types of wheat plants, and heads that have many kinds of flowers, from 20 to 100. The flowers are grouped together

in spikelets. Each spikelet has two to six flowers. In most spikelets, two or three of the flowers become fertilized, and this makes them produce the grains used for food.[7]

Cultivated species of wheat

All cultivated wheats have more than one normal diploid set of chromosomes. The increases in chromosome sets occurs naturally at a low rate. Because they have more chromosomes, their ears of wheat are larger. All man did was to select the plants with extra fat ears of wheat when they occurred. Now a whole range of cultivated wheats are available. These are just a few:

Hexaploid species (six sets of chromosomes)

Common wheat or Bread wheat (T. aestivum) – A hexaploid species that is the most widely cultivated in the world.

Spelt (T. spelta) – Another hexaploid species cultivated in limited quantities. Spelt is sometimes considered a subspecies of the closely related species common wheat (T. aestivum), in which case its botanical name is considered to be Triticum aestivum subsp. spelta.

Tetraploid species (four sets)

Durum (T. durum) – The only tetraploid form of wheat widely used today, and the second most widely cultivated wheat.

Emmer (T. dicoccon) – A tetraploid species, cultivated in ancient times but no longer in widespread use.

Diploid species (normal two sets of chromosomes)

Einkorn (T. monococcum) – A diploid species with wild and cultivated variants. Domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat, but never reached the same importance.

Emmer wheat

Spikes (ears) of cultivated emmer wheat

Emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum), or 'hulled wheat',[8] is a type of awned wheat.[9] It was one of the first crops domesticated in the Near East. It was widely cultivated in the ancient world, but is now a relict crop in mountainous regions of Europe and Asia.

In the wild, the awns of emmer wheat spikelets help them dig into the soil. With humidity in the night, the awns of the spikelet become erect and draw together, and in the process push the grain into the soil. During the day, the humidity drops and the awns slacken back again. During the course of days and nights, the awns' pumping movements drill the spikelet as much as an inch into the soil.[10]

Einkorn wheat

Einkorn wheat is one of the earliest cultivated forms of wheat, (Triticum monococcum). Grains of wild einkorn have been found in Paleolithic sites of the Fertile Crescent. It was first domesticated about 7500 BC (~9000 years ago), in the early Neolithic period.[11] Evidence from DNA suggests einkorn was domesticated in southeast Turkey, where a number of early farming villages have been found.[12] Its cultivation decreased in the Bronze Age, and today it is a relic crop that is rarely planted. It has found a new market as a health food. It is still used for bulgur (cracked wheat) or as animal feed, in mountainous areas of France, Morocco, former Yugoslavia, Turkey and other countries. It often survives on poor soils where other species of wheat fail.[13]

Einkorn was domesticated at the same time as emmer wheat, but was not so important.

WheatCereal grain Wheat is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East but now cultivated worldwide. In 2013, world production of wheat was 713 million tons, making it the third most-produced cereal after maize and rice. Wikipedia Nutrition FactsDurum wheatAmount Per 100 gramsCalories 339 % Daily Value*Total Fat 2.5 g 3%Saturated fat 0.5 g 2%Polyunsaturated fat 1 gMonounsaturated fat 0.3 gCholesterol 0 mg 0%Sodium 2 mg 0%Potassium 431 mg 12%Total Carbohydrate 71 g 23%Protein 14 g 28%Vitamin A 0% Vitamin C 0%Calcium 3% Iron 19%Vitamin D 0% Vitamin B-6 20%Vitamin B-12 0% Magnesium 36% MaizeGrains Maize, known in some English-speaking countries as corn, is a large grain plant domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times. The leafy stalk produces ears which contain the grain, which are seeds called kernels. Wikipedia Nutrition FactsCorn, white

Amount Per 100 gramsCalories 365 % Daily Value*Total Fat 4.7 g 7%Saturated fat 0.7 g 3%Polyunsaturated fat 2.2 gMonounsaturated fat 1.3 gCholesterol 0 mg 0%Sodium 35 mg 1%Potassium 287 mg 8%Total Carbohydrate 74 g 24%Protein 9 g 18%Vitamin A 0% Vitamin C 0%Calcium 0% Iron 15%Vitamin D 0% Vitamin B-6 30%Vitamin B-12 0% Magnesium 31%*Per cent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs.

Maize (/ ̍ me ɪ z/ MAYZ ; Zea mays subsp. mays, from Spanish: maíz after Taíno mahiz), known in some English-speaking countries as corn, is a large grain plant domesticated by indigenous peoples in Mesoamerica in prehistoric times.

The leafy stalk produces ears which contain the grain, which are seeds called kernels. Maize kernels are often used in cooking as a starch. The six major types of maize are dent, flint, pod, popcorn, flour, and sweet.[1]

Most historians believe maize was domesticated in the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico.[2] The Olmec and Mayans cultivated it in numerous varieties throughout Mesoamerica, cooked, ground or processed through nixtamalization. Beginning about 2500 BC, the crop spread through much of the Americas.[3] The region developed a trade network based on surplus and varieties of maize crops. After European contact with the Americas in the late 15th and early 16th centuries, explorers and traders carried maize back to Europe and introduced it to other countries. Maize spread to the rest of the world because of its ability to grow in diverse climates. Sugar-rich varieties called sweet corn are usually grown for human consumption as kernels, while field corn varieties are used for animal feed, various corn-based human food uses (including grinding into cornmeal or masa, pressing into corn oil, and fermentation and distillation into alcoholic beverages like bourbon whiskey), and as chemical feedstocks.

Maize is the most widely grown grain crop throughout the Americas,[4] with 332 million metric tons grown annually in the United States alone. Approximately 40% of the crop—130 million tons—is used for corn ethanol.[5] Genetically modified maize made up 85% of the maize planted in the United States in 2009.[6]

Before they were domesticated, maize plants only grew small, one-inch long corn cobs, and only one per plant. Many centuries of artificial selection by the indigenous people of the Americas resulted in the development of maize plants capable of growing several cobs per plant that were usually several inches long each.[7]

An influential 2002 study by Matsuoka et al. has demonstrated that, rather than the multiple independent domestications model, all maize arose from a single domestication in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago. The study also demonstrated that the oldest surviving maize types are those of the Mexican highlands. Later, maize spread from this region over the Americas along two major paths. This is consistent with a model based on the archaeological record suggesting that maize diversified in the highlands of Mexico before spreading to the lowlands.[8]

Names

Many small male flowers make up the male inflorescence, called the tassel.

The word maize derives from the Spanish form of the indigenous Taíno word for the plant, maiz.[9] It is known by other names around the world.

The word "corn" outside North America, Australia and New Zealand refers to any cereal crop, its meaning understood to vary geographically to refer to the local staple.[10][11] In the United States,[10] Canada,[12] Australia, and New Zealand,[citation needed] corn primarily means maize; this usage started as a shortening of "Indian corn".[10] "Indian corn" primarily means maize (the staple grain of indigenous Americans), but can refer more specifically to multicolored "flint corn" used for decoration.[13]

In places outside North America, Australia, and New Zealand, corn often refers to maize in culinary contexts. The narrower meaning is usually indicated by some additional word, as in sweet corn, sweetcorn, corn on the cob, popcorn, corn flakes, baby corn.

In Southern Africa, maize is commonly called mielie (Afrikaans) or mealie (English),[14] words derived from the Portuguese word for maize, milho.[15]

Maize is preferred in formal, scientific, and international usage because it refers specifically to this one grain, unlike corn, which has a complex variety of meanings that vary by context and geographic region.[11] Maize is used by agricultural bodies and research institutes such as the FAO and CSIRO. National agricultural and industry associations often include the word maize in their name even in English-speaking countries where the local, informal word is something other than maize; for example, the Maize Association of Australia, the Indian Maize Development Association, the Kenya Maize Consortium and Maize Breeders Network, the National Maize Association of Nigeria, the Zimbabwe Seed Maize Association. However, in commodities trading, corn consistently refers to maize and not other grains.[citation

needed]

Structure and physiology

The maize plant is often 2.5 m (8 ft) in height, though some natural strains can grow 12 m (39 ft).[16] The stem has the appearance of a bamboo cane and is commonly composed of 20 internodes of 18 cm (7 in) length.[17][18] A leaf grows from each node, which is generally 9 cm (4 in) in width and 120 cm (4 ft) in length.

Ears develop above a few of the leaves in the midsection of the plant, between the stem and leaf sheath, elongating by ~3 mm/day, to a length of 18 cm (7 in) with 60 cm (24 in) being the maximum observed in the subspecies.[19] They are female inflorescences, tightly enveloped by several layers of ear leaves commonly called husks. Certain varieties of maize have been bred to produce many additional developed ears. These are the source of the "baby corn" used as a vegetable in Asian cuisine.

The apex of the stem ends in the tassel, an inflorescence of male flowers. When the tassel is mature and conditions are suitably warm and dry, anthers on the tassel dehisce and release pollen. Maize pollen is anemophilous (dispersed by wind), and because of its large settling velocity, most pollen falls within a few meters of the tassel.

Elongated stigmas, called silks, emerge from the whorl of husk leaves at the end of the ear. They are often pale yellow and 18 cm (7 in) in length, like tufts of hair in appearance. At the end of each is a carpel, which may develop into a "kernel" if fertilized by a pollen grain. The pericarp of the fruit is fused with the seed coat referred to as "caryopsis", typical of the grasses, and the entire kernel is often referred to as the "seed". The cob is close to a multiple fruit in structure, except that the individual fruits (the kernels) never fuse into a single mass. The grains are about the size of peas, and adhere in regular rows around a white, pithy substance, which forms the ear- maximum size of kernel in subspecies is reputedly 2.5 cm (1 in).[20] An ear commonly holds 600 kernels. They are of various colors: blackish, bluish-gray, purple, green, red, white and yellow. When ground into flour, maize yields more flour with much less bran than wheat does. It lacks the protein gluten of wheat and, therefore, makes baked goods with poor rising capability. A genetic variant[disambiguation needed] that accumulates more sugar and less starch in the ear is consumed as a vegetable and is called sweet corn. Young ears can be consumed raw, with the cob and silk, but as the plant matures (usually during the summer months), the cob becomes tougher and the silk dries to inedibility. By the end of the growing season, the kernels dry out and become difficult to chew without cooking them tender first in boiling water.

Female inflorescence, with young silk

mature silk

Stalks, ears, and silk

Male flowers

Full-grown maize plants

Mature maize ear on a stalk

Planting density affects multiple aspects of maize. Modern farming techniques in developed countries usually rely on dense planting, which produces one ear per stalk.[21] Stands of silage maize are yet denser,[22] and achieve a lower percentage of ears and more plant matter.

Maize is a facultative short-day plant [23] and flowers in a certain number of growing degree days > 10 °C (50 °F) in the environment to which it is adapted.[24] The magnitude of the influence that long nights have on the number of days that must pass before maize flowers is genetically prescribed[25] and regulated by the phytochrome system.[26] Photoperiodicity can be eccentric in tropical cultivars such that the long days characteristic of higher latitudes allow the plants to grow so tall that they do not have enough time to produce seed before being killed by frost. These attributes, however, may prove useful in using tropical maize for biofuels.[27]

Immature maize shoots accumulate a powerful antibiotic substance, 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIMBOA). DIMBOA is a member of a group of hydroxamic acids (also known as benzoxazinoids) that serve as a natural defense against a wide range of pests, including insects, pathogenic fungi and bacteria. DIMBOA is also found in related grasses, particularly wheat. A maize mutant (bx) lacking DIMBOA is highly susceptible to attack by aphids and fungi. DIMBOA is also responsible for the relative resistance of immature maize to the European corn borer (family Crambidae). As maize matures, DIMBOA levels and resistance to the corn borer decline.

Because of its shallow roots, maize is susceptible to droughts, intolerant of nutrient-deficient soils, and prone to be uprooted by severe winds.[28]

Maize kernels

Maize plant diagram

Ear of maize with irregular rows of seeds

Zea mays "strawberry"—MHNT

Zea mays "Oaxacan Green" MHNT

Variegated maize ears

Multicoloured corn kernels (CSIRO)

While yellow maizes derive their color from lutein and zeaxanthin, in red-coloured maizes, the kernel colouration is due to anthocyanins and phlobaphenes. These latter substances are synthesized in the flavonoids synthetic pathway[29] from polymerisation of flavan-4-ols [30] by the expression of maize pericarp color1 (p1) gene[31] which encodes an R2R3 myb-like

transcriptional activator [32] of the A1 gene encoding for the dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (reducing dihydroflavonols into flavan-4-ols)[33] while another gene (Suppressor of Pericarp Pigmentation 1 or SPP1) acts as a suppressor.[34] The p1 gene encodes an Myb-homologous transcriptional activator of genes required for biosynthesis of red phlobaphene pigments, while the P1-wr allele specifies colorless kernel pericarp and red cobs, and unstable factor for orange1 (Ufo1) modifies P1-wr expression to confer pigmentation in kernel pericarp, as well as vegetative tissues, which normally do not accumulate significant amounts of phlobaphene pigments.[31] The maize P gene encodes a Myb homolog that recognizes the sequence CCT/AACC, in sharp contrast with the C/TAACGG bound by vertebrate Myb proteins.[35]

RiceFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaFor other uses, see Rice (disambiguation).

A mixture of brown, white, and red indica rice, also containing wild rice, Zizania species

Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice) or Oryza glaberrima (African rice). As a cereal grain, it is the most widely consumed staple food for a large part of the world's human population, especially in Asia. It is the agricultural commodity with the third-highest worldwide production, after sugarcane and maize, according to data of FAOSTAT 2012.[1]

Oryza sativa with small wind pollinated flowers

Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other than human consumption, rice is the most important grain with regard to human nutrition and caloric intake, providing more than one fifth of the calories consumed worldwide by humans.[2]

Cooked brown rice from Bhutan

Chinese legends attribute the domestication of rice to Shennong, the legendary Emperor of China and inventor of Chinese agriculture.[3] Genetic evidence has shown that rice originates from a single domestication 8,200–13,500 years ago[4] in the Pearl River valley region of China.[5] Previously, archaeological evidence had suggested that rice was domesticated in the Yangtze River valley region in China.[4] From East Asia, rice was spread to Southeast and South Asia.[5] Rice was introduced to Europe through Western Asia, and to the Americas through European colonization.

Rice can come in many shapes, colours and sizes. Photo by the IRRI.

There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to vary regionally. In some areas such as the Far East or Spain, there is a preference for softer and stickier varieties.

Rice, a monocot, is normally grown as an annual plant, although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial and can produce a ratoon crop for up to 30 years.[6] The rice plant can grow to 1–1.8 m (3.3–5.9 ft) tall, occasionally more depending on the variety and soil fertility. It has long, slender leaves 50–100 cm (20–39 in) long and 2–2.5 cm (0.79–0.98 in) broad. The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulous inflorescence 30–50 cm (12–20 in) long. The edible seed is a grain (caryopsis) 5–12 mm (0.20–0.47 in) long and 2–3 mm (0.079–0.118 in) thick.

Oryza sativa, commonly known as Asian rice

Rice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low labor costs and high rainfall, as it is labor-intensive to cultivate and requires ample water. However, rice can be grown practically anywhere, even on a steep hill or mountain area with the use of water-controlling terrace systems. Although its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa, centuries of trade and exportation have made it commonplace in many cultures worldwide.

The traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while, or after, setting the young seedlings. This simple method requires sound planning and servicing of the water damming and channeling, but reduces the growth of less robust weed and pest plants that have no submerged growth state, and deters vermin. While flooding is not mandatory for the cultivation of rice, all other methods of irrigation require higher effort in weed and pest control during growth periods and a different approach for fertilizing the soil.

The name wild rice is usually used for species of the genera Zizania and Porteresia, both wild and domesticated, although the term may also be used for primitive or uncultivated varieties of Oryza.

Contents

1 Etymology 2 Cooking

o 2.1 Preparationo 2.2 Processingo 2.3 Dishes

3 Nutrition and health o 3.1 Nutrients and the nutritional importance of riceo 3.2 Comparison of rice to other major staple foodso 3.3 Arsenic concernso 3.4 Bacillus cereus

4 Rice-growing environments 5 History of domestication and cultivation 6 Regional history

o 6.1 Africao 6.2 Asia

6.2.1 Sri Lanka 6.2.2 Thailand

6.2.3 Companion planto 6.3 Middle Easto 6.4 Europeo 6.5 Caribbean and Latin Americao 6.6 United Stateso 6.7 Australia

7 Production and commerce o 7.1 Productiono 7.2 Harvesting, drying and millingo 7.3 Distributiono 7.4 Tradeo 7.5 World's most productive rice farms and farmers

8 Price o 8.1 Worldwide consumption

9 Environmental impacts o 9.1 Rainfallo 9.2 Temperatureo 9.3 Solar radiationo 9.4 Atmospheric water vaporo 9.5 Wind

10 Pests and diseases o 10.1 Insectso 10.2 Diseaseso 10.3 Nematodeso 10.4 Other Pestso 10.5 Integrated Pest Managemento 10.6 Parasitic weeds

11 Ecotypes and cultivars 12 Biotechnology

o 12.1 High-yielding varietieso 12.2 Future potentialo 12.3 Golden riceo 12.4 Expression of human proteinso 12.5 Flood tolerant riceo 12.6 Drought tolerant riceo 12.7 Salt tolerant rice

13 Meiosis and DNA repair 14 Cultural roles of rice 15 See also 16 References 17 Bibliography 18 External links

Etymology

First used in English in the middle of the 13th century, the word "rice" derives from the Old French ris, which comes from Italian riso, in turn from the Latin oriza, which derives from the Greek ὄρυζα (oruza). The Greek word is the source of all European words (cf. Welsh reis, German Reis, Lithuanian ryžiai, Serbo-Croatian riža, Polish ryż, Dutch rijst, Hungarian rizs, Romanian orez).[7][8][9]

The origin of the Greek word is unclear. It is sometimes held to be from the Tamil word அரி�சி� (arisi), or rather Old Tamil arici.[10][11] However, Krishnamurti [12] disagrees with the

notion that Old Tamil arici is the source of the Greek term, and proposes that it was borrowed from descendants of Proto-Dravidian *wariñci instead. Mayrhofer[13] suggests that the immediate source of the Greek word is to be sought in Old Iranian words of the types *vrīz- or *vrinj-, but these are ultimately traced back to Indo-Aryan (as in Sanskrit vrīhí-) and subsequently to Dravidian by Witzel and others.

Cooking

The varieties of rice are typically classified as long-, medium-, and short-grained.[14] The grains of long-grain rice (high in amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking; medium-grain rice (high in amylopectin) becomes more sticky. Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes, for risotto in Italy, and many rice dishes, such as arròs negre, in Spain. Some varieties of long-grain rice that are high in amylopectin, known as Thai Sticky rice, are usually steamed.[15] A stickier medium-grain rice is used for sushi; the stickiness allows rice to hold its shape when molded. Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding.

Instant rice differs from parboiled rice in that it is fully cooked and then dried, though there is a significant degradation in taste and texture. Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness.

Preparation

Milled to unmilled rice, from left to right, white rice (Japanese rice), rice with germ, brown rice

A: Rice with chaffB: Brown riceC: Rice with germD: White rice with bran residueE: Musenmai (Japanese: 無洗米), "Polished and ready to boil rice", literally, non-wash rice(1): Chaff(2): Bran(3): Bran residue(4): Cereal germ(5): Endosperm

Rice is typically rinsed before cooking to remove excess starch. Rice produced in the US is usually fortified with vitamins and minerals, and rinsing will result in a loss of nutrients. Rice may be rinsed repeatedly until the rinse water is clear to improve the texture and taste.

Rice may be soaked to decrease cooking time, conserve fuel, minimize exposure to high temperature, and reduce stickiness. For some varieties, soaking improves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of the grains. Rice may be soaked for 30 minutes up to several hours.

Brown rice may be soaked in warm water for 20 hours to stimulate germination. This process, called germinated brown rice (GBR),[16] activates enzymes and enhances amino acids including gamma-aminobutyric acid to improve the nutritional value of brown rice. This method is a result of research carried out for the United Nations International Year of Rice.

Processing

Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming, and absorbs water during cooking. With the absorption method, rice may be cooked in a volume of water similar to the volume of rice. With the rapid-boil method, rice may be cooked in a large quantity of water which is drained before serving. Rapid-boil preparation is not desirable with enriched rice, as much of the enrichment additives are lost when the water is discarded. Electric rice cookers, popular in Asia and Latin America, simplify the process of cooking rice. Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oil or fat before boiling (for example saffron rice or risotto); this makes the cooked rice less sticky, and is a cooking style commonly called pilaf in Iran and Afghanistan or biryani (Dam-pukhtak) in India and Pakistan.

Dishes

Main article: List of rice dishes

In Arab cuisine, rice is an ingredient of many soups and dishes with fish, poultry, and other types of meat. It is also used to stuff vegetables or is wrapped in grape leaves (dolma). When combined with milk, sugar, and honey, it is used to make desserts. In some regions, such as Tabaristan, bread is made using rice flour. Medieval Islamic texts spoke of medical uses for the plant.[17] Rice may also be made into congee (also called rice porridge, fawrclaab, okayu, Xifan, jook, or rice gruel) by adding more water than usual, so that the cooked rice is saturated with water, usually to the point that it disintegrates. Rice porridge is commonly eaten as a breakfast food, and is also a traditional food for the sick.

Nutrition and health

Nutrients and the nutritional importance of rice

Rice, white, long-grain, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy 1,527 kJ (365 kcal)

Carbohydrates 80 g

Sugars 0.12 gDietary fiber 1.3 g

Fat 0.66 gProtein 7.13 g

Vitamins

Thiamine (B 1 ) (6%)0.0701 mg

Riboflavin (B 2 ) (1%)0.0149 mg

Niacin (B 3 ) (11%)1.62 mg

Pantothenic acid   (B 5 ) (20%)1.014 mg

Vitamin B 6 (13%)0.164 mg

Trace minerals

Calcium(3%)28 mg

Iron(6%)0.80 mg

Magnesium(7%)25 mg

Manganese(52%)1.088 mg

Phosphorus(16%)115 mg

Potassium(2%)115 mg

Zinc(11%)1.09 mg

Other constituentsWater 11.61 g

Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using

US   recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Rice is the staple food of over half the world's population. It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17 countries in Asia and the Pacific, 9 countries in North and South America and 8 countries in Africa. Rice provides 20% of the world’s dietary energy supply, while wheat supplies 19% and maize (corn) 5%.[18]

A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggests that the nutrition value of rice varies based on a number of factors. It depends on the strain of rice, that is between white, brown, red, and black (or purple) varieties of rice – each prevalent in different parts of the world. It also depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grown in, whether and how the rice is

polished or processed, the manner it is enriched, and how it is prepared before consumption.[19]

An illustrative comparison between white and brown rice of protein quality, mineral and vitamin quality, carbohydrate and fat quality suggests that neither is a complete nutrition source. Between the two, there is a significant difference in fiber content and minor differences in other nutrients.[20]

Highly colored rice strains, such as black (purple) rice, derive their color from anthocyanins and tocols. Scientific studies suggest that these color pigments have antioxidant properties that may be useful to human health. In purple rice bran, hydrophilic antioxidants are in greater quantity and have higher free radical scavenging activity than lipophilic antioxidants. Anthocyanins and γ-tocols in purple rice are largely located in the inner portion of purple rice bran.[21]

Comparative nutrition studies on red, black and white varieties of rice suggest that pigments in red and black rice varieties may offer nutritional benefits. Red or black rice consumption was found to reduce or retard the progression of atherosclerotic plaque development, induced by dietary cholesterol, in mammals. White rice consumption offered no similar benefits, which the study suggests may be due in part to a lack of antioxidants found in red and black varieties of rice.[22]

Comparison of rice to other major staple foods

Nutrient contents in %DV of common foods (Raw, Uncooked) per 100 gms[show] Vitamins Minerals

Ch. = Choline; Ca = Calcium; Fe = Iron; Mg = Magnesium; P = Phosphorus; K = Potassium; Na = Sodium; Zn = Zinc; Cu = Copper; Mn = Manganese; Se = Selenium; %DV = % daily value i.e. % of DRI (dietary reference intake) Note: All nutrient values including protein are in %DV per 100 grams of the food item. Significant values are highlighted in light Gray color and bold letters.[23][24] Cooking reduction = % Maximum typical reduction in nutrients due to boiling without draining for ovo-lacto-vegetables group[25][26] The table below shows the nutrient content of major staple foods in a raw form. Raw grains, however, are not edible and can not be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table.

Nutrient content of major staple foods [27]

STAPLE: RDA

Maize /

Corn[A]

Rice (white)[B]

Rice (brow

n) [I]

Wheat [C]

Potato [D]

Cassava [E]

Soybean

(Green)[F]

Sweet

potato [G]

Sorghum [H]

Yam [Y]

Plantain [Z]

Component (per 100g portion)

Amount

Amount

Amount

Amount

Amount

Amount

Amount

Amount

Amount

Amount

Amount

Amount

Water (g) 3000 10 12 10 13 79 60 68 77 9 70 65Energy (kJ) 1528 1528 1549 1369 322 670 615 360 1419 494 511Protein (g) 50 9.4 7.1 7.9 12.6 2.0 1.4 13.0 1.6 11.3 1.5 1.3Fat (g) 4.74 0.66 2.92 1.54 0.09 0.28 6.8 0.05 3.3 0.17 0.37Carbohydrates (g)

130 74 80 77 71 17 38 11 20 75 28 32

Fiber (g) 30 7.3 1.3 3.5 12.2 2.2 1.8 4.2 3 6.3 4.1 2.3Sugar (g) 0.64 0.12 0.85 0.41 0.78 1.7 0 4.18 0 0.5 15Calcium (mg)

1000 7 28 23 29 12 16 197 30 28 17 3

Iron (mg) 8 2.71 0.8 1.47 3.19 0.78 0.27 3.55 0.61 4.4 0.54 0.6Magnesium (mg)

400 127 25 143 126 23 21 65 25 0 21 37

Phosphorus (mg)

700 210 115 333 288 57 27 194 47 287 55 34

Potassium (mg)

4700 287 115 223 363 421 271 620 337 350 816 499

Sodium (mg)

1500 35 5 7 2 6 14 15 55 6 9 4

Zinc (mg) 11 2.21 1.09 2.02 2.65 0.29 0.34 0.99 0.3 0 0.24 0.14Copper (mg)

0.9 0.31 0.22 0.43 0.11 0.10 0.13 0.15 - 0.18 0.08

Manganese (mg)

2.3 0.49 1.09 3.74 3.99 0.15 0.38 0.55 0.26 - 0.40 -

Selenium (μg)

55 15.5 15.1 70.7 0.3 0.7 1.5 0.6 0 0.7 1.5

Vitamin C (mg)

90 0 0 0 0 19.7 20.6 29 2.4 0 17.1 18.4

Thiamin (B1)(mg)

1.2 0.39 0.07 0.40 0.30 0.08 0.09 0.44 0.08 0.24 0.11 0.05

Riboflavin (B2)(mg)

1.3 0.20 0.05 0.09 0.12 0.03 0.05 0.18 0.06 0.14 0.03 0.05

Niacin (B3) (mg)

16 3.63 1.6 5.09 5.46 1.05 0.85 1.65 0.56 2.93 0.55 0.69

Pantothenic acid (B5) (mg)

5 0.42 1.01 1.49 0.95 0.30 0.11 0.15 0.80 - 0.31 0.26

Vitamin B6 (mg)

1.3 0.62 0.16 0.51 0.3 0.30 0.09 0.07 0.21 - 0.29 0.30

Folate Total (B9) (μg)

400 19 8 20 38 16 27 165 11 0 23 22

Vitamin A (IU)

5000 214 0 0 9 2 13 18014187

0 138 1127

Vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol (mg)

15 0.49 0.11 0.59 1.01 0.01 0.19 0 0.26 0 0.39 0.14

Vitamin K1 (μg)

120 0.3 0.1 1.9 1.9 1.9 1.9 0 1.8 0 2.6 0.7

Beta-carotene (μg)

10500

97 0 5 1 8 0 8509 0 83 457

Lutein+zeaxanthin (μg)

1355 0 220 8 0 0 0 0 0 30

Saturated fatty acids (g)

0.67 0.18 0.58 0.26 0.03 0.07 0.79 0.02 0.46 0.04 0.14

Monounsaturated fatty acids (g)

1.25 0.21 1.05 0.2 0.00 0.08 1.28 0.00 0.99 0.01 0.03

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (g)

2.16 0.18 1.04 0.63 0.04 0.05 3.20 0.01 1.37 0.08 0.07

A corn, yellow B rice, white, long-grain, regular, raw, unenrichedC wheat, hard red winter D potato, flesh and skin, rawE cassava, raw F soybeans, green, rawG sweet potato, raw, unprepared H sorghum, rawY yam, raw Z plantains, rawI rice, brown, long-grain, raw

Arsenic concerns

Main article: Arsenic toxicity

Rice and rice products contain arsenic, a known poison and Group 1 carcinogen.[28] There is no safe level of arsenic, but, as of 2012, a limit of 10 parts per billion has been established in the United States for drinking water, twice the level of 5 parts per billion originally proposed by the EPA. Consumption of one serving of some varieties of rice gives more exposure to arsenic than consumption of 1 liter of water that contains 5 parts per billion arsenic; however, the amount of arsenic in rice varies widely with the greatest concentration in brown rice and rice grown on land formerly used to grow cotton; in the United States, Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas.[29] The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) is studying this issue, but has not established a limit.[30] China has set a limit of 150 ppb for arsenic in rice.[31]

White rice grown in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri, and Texas, which account for 76 percent of American-produced rice had higher levels of arsenic than other regions of the world studied, possibly because of past use of arsenic-based pesticides to control cotton weevils.[32] Jasmine rice from Thailand and Basmati rice from Pakistan and India contain the least arsenic among rice varieties in one study.[33]

Bacillus cereus

Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores, which produce an emetic toxin when left at 4–60 °C (39–140 °F). When storing cooked rice for use the next day, rapid cooling is advised to reduce the risk of toxin production.[34] One of the enterotoxins produced by Bacillus cereus is heat-resistant; reheating contaminated rice kills the bacteria, but does not destroy the toxin already present.

Rice-growing environments

Rice can be grown in different environments, depending upon water availability.[35] Generally, rice does not thrive in a waterlogged area, yet it can survive and grow herein[36] and it can also survive flooding.[37]

1. Lowland, rainfed, which is drought prone, favors medium depth; waterlogged, submergence, and flood prone

2. Lowland, irrigated, grown in both the wet season and the dry season3. Deep water or floating rice4. Coastal Wetland5. Upland rice is also known as Ghaiya rice, well known for its drought tolerance[38]

History of domestication and cultivation

Rice broker in 1820's Japan of the Edo period ("36 Views of Mount Fuji" Hokusai)See also: Oryza sativa § History of domestication and cultivation

There have been plenty of debates on the origins of the domesticated rice. Genetic evidence published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) shows that all forms of Asian rice, both indica and japonica, spring from a single domestication that occurred 8,200–13,500 years ago in China of the wild rice Oryza rufipogon.[4] A 2012 study published in Nature, through a map of rice genome variation, indicated that the domestication of rice occurred in the Pearl River valley region of China based on the genetic evidence. From East Asia, rice was spread to South and Southeast Asia.[5] Before this research, the commonly accepted view, based on archaeological evidence, is that rice was first domesticated in the region of the Yangtze River valley in China.[39][40]

Morphological studies of rice phytoliths from the Diaotonghuan archaeological site clearly show the transition from the collection of wild rice to the cultivation of domesticated rice. The large number of wild rice phytoliths at the Diaotonghuan level dating from 12,000–11,000 BP indicates that wild rice collection was part of the local means of subsistence. Changes in the morphology of Diaotonghuan phytoliths dating from 10,000–8,000 BP show that rice had by this time been domesticated.[41] Soon afterwards the two major varieties of indica and japonica rice were being grown in Central China.[40] In the late 3rd millennium BC, there was a rapid expansion of rice cultivation into mainland Southeast Asia and westwards across India and Nepal.[40]

In 2003, Korean archaeologists claimed to have discovered the world's oldest domesticated rice.[42] Their 15,000-year-old age challenges the accepted view that rice cultivation originated in China about 12,000 years ago.[42] These findings were received by academia with strong skepticism,[43] and the results and their publicizing has been cited as being driven by a combination of nationalist and regional interests.[44] In 2011, a combined effort by the Stanford University, New York University, Washington University in St. Louis, and Purdue University has provided the strongest evidence yet that there is only one single origin of domesticated rice, in the Yangtze Valley of China.[45][46]

Rice spread to the Middle East where, according to Zohary and Hopf (2000, p. 91), O. sativa was recovered from a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the 1st century AD).

Regional history

In a recent study,[47] scientist have found a link for differences in human culture based on either wheat or rice cultivating races since ancient times.

Africa

Main article: Oryza glaberrima

Rice crop in Madagascar

African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years. Between 1500 and 800 BC, Oryza glaberrima propagated from its original centre, the Niger River delta, and extended to Senegal. However, it never developed far from its original region. Its cultivation even declined in favour of the Asian species, which was introduced to East Africa early in the common era and spread westward.[48] African rice helped Africa conquer its famine of 1203.[49]

Asia

Aerial view of terrace rice fields in Yuanyang, Yunnan Province, southern China

Rice fields in Dili/East Timor

Indian women separating rice from straw

Cambodian women planting rice.

Today, the majority of all rice produced comes from China, India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, Myanmar, Pakistan, Philippines, Korea and Japan. Asian farmers still account for 87% of the world's total rice production.

Sri Lanka

Rice is the staple food amongst all the ethnic groups in Sri Lanka. Agriculture in Sri Lanka mainly depends on the rice cultivation. Rice production is acutely dependent on rainfall and government supply necessity of water through irrigation channels throughout the cultivation seasons. The principal cultivation season, known as "Maha", is from October to March and the subsidiary cultivation season, known as "Yala", is from April to September. During Maha season, there is usually enough water to sustain the cultivation of all rice fields, nevertheless in Yala season there is only enough water for cultivation of half of the land extent.

Traditional rice varieties are now making a comeback with the recent interest in green foods.

Thailand

Rice is the main export of Thailand, especially the white jasmine rice 105 (Dok Mali 105).[50] Thailand has a large number of rice varieties, 3,500 kinds with different characters, and 5 kinds of wild rice cultivates.[51] In each region of the country there are different rice seed types. Their use depends on weather, atmosphere, and topography.[52]

The northern region has both low lands and high lands. The farmers’ usual crop is non-glutinous rice [52] such as Niew Sun Pah Tong rice seeds. This rice is naturally protected from leaf disease, and the paddy has a brown color.[53] The northeastern region has a large area, where farmers can cultivate about 36 million square meters of rice. Although most of them are plains and dry areas,[54] they can grow the white jasmine rice 105 which is the most famous Thai rice. The white jasmine rice was developed in Chonburi province first and after that it was grown in many areas in the country but the rice from this region has a high quality, because it's softer, whiter and more fragrant.[55] This rice can resist drought, acidic soil, and alkaline soil.[56]

The central region is mostly composed of plains. Most farmers grow Jao rice.[54] For example, the Pathum Thani 1 rice which has qualities similar to the white jasmine 105 rice. Their paddy has the color of thatch and their cooked rice has fragrant grains also.[57]

In the southern region, most farmers transplant around boundaries to the flood of plain or plain between mountains. Farming is the region is slower than other regions because the rainy season comes late.[58] The popular rice varieties in this area are the Leb Nok Pattani seeds, a type of Jao rice. Their paddy has the color of thatch and it can be processed to make noodles.[59]

Companion plant

One of the earliest known examples of companion planting is the growing of rice with Azolla, the mosquito fern, which covers the top of a fresh rice paddy's water, blocking out any competing plants, as well as fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere for the rice to use. The rice is planted when it is tall enough to poke out above the azolla. This method has been used for at least a thousand years.

Middle East

Rice was grown in some areas of Mesopotamia (southern Iraq). With the rise of Islam it moved north to Nisibin, the southern shores of the Caspian Sea (in Gilan and Mazanderan provinces of Iran)[60] and then beyond the Muslim world into the valley of the Volga. In Egypt, rice is mainly grown in the Nile Delta. In Israel, rice came to be grown in the Jordan Valley. Rice is also grown in Saudi Arabia at Al-Hasa Oasis and in Yemen.[61]

Europe

Rice was known to the Classical world, being imported from Egypt, and perhaps west Asia. It was known to Greece by returning soldiers from Alexander the Great's military expedition to Asia. Large deposits of rice from the first century A.D. have been found in Roman camps in Germany.[62]

The Moors brought Asiatic rice to the Iberian Peninsula in the 10th century. Records indicate it was grown in Valencia and Majorca. In Majorca, rice cultivation seems to have stopped after the Christian conquest, although historians are not certain.[61]

Muslims also brought rice to Sicily, where it was an important crop[61] long before it is noted in the plain of Pisa (1468) or in the Lombard plain (1475), where its cultivation was promoted by Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan, and demonstrated in his model farms.[63]

After the 15th century, rice spread throughout Italy and then France, later propagating to all the continents during the age of European exploration.

In European Russia, a short-grain, starchy rice similar to the Italian varieties, has been grown in the Krasnodar Krai, and known in Russia as "Kuban Rice" or "Krasnodar Rice". In the Russian Far East several japonica cultivars are grown in Primorye around the Khanka lake. Increasing scale of rice production in the region has recently brought criticism towards growers' alleged bad practices in regards to the environment.

Caribbean and Latin America

Rice is not native to the Americas but was introduced to Latin America and the Caribbean by European colonizers at an early date with Spanish colonizers introducing Asian rice to Mexico in the 1520s at Veracruz and the Portuguese and their African slaves introducing it at about the same time to colonial Brazil.[64] Recent scholarship suggests that enslaved Africans played an active role in the establishment of rice in the New World and that African rice was an important crop from an early period.[65] Varieties of rice and bean dishes that were a staple dish along the peoples of West Africa remained a staple among their descendants subjected to slavery in the Spanish New World colonies, Brazil and elsewhere in the Americas.[49]

The Native Americans of what is now the Eastern United States may have practiced extensive agriculture with forms of wild rice (Zizania palustris), which looks similar to but it not directly related to rice.

United States

South Carolina rice plantation, showing a Winnowing barn (Mansfield Plantation, Georgetown)

In 1694, rice arrived in South Carolina, probably originating from Madagascar.[64]

In the United States, colonial South Carolina and Georgia grew and amassed great wealth from the slave labor obtained from the Senegambia area of West Africa and from coastal Sierra Leone. At the port of Charleston, through which 40% of all American slave imports passed, slaves from this region of Africa brought the highest prices due to their prior knowledge of rice culture, which was put to use on the many rice plantations around Georgetown, Charleston, and Savannah.

From the enslaved Africans, plantation owners learned how to dyke the marshes and periodically flood the fields. At first the rice was laboriously milled by hand using large mortars and pestles made of wood, then winnowed in sweetgrass baskets (the making of which was another skill brought by slaves from Africa). The invention of the rice mill increased profitability of the crop, and the addition of water power for the mills in 1787 by millwright Jonathan Lucas was another step forward.

Rice culture in the southeastern U.S. became less profitable with the loss of slave labor after the American Civil War, and it finally died out just after the turn of the 20th century. Today, people can visit the only remaining rice plantation in South Carolina that still has the original winnowing barn and rice mill from the mid-19th century at the historic Mansfield Plantation in Georgetown, South Carolina. The predominant strain of rice in the Carolinas was from Africa and was known as "Carolina Gold." The cultivar has been preserved and there are current attempts to reintroduce it as a commercially grown crop.[66]

In the southern United States, rice has been grown in southern Arkansas, Louisiana, and east Texas since the mid-19th century. Many Cajun farmers grew rice in wet marshes and low lying prairies where they could also farm crayfish when the fields were flooded.[67] In recent years rice production has risen in North America, especially in the Mississippi embayment in the states of Arkansas and Mississippi (see also Arkansas Delta and Mississippi Delta).

Rice paddy fields just north of the city of Sacramento, California

Rice cultivation began in California during the California Gold Rush, when an estimated 40,000 Chinese laborers immigrated to the state and grew small amounts of the grain for their own consumption. However, commercial production began only in 1912 in the town of Richvale in Butte County.[68] By 2006, California produced the second largest rice crop in the United States,[69] after Arkansas, with production concentrated in six counties north of Sacramento.[70] Unlike the Arkansas–Mississippi Delta region, California's production is dominated by short- and medium-grain japonica varieties, including cultivars developed for the local climate such as Calrose, which makes up as much as 85% of the state's crop.[71]

References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unrelated Zizania palustris

More than 100 varieties of rice are commercially produced primarily in six states (Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, and California) in the U.S.[72] According to estimates for the 2006 crop year, rice production in the U.S. is valued at $1.88 billion, approximately half of which is expected to be exported. The U.S. provides about 12% of world rice trade.[72] The majority of domestic utilization of U.S. rice is direct food use (58%), while 16% is used in each of processed foods and beer. 10% is found in pet food.[72]

Australia

Rice was one of the earliest crops planted in Australia by British settlers, who had experience with rice plantations in the Americas and India.

Although attempts to grow rice in the well-watered north of Australia have been made for many years, they have consistently failed because of inherent iron and manganese toxicities in the soils and destruction by pests.

In the 1920s it was seen as a possible irrigation crop on soils within the Murray-Darling Basin that were too heavy for the cultivation of fruit and too infertile for wheat.[73]

Because irrigation water, despite the extremely low runoff of temperate Australia,[74] was (and remains) very cheap, the growing of rice was taken up by agricultural groups over the following decades. Californian varieties of rice were found suitable for the climate in the Riverina,[73] and the first mill opened at Leeton in 1951.

Monthly value (A$ millions) of rice imports to Australia since 1988

Even before this Australia's rice production greatly exceeded local needs,[73] and rice exports to Japan have become a major source of foreign currency. Above-average rainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s[75] encouraged the expansion of the Riverina rice industry, but its prodigious water use in a practically waterless region began to attract the attention of environmental scientists. These became severely concerned with declining flow in the Snowy River and the lower Murray River.

Although rice growing in Australia is highly profitable due to the cheapness of land, several recent years of severe drought have led many to call for its elimination because of its effects on extremely fragile aquatic ecosystems. The Australian rice industry is somewhat opportunistic, with the area planted varying significantly from season to season depending on water allocations in the Murray and Murrumbidgee irrigation regions.

Production and commerce

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Top 20 Rice Producers by Country—2012(million metric ton)[76]

 China 204.3 India 152.6 Indonesia 69.0 Vietnam 43.7 Thailand 37.8 Bangladesh 33.9 Myanmar 33.0 Philippines 18.0 Brazil 11.5 Japan 10.7 Pakistan 9.4 Cambodia 9.3 United States 9.0 South Korea 6.4 Egypt 5.9

   Nepal 5.1

 Nigeria 4.8 Madagascar 4.0 Sri Lanka 3.8 Laos 3.5

Source: Food and Agriculture Organization

Production

Worldwide rice production

Burning of rice residues after harvest, to quickly prepare the land for wheat planting, around Sangrur, Punjab, India.

The world dedicated 162.3 million hectares in 2012 for rice cultivation and the total production was about 738.1 million tonnes.[77] The average world farm yield for rice was 4.5 tonnes per hectare, in 2012.[77]

Rice farms in Egypt were the most productive in 2012, with a nationwide average of 9.5 tonnes per hectare.[78] Second place: Australia – 8.9 tonnes per hectare.[78] Third place: USA – 8.3 tonnes per hectare.[78]

Rice is a major food staple and a mainstay for the rural population and their food security. It is mainly cultivated by small farmers in holdings of less than 1 hectare. Rice is also a wage commodity for workers in the cash crop or non-agricultural sectors. Rice is vital for the nutrition of much of the population in Asia, as well as in Latin America and the Caribbean and in Africa; it is central to the food security of over half the world population. Developing countries account for 95% of the total production, with China and India alone responsible for nearly half of the world output.[79]

World production of rice has risen steadily from about 200 million tonnes of paddy rice in 1960 to over 678 million tonnes in 2009. The three largest producers of rice in 2009 were China (197 million tonnes), India (131 Mt), and Indonesia (64 Mt). Among the six largest rice producers, the most productive farms for rice, in 2009, were in China producing 6.59 tonnes per hectare.[80]

Many rice grain producing countries have significant losses post-harvest at the farm and because of poor roads, inadequate storage technologies, inefficient supply chains and farmer's inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers. A World Bank – FAO study claims 8% to 26% of rice is lost in developing nations, on average, every year, because of post-harvest problems and poor infrastructure. Some sources claim the post-harvest losses to exceed 40%.[79][81] Not only do these losses reduce food security in the world, the study claims that farmers in developing countries such as China, India and others lose approximately US$89 billion of income in preventable post-harvest farm losses, poor transport, the lack of proper storage and retail. One study claims that if these post-harvest grain losses could be eliminated with better infrastructure and retail network, in India alone enough food would be saved every year to feed 70 to 100 million people over a year.[82] However, other writers have warned against dramatic assessments of post-harvest food losses, arguing that "worst-case scenarios" tend to be used rather than realistic averages and that in many cases the cost of avoiding losses exceeds the value of the food saved.[83]

The seeds of the rice plant are first milled using a rice huller to remove the chaff (the outer husks of the grain). At this point in the process, the product is called brown rice. The milling may be continued, removing the bran, i.e., the rest of the husk and the germ, thereby creating white rice. White rice, which keeps longer, lacks some important nutrients; moreover, in a limited diet which does not supplement the rice, brown rice helps to prevent the disease beriberi.

Either by hand or in a rice polisher, white rice may be buffed with glucose or talc powder (often called polished rice, though this term may also refer to white rice in general), parboiled, or processed into flour. White rice may also be enriched by adding nutrients, especially those lost during the milling process. While the cheapest method of enriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients that will easily wash off (in the United States, rice which has been so treated requires a label warning against rinsing), more sophisticated methods apply nutrients directly to the grain, coating the grain with a water-insoluble substance which is resistant to washing.

In some countries, a popular form, parboiled rice, is subjected to a steaming or parboiling process while still a brown rice grain. This causes nutrients from the outer husk, especially thiamine, to move into the grain itself. The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starch in the grains. The grains become less brittle, and the color of the milled grain changes from white to yellow. The rice is then dried, and can then be milled as usual or used as brown rice. Milled parboiled rice is nutritionally superior to standard milled rice. Parboiled rice has an additional benefit in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking, as happens when cooking regular white rice. This type of rice is eaten in parts of India and countries of West Africa are also accustomed to consuming parboiled rice.

Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stomach cancer),[84][85] talc-coated rice remains the norm in some countries due to its attractive shiny appearance, but it has been banned in some, and is no longer widely used in others (such as the United States). Even where talc is not used, glucose, starch, or other coatings may be used to improve the appearance of the grains.

Rice bran, called nuka in Japan, is a valuable commodity in Asia and is used for many daily needs. It is a moist, oily inner layer which is heated to produce oil. It is also used as a pickling bed in making rice bran pickles and takuan.

Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses, including making many kinds of beverages, such as amazake, horchata, rice milk, and rice wine. Rice flour does not contain gluten, so is suitable for people on a gluten-free diet. Rice may also be made into various types of noodles. Raw, wild, or brown rice may also be consumed by raw-foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually a week to 30 days – gaba rice).

Processed rice seeds must be boiled or steamed before eating. Boiled rice may be further fried in cooking oil or butter (known as fried rice), or beaten in a tub to make mochi.

Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world, but it is not a complete protein: it does not contain all of the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health, and should be combined with other sources of protein, such as nuts, seeds, beans, fish, or meat.[86]

Rice, like other cereal grains, can be puffed (or popped). This process takes advantage of the grains' water content and typically involves heating grains in a special chamber. Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processing puffed pellets in a low-pressure chamber. The ideal gas law means either lowering the local pressure or raising the water temperature results in an increase in volume prior to water evaporation, resulting in a puffy texture. Bulk raw rice density is about 0.9 g/cm³. It decreases to less than one-tenth that when puffed.

Harvesting, drying and milling

Rice combine harvester Katori-city, Japan

After the harvest, rice straw is gathered in the traditional way from small paddy fields in Mae Wang District, Chiang Mai Province, ThailandFurther information: Paddy field

Unmilled rice, known as paddy (Indonesia and Malaysia: padi; Philippines, palay), is usually harvested when the grains have a moisture content of around 25%. In most Asian countries, where rice is almost entirely the product of smallholder agriculture, harvesting is carried out manually, although there is a growing interest in mechanical harvesting. Harvesting can be carried out by the farmers themselves, but is also frequently done by seasonal labor groups. Harvesting is followed by threshing, either immediately or within a day or two. Again, much threshing is still carried out by hand but there is an increasing use of mechanical threshers. Subsequently, paddy needs to be dried to bring down the moisture content to no more than 20% for milling.

A familiar sight in several Asian countries is paddy laid out to dry along roads. However, in most countries the bulk of drying of marketed paddy takes place in mills, with village-level drying being used for paddy to be consumed by farm families. Mills either sun dry or use mechanical driers or both. Drying has to be carried out quickly to avoid the formation of molds. Mills range from simple hullers, with a throughput of a couple of tonnes a day, that simply remove the outer husk, to enormous operations that can process 4,000 tonnes a day and produce highly polished rice. A good mill can achieve a paddy-to-rice conversion rate of up to 72% but smaller, inefficient mills often struggle to achieve 60%. These smaller mills often do not buy paddy and sell rice but only service farmers who want to mill their paddy for their own consumption.

Distribution

Because of the importance of rice to human nutrition and food security in Asia, the domestic rice markets tend to be subject to considerable state involvement. While the private sector plays a leading role in most countries, agencies such as BULOG in Indonesia, the NFA in the Philippines, VINAFOOD in Vietnam and the Food Corporation of India are all heavily involved in purchasing of paddy from farmers or rice from mills and in distributing rice to poorer people. BULOG and NFA monopolise rice imports into their countries while VINAFOOD controls all exports from Vietnam.[87]

Trade

World trade figures are very different from those for production, as less than 8% of rice produced is traded internationally.[88] In economic terms, the global rice trade was a small fraction of 1% of world mercantile trade. Many countries consider rice as a strategic food staple, and various governments subject its trade to a wide range of controls and interventions.

Developing countries are the main players in the world rice trade, accounting for 83% of exports and 85% of imports. While there are numerous importers of rice, the exporters of rice are limited. Just five countries – Thailand, Vietnam, China, the United States and India – in decreasing order of exported quantities, accounted for about three-quarters of world rice exports in 2002.[79] However, this ranking has been rapidly changing in recent years. In 2010,

the three largest exporters of rice, in decreasing order of quantity exported were Thailand, Vietnam and India. By 2012, India became the largest exporter of rice with a 100% increase in its exports on year-to-year basis, and Thailand slipped to third position.[89][90] Together, Thailand, Vietnam and India accounted for nearly 70% of the world rice exports.

The primary variety exported by Thailand and Vietnam were Jasmine rice, while exports from India included aromatic Basmati variety. China, an exporter of rice in early 2000s, was a net importer of rice in 2010 and will become the largest net importer, surpassing Nigeria, in 2013.[88][91] According to a USDA report, the world's largest exporters of rice in 2012 were India (9.75 million tonnes), Vietnam (7 million tonnes), Thailand (6.5 million tonnes), Pakistan (3.75 million tonnes) and the United States (3.5 million tonnes).[92]

Major importers usually include Nigeria, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Malaysia, the Philippines, Brazil and some African and Persian Gulf countries. In common with other West African countries, Nigeria is actively promoting domestic production. However, its very heavy import duties (110%) open it to smuggling from neighboring countries.[93] Parboiled rice is particularly popular in Nigeria. Although China and India are the two largest producers of rice in the world, both countries consume the majority of the rice produced domestically, leaving little to be traded internationally.

World's most productive rice farms and farmers

The average world yield for rice was 4.3 tonnes per hectare, in 2010.

Australian rice farms were the most productive in 2010, with a nationwide average of 10.8 tonnes per hectare.[94]

Yuan Longping of China National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center, China, set a world record for rice yield in 2010 at 19 tonnes per hectare on a demonstration plot. In 2011, this record was surpassed by an Indian farmer, Sumant Kumar, with 22.4 tonnes per hectare in Bihar. Both these farmers claim to have employed newly developed rice breeds and System of Rice Intensification (SRI), a recent innovation in rice farming. SRI is claimed to have set new national records in rice yields, within the last 10 years, in many countries. The claimed Chinese and Indian yields have yet to be demonstrated on seven-hectare lots and to be reproducible over two consecutive years on the same farm.[95][96][97][98]

ChickpeaLegume The chickpea or chick pea is a legume of the family Fabaceae, subfamily Faboideae. It is also known as gram, or Bengal gram, garbanzo or garbanzo bean and sometimes known as Egyptian pea, ceci, cece or chana or Kabuli Chana. Wikipedia Nutrition FactsChickpeasAmount Per 100 gramsCalories 364 % Daily Value*Total Fat 6 g 9%Saturated fat 0.6 g 3%Polyunsaturated fat 2.7 gMonounsaturated fat 1.4 g

Cholesterol 0 mg 0%Sodium 24 mg 1%Potassium 875 mg 25%Total Carbohydrate 61 g 20%Dietary fiber 17 g 68%Sugar 11 gProtein 19 g 38%Vitamin A 1% Vitamin C 6%Calcium 10% Iron 34%Vitamin D 0% Vitamin B-6 25%Vitamin B-12 0% Magnesium 28%*Per cent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs.

Mung beans

Dried and opened mung bean pod

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms

(unranked): Eudicots

(unranked): Rosids

Order: Fabales

Family: Fabaceae

Genus: Vigna

Species: V. radiata

Binomial name

Vigna radiata(L.) R. Wilczek

Synonyms [1]

Azukia radiata (L.) Ohwi Phaseolus abyssinicus Savi Phaseolus aureus Roxb. Phaseolus aureus Wall. Phaseolus aureus Zuccagni Phaseolus chanetii (H.Lev.) H.Lev. Phaseolus hirtus Retz. Phaseolus novo-guineense Baker f. Phaseolus radiatus L. Phaseolus setulosus Dalzell Phaseolus sublobatus Roxb. Phaseolus trinervius Wight & Arn. Pueraria chanetii H.Lev. Rudua aurea (Roxb.) F.Maek. Rudua aurea (Roxb.) Maekawa Vigna brachycarpa Kurz Vigna opistricha A.Rich. Vigna perrieriana R.Vig. Vigna sublobata (Roxb.) Babu & S.K.Sharma Vigna sublobata (Roxb.) Bairig. & al.

Vigna radiata - MHNTMature seeds, raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy 1,452 kJ (347 kcal)

Carbohydrates 62.62 gSugars 6.6 g

Dietary fiber 16.3 gFat 1.15 g

Protein 23.86 gVitamins

Thiamine (B 1 ) (54%)0.621 mg

Riboflavin (B 2 ) (19%)0.233 mg

Niacin (B 3 ) (15%)2.251 mg

Pantothenic acid   (B 5 ) (38%)1.91 mg

Vitamin B 6 (29%)0.382 mg

Folate (B 9 ) (156%)625 μg

Vitamin C(6%)4.8 mg

Vitamin E(3%)0.51 mg

Vitamin K(9%)9 μg

Trace minerals

Calcium(13%)132 mg

Iron(52%)6.74 mg

Magnesium(53%)189 mg

Manganese(49%)1.035 mg

Phosphorus(52%)367 mg

Potassium(27%)1246 mg

Zinc(28%)2.68 mg

Link to USDA Database entry

Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using

US   recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Mature seeds, sprouted, rawNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 126 kJ (30 kcal)Carbohydrates 5.94 g

Sugars 4.13 gDietary fiber 1.8 g

Fat 0.18 gProtein 3.04 g

Vitamins

Thiamine (B 1 ) (7%)0.084 mg

Riboflavin (B 2 ) (10%)0.124 mg

Niacin (B 3 ) (5%)0.749 mg

Pantothenic acid   (B 5 ) (8%)0.38 mg

Vitamin B 6 (7%)0.088 mg

Folate (B 9 ) (15%)61 μg

Vitamin C(16%)13.2 mg

Vitamin E(1%)0.1 mg

Vitamin K(31%)33 μg

Trace minerals

Calcium(1%)13 mg

Iron(7%)0.91 mg

Magnesium(6%)21 mg

Manganese(9%)0.188 mg

Phosphorus(8%)54 mg

Potassium(3%)149 mg

Zinc(4%)0.41 mg

Link to USDA Database entry

Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using

US   recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Boiled mung beansNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 441 kJ (105 kcal)Carbohydrates 19.15 g

Sugars 2 gDietary fiber 7.6 g

Fat 0.38 gProtein 7.02 g

Vitamins

Thiamine (B 1 ) (14%)0.164 mg

Riboflavin (B 2 ) (5%)0.061 mg

Niacin (B 3 ) (4%)0.577 mg

Pantothenic acid   (B 5 ) (8%)0.41 mg

Vitamin B 6 (5%)0.067 mg

Folate (B 9 ) (40%)159 μg

Vitamin C(1%)1 mg

Vitamin E(1%)0.15 mg

Vitamin K(3%)2.7 μg

Trace minerals

Calcium(3%)27 mg

Iron(11%)1.4 mg

Magnesium(14%)48 mg

Manganese(14%)0.298 mg

Phosphorus(14%)99 mg

Potassium(6%)266 mg

Zinc(9%)0.84 mg

Link to USDA Database entry

Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using

US   recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy 1,452 kJ (347 kcal)

Carbohydrates 62.62 gSugars 6.6 g

Dietary fiber 16.3 gFat 1.15 g

Protein 23.86 g

Vitamins

Thiamine (B 1 ) (54%)0.621 mg

Riboflavin (B 2 ) (19%)0.233 mg

Niacin (B 3 ) (15%)2.251 mg

Pantothenic acid   (B 5 ) (38%)1.91 mg

Vitamin B 6 (29%)0.382 mg

Folate (B 9 ) (156%)625 μg

Vitamin C(6%)4.8 mg

Vitamin E(3%)0.51 mg

Vitamin K(9%)9 μg

Trace minerals

Calcium(13%)132 mg

Iron(52%)6.74 mg

Magnesium(53%)189 mg

Manganese(49%)1.035 mg

Phosphorus(52%)367 mg

Potassium(27%)1246 mg

Zinc(28%)2.68 mg

Link to USDA Database entry

Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using

US   recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Mature seeds, sprouted, rawNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 126 kJ (30 kcal)Carbohydrates 5.94 g

Sugars 4.13 gDietary fiber 1.8 g

Fat 0.18 g

Protein 3.04 gVitamins

Thiamine (B 1 ) (7%)0.084 mg

Riboflavin (B 2 ) (10%)0.124 mg

Niacin (B 3 ) (5%)0.749 mg

Pantothenic acid   (B 5 ) (8%)0.38 mg

Vitamin B 6 (7%)0.088 mg

Folate (B 9 ) (15%)61 μg

Vitamin C(16%)13.2 mg

Vitamin E(1%)0.1 mg

Vitamin K(31%)33 μg

Trace minerals

Calcium(1%)13 mg

Iron(7%)0.91 mg

Magnesium(6%)21 mg

Manganese(9%)0.188 mg

Phosphorus(8%)54 mg

Potassium(3%)149 mg

Zinc(4%)0.41 mg

Link to USDA Database entry

Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using

US   recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

Boiled mung beansNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy 441 kJ (105 kcal)Carbohydrates 19.15 g

Sugars 2 gDietary fiber 7.6 g

Fat 0.38 gProtein 7.02 g

Vitamins

Thiamine (B 1 ) (14%)0.164 mg

Riboflavin (B 2 ) (5%)0.061 mg

Niacin (B 3 ) (4%)0.577 mg

Pantothenic acid   (B 5 ) (8%)0.41 mg

Vitamin B 6 (5%)0.067 mg

Folate (B 9 ) (40%)159 μg

Vitamin C(1%)1 mg

Vitamin E(1%)0.15 mg

Vitamin K(3%)2.7 μg

Trace minerals

Calcium(3%)27 mg

Iron(11%)1.4 mg

Magnesium(14%)48 mg

Manganese(14%)0.298 mg

Phosphorus(14%)99 mg

Potassium(6%)266 mg

Zinc(9%)0.84 mg

Link to USDA Database entry

Units μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using

US   recommendations for adults.

Source: USDA Nutrient Database

reen gram is one of the  important pulse crop in India. It has been reported that Green gram has been cultivated in India since ancient times. It is widely cultivated throughout the Asia, including India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,

 

Thailand. Green gram supplies protein requirement

of vegetarian population of the country. It is a protein rich staple food. It contains about 25 percent protein, which is almost three times that of cereals. It is consumed in the form of split pulse as well as whole pulse The moong dal Khichdi is recommended to the ill or aged person as it is easily digestible and considered as complete diet.  Roti with Moong dal and Moong dal chawal is an important ingredient in the average Indian diet.

 

 It is a drought resistant crop and suitable for dry land farming and predominantly used as an intercrop with other crops. The chemical composition of Green gram is given below.

  

2.0         Nutritional value of Green gram (Dal) 

Calorific value(cal./100g)

Crude protein (%)

Fat(%)

Carb-ohyd-rate(%)

Ca (mg/100g)

Fe(mg/100g)

P(mg/100g)

Vitamine(mg/100g) B1

 B2

 Niacine

 334

 24.0

 1.3

 56.6

 140

 8.4

 280

 0.47

 0.39

 2.0

   3.0 State wise Major commercial varieties of Green

gram  

Improved varieties of Green gram grown in different states in the country  

1.      Andhra Pradesh :-             ML-267, LGG-450, LGG-460, LGG-407, WGG-37, Pusa-105

 

2. Andaman & Nicobar:-       K-851

 

3. Gujarat:-                                K-851, GM-4

 

4. Jharkhand:-                         Pant G 114, H-208, Radhe,

C-235, BG-256, BR-77

 

5. Karnataka:-                          Pant G 114, H-208, Radhe, C-235, BG-256, BR-77

 

6. Maharashtra:-                      Kopargaon, S-8, T-44, BM-4, Chamki, Mughlai, Fule M-2

 

7. Orissa:-                                 Local, Tarm-1, Pusa 9072, LGG-407, Pusa Baisakhi,

K-851, ML-5, ML-131, Sujata, Dhauli, PDM-54, PDM-11, Pant-2

 8.      Tamil Nadu:-                        ADT2,ADT3, Vamban,

Paiur-1, K-1, URM(GGI), CO4, CO5, VBN(GG2), CO6

 9.      Uttar Pradesh:-                   Pant Moong-1, Type-44,

Pant Moong-2, Pant Moong-3, Narendra Moong-1, PDM-54, Pant Moong-4, PDM11, Malvia Jyoti, Samrat, Malika Janchetna,, Malika Janpriya

 

10. West Bengal:-                     B-77, B-108, T-163, T-44

  4.0    4.0 Harvesting and post-harvest care

Example:

Suppose, a consumer consumes 1000 watts load per hour daily for one month. Calculate The Total Energy bill of the consumer if per unit rate is 9 (In $, £, €, INR ,Rs, DHR, Riyal etc) [Take 1 month = 30 Days].

Solution:

1unit = 1kWh.

So Total kWh = 1000 Watts x 24 Hrs x 30 Days = 720000 watts/hour.

we Want to convert it into Units, Where is 1unit = 1kWh.So total Consumed units. 720000/1000…… (k=kilo=1000).

Total Units = 720.Cost of per unit is 9.

So total Cost or Electricity bill= 720 x 9 = 6480. (In $, £, €, INR ,Rs, DHR, Riyal etc). You

have Done

Good To Know:

A question is raised that why we multiplied it with 24 although the daily rate is given. Not that It is not Daily Rates, It’s the rate of Per Unit Where 1 unit = 1 kWh (Also Called 1 =B.T.U = Board of Trade Unit).

for instance, If you switched ON a 1000 watt bulb for 1 hour, It mean you consumed 1000 watts for an hour i.e. (1000 watts for 1 hour = 1kWh = 1 unit of Energy). So if the rate of unit is $5 , then you will pay 5 Dollars as a bill for your bulb which consumed 1kWh = 1 unit of electricity.

Isn’t it easy to calculate you electricity bill?… Let me know in the below comment box if you face any problem regard your electricity bill calculation or want to know more about your costume (home, residential or commercial electricity bill.