Grade 10 Science Exam ReviewExperimentation and laboratory safety Experiment An experiment is the test of a hypothesis Variable A factor in an experiment that can be changed Hypothesis A prediction for the outcome of the experiment, predicts the effect that the independent variable will have on the dependent variable and why. Usually formatted as an If... then... because... statement. Independent Variable It is a variable you have control over, what you can choose and manipulate. It is a variable that will affect and change the dependent variable Dependent Variable It is a variable that you measure in an experiment, and this is what is affected during the experiment. It is called the dependent variable because it depends on the independent variable Controlled Variable It is the variable that is held constant and is never changed during the experiment so as not to affect the dependent variable. Experimental Control It is a group of experimental specimen that are not supposed to be exposed to the independent variable so that it can be compared to the other groups that are exposed to the independent variable.

Laboratory Safety What are common safety rules of the lab? Never work alone, use the buddy system Do not touch labmates The lab is never a place for goofing around Do not cut corners or be sloppy Never conduct an unauthorized experiment Always read the procedure carefully Always read the labels Always use MSDS Follow the procedure Wear gloves, lab coat and goggles or a full face shield Tie back hair, wear closed toed shoes, no jewelry Change gloves when needed and remove before you leave Inspect all hoses and fittings around the bunsen burners, report and fix if necessary always point glassware away from people or dangerous goods when heating Dont let the glass beaker touch the open flame Keep your workspace clean Never put chemicals back into their container Never add water to acid, Do what you oughta, add acid to water Do not wash hot glassware Never use chipped, cracked, or broken glassware Inform the teacher of all injuries, no matter how minor Report all cracked or damaged equipment, no matter how minor Call in the experts if necessary Always use fume hood or snorkel when handling product with dangerous vapours Locate fire exits, alarms, extinguishers and blankets, eye wash stations, sinks and showers. Wash hands before leaving lab

Hazardous Household Product SymbolsPoisonous Examples: Windshield washer fluid, Furniture polish, AntifreezeThe dangers: Eating, drinking, licking, sometimes inhaling (consuming)

CorrosiveExamples: Toilet bowl cleaners, Oven cleanersThe dangers: Can burn skin, eyes, harm respiratory system if inhaled

FlammableExamples: contact adhesives, solventsThe dangers: Product and its fumes can ignite through heat or sparks

Explosive (container)Examples: Aerosol containersThe dangers: Flying shrapnel that can seriously injure or harmWHMIS Hazardous Symbols

Flammable and Combustible MaterialMeaning: May burn and can easily catch fireHow to handle/precautions: Keep away from open fire, never smoke nearby, store in cool areaCompressed gasMeaning: Under pressure, can explode if heated or droppedHow to handle/precautions: Handle with caution, keep away from flames/sparks, do not drop

Oxidising materialsMeaning: Can cause or promote combustion of another materialHow to handle/precautions: Wear eye, hand and face protection, handle with caution

Bio-hazardous and infectious materialsMeaning: Living organisms or their toxins that can cause disease in people or organismsHow to handle/precautions: use protective clothing and proper equipment

Poisonous and infectious materials causing other toxic effectsMeaning: Has health effects that appear one time and with repeated exposure can cause cancer and birth defectsHow to handle/precautions: wear protective clothing, work in an open area

Poisonous and infectious material causing immediate and serious toxic effectsMeaning: Can rapidly cause harmful health effects, including deathHow to handle/precautions: Do not swallow, inhale or touch. Wash and shower after use

Dangerously reactive materialMeaning: Very unstable, may react and explodeHow to handle/precautions: Do not drop, keep away from heat and open containers carefully.

Corrosive materialMeaning: Can cause damage to eyes and skin on contact, harmful to respiratory system if inhaledHow to handle/precautions: Close containers tightly, wear protective clothingLiving Things, Cells and MicroscopesCharacteristics of living things All the living things have a set of common characteristics Have cells Have a limited lifespan Movement: The ability to respond to stimuli/ environment Growth: Organises materials from the environment into own structures Reproduction: Copies itself Metabolism: The use of fuel and release of chemical as well as gas exchange Evolution: Adaptation of species Ecology: Influences its surroundings

History of cell theory In 1665 Robert Hooke was the first person to examine cork under a compound microscope. Hooke noted that cork was made up of miniscule box-like structures that he called cells. Around the same time period Anton Van Leeuwenhoek was looking at living cells through his much simpler microscope. He witnessed living cells such as bacteria cells from pond water and human blood cells. In 1820 Robert Brown witnessed small, dense, round bodies, common to all plants under his microscope, which he named the nucleus. In 1838 Matthias Schleiden said that all plants are made up of cells In 1839 Theodor Schwann said that all animals are also made up of cells Cell Theory states that All living organisms are made up of cells The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms All cells come from pre-existing cells

Care and use of microscopes hold microscope by arm and base walk slowly and carefully start with low power objective put slide on, then move objective as close to stage as possible on low magnification, turn coarse focus knob until in focus on medium and high power only use the fine adjustment knob use lens paper to clean lenses when putting away: put on low power move stage all the way down put away slide wrap cord around base

Parts of a microscope

Labels1. Tube2. Revolving nosepiece3. Low power objective lens4. Medium power objective lens5. High power objective lens6. Stage clips7. Diaphragm/condenser8. Light source9. Eyepiece/ocular lens10. Arm11. Stage12. Coarse adjustment knob13. Fine adjustment knob14. Base

Biological Drawings Supplies Blank, unlined paper A pencil and eraser Before you draw Plan to make a large drawing, to of the page Draw on the left to leave room for labels on the right Drawing Write a title, which includes the name of the specimen and if possible the part of the specimen drawn Spend time observing and examining your specimen carefully Draw only exactly what you see Do not sketch - draw firm, solid lines Do not shade, stipple instead Labelling Draw straight lines to the right of the drawing, with a ruler or straight edge Label lines should always be distinct and should never cross Put labels in a neat column, lined up Label your drawing using the name and part of the specimen you have drawn Include the magnification of your drawing Magnification find specimen size: field diameter/number of cells that fit across e.g. 4.8mm/6 = 0.8mm is specimen size find magnification of drawing: size of drawing/size of specimen e.g. 75mm/0.8mm= 94x is magnification of drawing LP field diameter: 4.5mm MP field diameter: 1.8mm HP field diameter: 0.45mm

Cell Parts and Functions Organelles Structures that carry out specific functions within the cell. Cell membrane Usually acts as a wall, holding the contents of the cell together and controlling what goes in and out of the cell (food and waste). Cytoplasm The liquid between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane. Holds the organelles, enzymes, amino acids, ATP and carbohydrates. Mitochondria Sausage shaped organelles that release energy so the cell can function, the mitochondria is also called the powerhouse of the cell. Nucleus The large round structure in the center of the cell, the Nucleus controls the center of the cell and directs all of the cells activities, also contains the genetic material DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid). Nuclear membrane Holds the contents of the nucleus together, also controls what goes in and out of the nucleus. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) Holds/ carries the genetic code, contains all of the instructions for running the cell Nucleolus The dark area inside of the nucleus that makes ribosome parts (looks like a wad of gum in Ms. Lees diagram) Ribosomes the sites where proteins are assembled Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) A series of small tubes that carry materials through the cell. The rough ER houses some of the ribosomes for making trans membrane proteins. The smooth ER is responsible for making fats and oils. Golgi apparatus Receives, modifies and transports proteins made at the rough endoplasmic reticulum, creates vesicles and lysosomes Vesicles Small, membrane bound sacs used to transport materials throughout the cell Lysosomes Saclike structures that allow digestion. Lysosomes can be used to break down damaged organelles or used by white blood cells to destroy invading bacteria Cell wall Found in plant cells, not animal cells, tough and rigid (made of cellulose- a glucose polymer) Vacuole Found mainly in plant cells, used for storage of food and water, they give support to the cells structure Cilia Short, normally numerous, hair like extensions that beat in a coordinated fashion. Ex: paramecium is covered with cilia that help it swim through the water. Flagellum Long whip like tails that help the cell move. Human sperm cells are able to move due to their flagellum.

Plant Cell/Animal CellPlant Cell Note: Golgi vesicles, amyloplasts, vacuole membrane, raphide crystal and druse crystal were not in any handouts or discussed in class

Animal Cell

The Cell Cycle and Mitosis Cell cycle The life of a cell including cell growth, DNA replication, preparation for mitosis and mitosis; normal cells live from 50-60 cycles Mitosis The phase of the cell cycle in which the cell divides into two identical daughter cells, the stages of mitosis are interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. (to remember: I Pee on the MAT) Chromatin A combination of DNA and proteins Chromosomes made of condensed DNA, formed during mitosis Sister Chromatids Identical copies of a chromosome joined by a centromere Interphase During interphase the cell grows, but can only grow to a certain size. Beyond that the surface area of the cell is too small for the volume of the cell and it is not possible for the cell to get enough nutrients and waste in and out of the cell quickly. Prophase During prophase the chromatin condenses into chromosomes, which are sister chromatids at this point. The mitotic spindles, which will pull the chromatids into position, form. In animal cells the centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell to form the poles of the mitotic spindles, in this stage the nuclear structure and membranes will also break apart. Metaphase During metaphase, chromatids line up at the cells equatus (AKA: the equatorial plate) and the mitotic spindle fibres attach themselves to the centriole. The fibres link each sister chromatid to opposite poles. Anaphase During anaphase the sister chromatids are pulled apart by the spindle fibres. The separated chromosomes move to opposite ends of the cell. Telophase In telophase cytokinesis occurs, which is the splitting of the cells cytoplasm. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms, which is a pinching in the middle of the cell to form two new cells. In plant cells a new cell wall is formed between the two new cells. First growth phase The cell produces new proteins and organelles Synthesis phase The DNA is replicated in preparation for mitosis Second growth phase The cell produces the organelles and structures needed for cell division Cell necrosis The death of a cell through injury or disease; not preprogrammed Apoptosis Programmed cell death which occurs when a cell is no longer needed. For example, the body produces a lot of different cells when an infection like the flu is present, but after it has fought off the infection, those cells are no longer needed and they die.Carcinogens Substances that cause cancer through the mutation of the DNA. They generally fall in three categories, however there is a fourth. Viruses (ex: human papilloma virus can cause cervical cancer) Radiation (ex: UV radiation from the sun can cause skin cancer) Hazardous materials (ex: asbestos can cause lung cancer) Genetics (ex: breast cancer genes)

Cancer Cancer cells are cells that do not undergo apoptosis at the right time and divide out of control. Cancer occurs when the DNA in the cell is damaged in some way so that the cells instructions (like when to stop replicating) are changed Cancer cells rapidly divide, and produce more cells than are needed. These new cells can begin to form a mass or a tumor. These cells are unspecialised cells (but do not aid in the tissue function), and therefore crowd out other functioning masses, using up their space, energy and resources to grow. Cancer becomes deadly when it spreads into organs and tissues, preventing their proper functioning. How does cancer spread It spreads in two ways: invasion and metastasis. Invasion is the migration into neighboring tissues. (Physically growing into the neighbouring tissue.) Metastasis is the movement of cancer cells through the bloodstream or lymphatic system to other sites in the body. Benign tumors cannot spread by invasion or metastasis. Malignant tumors are capable of spreading by invasion or metastasis, and are by definition cancer How is cancer treated Although there is no cure for cancer there are 3 main treatments Chemotherapy Chemotherapy destroys cells which are in mitosis. Since cancer cells replicate more often than other cells, they are vulnerable. However, other rapidly dividing cells are also targeted, such as hair, skin and stomach lining. (chemotherapy uses comes a drug) Radiation Radiation is directed at tumors and mutates the DNA of the cells. Cancer cells are more vulnerable than normal cells because they have less ability to repair damaged DNA than healthy cancer cells. The damage of DNA can lead to the death of the cell, or the slowing of its replication Surgery Surgeons can remove tumors from the body, but must be careful not to damage surrounding tissue. Also all cancer cells must be removed or the tumor will returnRegeneration and cell cloning Regeneration Specialized cells Cells that perform a specific function within the body Embryonic stem cells Called somatic cells Adult stem cells Undifferentiated cells TotipotentHave the potential to create develop into any cell found in the human body can develop an organism PluripotentPotential to differentiate into almost any cell in the body MultipotentHave the ability to self-renew for long periods of time and differentiate into specialized cells with specific functionsLimited in differentiating ability Why can't humans regenerate? If all cells contain the same copy of DNA, how do they specialize? What kind of stem cell is most valued? Why? embryonic stem cells are the most valuable because they are early enough in their development that they can become any type of tissue at all, they are pluripotent What are some possible uses for stem cells? The Eyes of Nye: cloning worksheetName one concern about patents for cloning technology Conflict of interestCloning becomes capital Expensive Designer Babies

Pressure to sell ovum Why doesnt reproductive cloning work well? Because you have to take the old nucleus and make it think its a young cell.Tissues and organs What are the major functions of each type of tissue? Be able to give an example of each type of tissue. Epithelial tissue Animal tissue Line our body cavities and the outer surface of our bodies Protects and keeps our organs in place Forms glands Examples: skin Lining of lungs, gastrointestinal tract, urinary tract, cornea Adrenal and sweat glands Connective tissues Support and protect structures Forms blood, stores fat, fills empty space Examples: Tendons and ligaments Bones Cartilage Blood Muscle tissue Animal tissue Allows movement Examples: Skeletal (voluntary, ex: arms and legs) Smooth (involuntary, ex: blood vessels and stomach) Cardiac (involuntary, heart muscles) Nervous tissue Animal tissue Transmits and stores information Restores _____________ Examples: Brain and spinal cord Peripheral nervous system Epidermal tissue Plant based tissue Forms protective outer covering Allows exchange of material and gases (oxygen, carbon dioxide) Examples: On top of and underneath leaves Meristematic tissue plant based tissue Stem cell, unspecialized Allows growth, capable of dividing and multiplying by mitosis Responsible for growing new plant parts Examples: Stem tips, root tips and leaves Ground tissue in the stem; provides strength and support Roots store food and water Responsible for growing new plant parts Examples: Most of the plant is made up of ground tissue Stems, roots and leaves Vascular tissue Moves substances from roots to leaves Transports sugars from leaves to other parts of the plant Examples: Xylem: moves water and minerals Phloem: transports sugar produced during photosynthesis to other parts of the plant where it can be used for energyBe able to name organs in plants and animals. Roots Epidermal: Root capMeristematic: below the root capGround tissue and vascular tissue make up the centre of the roots Collect and transport water and nutrients Stores food Anchors the plant Leaves Vascular tissueEpidermal tissue: Secretes a waxy covering called the cuticleground tissue: mesophyll Site of photosynthesis 3 CO2 + 3 H2O +C6H12O6 Transports sugar to other parts of the plants Stem Epidermal tissueGround tissueVascular tissue Transports water and nutrients (Food) Supports leaves and flowers Flowers Epidermal, ground, vascular and Meristematic tissue Reproductive structure of the plant Ovary may become fruit or hard cell Be able to name a component tissue for each organ Give the function for the skin, lungs, heart, organs of digestion, roots, leaves, stems and flowers Be able to label the digestive system, heart, respiratory system and leafOrgan systemsWhat organs are involved in each system and what are their basic functions?Integumentary system The skin, hair, sweat glands and nails Protects the body Helps the body control temperatureDigestive system Mouth, esophagus, stomach, pancreas, tongue, gallbladder, liver, intestines, rectum absorbs nutrients from food and eliminates solid wasteRespiratory system Nose, Mouth, trachea, lungs, bronchi, alveoli, diaphragm Exchange of gasses

Circulatory system Heart, veins, blood, arteries Transports materials within the bodyExcretory system Skin, kidney, bladder, ureter, urethra elimination of excretory product from the bodySkeletal system Bones and cartilage Supports and protects the body, allows movementMuscular system Smooth, cardiac and skeletal muscles, can also be classified as voluntary and involuntary works with the skeletal system to provide movement Moves materials within the bodyNervous system Brain, nerves and spinal cord Controls body functions Coordinates responses and activitiesEndocrine system Glands (pituitary, hypothalamus, thyroid and adrenal), Pancreas, Ovaries and testiclesReproductive system Ovaries, fallopian tubes, vagina, uterus, testes, epididymis, vas deferens, penis, urethra Responsible for reproductionLymphatic system White blood cells, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymph vessels Protects the body from disease Circulates lymph fluid Absorbs and transports fatsOrgans for sale What are some reasons organ sale might be restricted? The idea of ownership of a human by another (slavery) Trade of humans Commercializing human parts Impoverished people may feel pushed to sell their organs Do you think that organ sale should be legalized in Canada? Give persuasive justification. You could argue that is should Gift of a life We are able to operate without certain organs Or against for the above reasons

Imaging the human bodyBe able to explain one type of body imaging in depthBe able to describe each type of imaging and how it works X-ray Emits radiation into body, bones will glow white with radiation. Can be used for bones, cardiac and vascular systems Used in medicine to check for broken bones and in dentistry to observe non visible parts of teeth Fluoroscopy Provides video footage, X-ray transmitted through body and images received by fluorescent plate on opposite side from X-ray Can be used for full body, but works better when focused on a specific part Diagnostic abilities, can also be used to monitor internal procedures Ultrasound uses sound waves, conducts images of internal structure Generally used in soft tissues, major organs Used to diagnose heart problems and to view fetuses Computed tomography Uses computer processed x-rays to produce topographic images of the human body Used for mainly soft tissues, blood vessels but mainly used for brains Diagnosing cancers Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Emits a magnetic field that reacts with hydrogen atoms within your body to produce images Soft tissues, brain, heart, liver Diagnosing Nuclear medicine Used for entire body Detection and treatment of cancer Positron emission technology (PET) Tracers are emitted into the body, these emit positrons and produce a 3d image of your body Generally soft tissues, can be used for whole body Diagnosing heart disease and brain disorders Biophotonics uses light to make pictures of the inside of bodily structures with a tube that goes into the body light and camera attached to the tube used for digestive tract, soft tissues, search for cancerous growths in stomach or intestines, and sometimes the inside of eyes Frog digestionCutting the muscle1. Go find a group with a different sex frog. What are two visible differences?Males have two internal testicles and a spermatic canal in which they produce sperm to fertilize the eggs. Female frogs have ovaries, oviducts and uteri.2. What are the exposed organs wrapped in?The exposed organs are wrapped in the peritoneum membrane.3. What is the heart wrapped in?It is wrapped in the pericardial sac.4. In mammals there is an extra separation of the body cavity by the diaphragm. What are the 2 cavities called?The abdominal and thoracic cavity.

Respiratory and Circulatory SystemLabel the following parts on Diagram 3. liver (third space) heart (second space) lungs (first space)

1. Have a look at the frog. They are small, single chamber organs. Why is there no need for complicated lungs?They dont need complicated lungs because most of their respiration is through their highly moist and vascularized skin.

Digestive System of the Frog Label the following parts on Diagram 4. stomach (second space on the right side) cloaca (fifth space on the right side) large intestine (fourth space on the right side) small intestine (second space on the left side) mesentery (first space on the left side) esophagus (first space on the right side) pancreas (third space on the right side)

1. The liver is an accessory organ to the digestive system, and it produces an important digestive juice. What does it secrete?

It secretes a digestive juice called bile.

2. What is the function of the gallbladder?

It stores bile from the liver.

3. What system does the spleen belong to, and what does it do?

It belongs to the digestive system; it filters red blood cells.

4. You may see yellow lobes attached to the kidneys called fat bodies. What are these for?

It stores food that is used during hibernation or periods of breeding.

5. What does the inside of the stomach look like?

(Answer: whatever the last meal was for the frog, Im sure this question wont be on the test)

6. Why is the small intestine so long?

Since the small intestine is for absorbing moisture and nutrients from the material consumed, the longer the intestines, the more moisture and nutrients are absorbed.

Chemistry notesRecallAn ion is a charged atom formed by gaining or losing electronsAn ion is negative when it has a surplus of electrons and is positive when it has a lack of electronsFull valence and stabilityAn atom that has a full valence shell is considered stableAll atoms want to be stable, like their nearest noble gas (in terms of valence configuration [how many shells])Noble gases are the most stable because of their full valence configuration, thus they do not try to mix with other atomsExamplesSodium, which has 1e- on its outer shell, will lose that electron; because it is easier for the atom to do such than it is to gain 7e- Sodium will form neon which has a total of 10e-By losing an electron, sodium will become positiveFluorine which has 7e- on its outer shell, will gain another electron, because it is easier for that atom to gain 1e- than to lose 7e-Fluorine will form neon which has a total of 10e-By gaining an electron, fluorine will become negativeIonic bondingWhen forming ions, the electrons always have to go to somewhere, or go to somewhereExamplesNaCl or table salt is an ionic compound comprised of sodium and chlorineIf you look at the makeup of sodium we will find that it has one electron on its outer shell, and if you look at the makeup of chlorine you will see that it has seven electrons on its outer shell. In ionic bonding, one atom must give its surplus electrons to the other atom, making one positive and the other negative.Ionic compounds are wrote as Metal-Non-metal-IdeWhen writing the chemical formulas you must consider the ions of each atom, and determine if the positive charge is equal to the negative charge.If they are then you will write the formula with no subscripts, for example NaCl, the negative charge of sodium is equal to the positive charge of chlorine.However if the charges are not equal, you must determine how many of each is needed to make the compound neutral. Examples:1.) In the case of calcium and fluoride, calcium will form the ion 2+, and fluorine will form the ion 1- The charges of these two will not become neutral when bonded.To do this you must have one calcium atom, and two fluorine atoms.This will form the chemical formula of CaF22.) In the case of magnesium and oxygen, Mg will form an ion of 2+ and O will form an ion of 2-, because the charge of these ions will be equal, only one of each is necessary to make the compound neutral. The chemical formula will be MgO (not Mg2O2)

3.) In the case of aluminium and sulfur, Al will form the ion of 3+ and S will form an ion of 2-, because the charges of these are not equal, two aluminium atoms and three sulphur ions will be needed to make the charge of the compound neutral. The chemical formula of this will be Al2S3Note: An interesting relationship that makes writing the compounds easier to write is to switch the charges of the two atoms in the ionic compound. Al with its ion of 3+ and S with its ion of 2- are written as Al2S3. Mg and O both have an ion of 2+/-, but are not written as Mg2O2 however, because they are reduced to their simplest form of MgORules of writing chemical formulas1.) The numbers telling how many of each atom is in the molecule are called subscript and are written on the same line, below the atomic symbol.2.) The charges of atoms may not be written above, although you may do it as a step to figuring out the formula3.) The Charges (+,-) are not written in the formula4.) Always reduce the subscripts to their lowest common factorsNaming ionic compoundsThe metal cation is named first, and keeps its name, the non-metal is written next and it must have ide added to its endingExample:NaCl, is written as Sodium-Chloride. Sodium, the metal is written first, and keeps its full name, while chlorine, is written last an as chloride PracticeMgO is written as Magnesium-Oxide Al2S3 is written as Aluminium-SulfideCaBr2 is written as Calcium-bromideNaP3 is written as Sodium-PhosphideTransition metalsSome metals have more than one possible valence; these metals are under the acronym of CLINT (Copper, Lead, Iron, Nickel, and Tin).Copper can have possible valence of 1+ and 2+, (I, II)Lead can have possible valence of 2+ and 4+ (II, IV)Iron can have possible valence of 2+ and 3+ (II, III)Nickel can have possible valence of 2+ and 3+ (II, III)Tin can have possible valence of 2+ and 4+ (II, IV)

Writing chemical formulasIn the case of Iron (II) oxide, the chemical formula is still written metal, then non-metalThen write the ionic charges above the symbols. The ionic charge for the multivalent element can be found in the name Iron (II) oxide, Fe2+O1-Using the previously mentioned trick, transfer the charge numbers between the two atoms within the molecule, making Iron (II) oxide FeO2PracticeTin (IV) chloride would become SnCl4Manganese (IV) oxide would become MnO4Copper (II) phosphide would become CuP2Iron (II) Fluoride would become FeFl2Lead (IV) sulphide would become CuS4Nickel (II) chloride would become NiCl2

Writing the compound nameFirst, you must recognise that it has a transition (CLINT) metal, if it doesnt, then it is just written as Metal, Non-metal, with no numerals.If it is indeed a transition metal, then you must figure out which version of the metal we have.To figure this out, you do a reverse-crossover, then check to see if the non-metal is the correct ionThen write the formula with numerals in the middle Metal (numeral) Non-metal. Example:CuCl2, which is technically Cu1Cl2 when crossed over is Cu2Cl1, Cu2 is copper with the roman numeral of II, which is written as Copper (II) ChlorideTry itName the compoundCheck if the metal is a transition metalPerform the reverse crossoverCheck if the non-metal is the correct ionIf so, write as Metal (Numerals) Non-metalsIf not, then multiply both the metal and the non-metal to make oxygen the correct ionTry withSnBr4___________________________Tin (IV) BromideFef3____________________________Iron (III) FluorideCuI_____________________________Copper (I) IodideCuS_____________________________Copper (II) SulphideSn3P2___________________________Tin (II) PhosphideFeC2____________________________Iron (II) CarbidePracticeName the following compoundswrite the names for the following componentsMagnesium oxideLi2O

Sodium fluorideAlCl2

Aluminium nitrideMgS

Potassium sulfideCaO

Lithium iodideKBr

Calcium bromideBeF

Beryllium oxideNa3N

Aluminium sulfideAl2O3

Copper (I) bromideCuCl2

Tin (II) IodideFeBr3

Iron (III) chloridePbS

Calcium phosphideSnO2

Lead (II) oxideNa2S

Lead (IV) fluorideMg3P2

Tin (IV) bromideCuI

Copper (II) sulphidePbCl4

Iron (II) oxideFeP

Calcium nitrideCaF2

PolyatomicThe Polyatomic is a group of atoms that tend to stay together and carry an overall ionic charge. These charges are displayed in the table. (Note: you must memorize the name of the ion)NameFormulaCharge

AcetateCH3COO1-

AmmoniumNH41+

BicarbonateHCO31-

CarbonateCO32-

ChlorateCLO31-

HydroxideOH1-

NitrateNO31-

NitriteNO21-

PhosphatePO43-

SulfiteSO32-

SulfateSO42-

Naming polyatomic compoundsThe same as in writing the ionic compounds, the structure for the compound name begins with the metal, and is followed by that of the polyatomic ion.Example: CaCO3 the first part of this formula, Ca is calcium, a metal, and the second is the polyatomic ion CO3 or carbonate, so the polyatomic ions name is Calcium Carbonate.Try itMgSO4______________________________________________________________Magnesium-sulfateMg(NO3)2___________________________________________________________Magnesium-nitrateAl2(SO4)3___________________________________________________________Aluminium-sulfate(NH4)2O ____________________________________________________________Ammonium-oxideNaOH_______________________________________________________________Sodium-hydroxide

Writing polyatomic compound formulasThe same as naming ions, write the metals symbol first, and follow with the polyatomic ion.ExampleSodium Hydroxide- In this case, you would write the formula for the metal, sodium, and then the polyatomic group, hydroxide, and then write their charges above them, and cross them over. NaOH, sodium and hydroxide have the same charge so when you cross over the charges, they cancel each other out.Now take the example of Lithium sulfate, Li having a charge of 1- and SO4 having a charge of 2-. Cross over the charges for the two, and it becomes Li2SO4, However, because SO4 is a group and must stay together, the formula cannot be simplified. Try itCalcium carbonate__________________________________________________________ CaCOMagnesium sulfate__________________________________________________________MgSO4Writing with bracketsIf the charges of the two are not equal, and dont cancel each other out then you must write the formula with brackets. ExampleIn the case of Magnesium nitrate, Mg has a charge of 2+ and NO3 a charge of 1-, when you cross over the numbers you will find that it may look like Mg1NO32, this is not correct, and the way you write this is Mg(NO3)2, using brackets because all of what is in the brackets is now multiplied by two.Remember that you mustnt reduce polyatomic formulae, because the Polyatomic ion has to stay as its formula, the only instance is when you can reduce is when the charges are related, like 2- and 2+ or 4- and 2+Try itAluminum nitrate___________________________________________________________Al(NO3)3Lead (IV) carbonate__________________________________________________________Pb3(CO3)4Beryllium sulfate____________________________________________________________BeSO4Magnesium hydroxide________________________________________________________Mg(OH)2

Sample problemsNameFormulaFormulaName

Magnesuim sulfateLi2CO

Aluminium nitrateCa(NO3)2

Potassium hydroxideK2SO4

Calcium carbonateNaNO3

Beryllium sulfateAl(OH)3

Magnesium hydroxideCuSO4

Calcium sulfateNaOH

Lead (II) nitrateCuNO3

Copper (II) hydroxideFeSO4

Tin (IV) carbonatePb(CO3)2

Iron (II) sulfateFe2(SO4)3

Lead (IV) nitrateSn(NO3)2

Molecular compoundsDefinitionCovalent bonding is when electrons are shared within the bondMolecular compounds contain covalent bonds and are composed of two non-metals. Their characteristics are that they generally have low melting points, and they dont conduct electricity.Lesson IWhat happens when neither element is strong enough to pull an electron away from the other?ExampleIn the case of two hydrogen atoms, neither is able to pull away from the other, therefore they combine to make H2, sharing the two electrons among themselves.NoteElectrons are always shared in pairsExample IIIn the case of Hydrogen and oxygen, oxygen needs two more electrons, and hydrogen only has one electron. The one oxygen would bond with two of the hydrogen atoms, making H2O, also known as water.Writing formulas for molecular compounds with single bondsFirst, write the symbols, starting with the symbol of the element closest to the left of the periodic table.Then write the combining capacity, which has the same value as the ionic charge, but without + or -.Then crossover to produce the subscriptsExampleCarbon and SulfurCSC(4)S(5)-note that the numbers in the brackets should be written above the symbolsC5S4Keep in mind that molecular compounds can have single double or triple bondsNaming molecular compoundsThe ending s of molecular compounds must end with -ide, also, the compound names begin with the element to the left of the periodic table.When naming the compounds, prefixes are used to specify the number of atoms present for each molecule.The prefixesMono-, which can be dropped if it is the fist elementDi-Tri-Tetra-Penta-Hexa-Hepta-Octa-Nona-Deca-Try theseNO____________________N2O___________________NO2___________________N2O3__________________N2O4__________________N2O5__________________C5S4___________________SO2____________________SF6____________________CCl4___________________NI3____________________Diatomic moleculesSome elements commonly form compounds with two atoms, all of which are gasses, with the exception of bromine and iodine.These elements areHydrogen (H2)Oxygen (2)Fluorine (2)Bromide (2)Iodine (2)Nitrogen (2)Chlorine (2)These are written as the element, followed by Gas, keep in mind the exceptions of bromine iodineTry these:H2____________________Br2___________________Nitrogen gas____________Fluorine gas____________Molecules with common namesWaterH2OAmmoniaNH3Hydrogen peroxideH3O2MethaneCH4OzoneO3

Try theseNameSymbolSymbolName

Carbon DioxideCF4

Silicon DioxideNH3

WaterPbr3

Carbon DisulfideO3

Sulfur trioxideF2 (gas)

AmmoniaCS2

Carbon TetrachlorideN2O4

Hydrogen peroxideH2O2

MethaneCO

Ozone (Trioxide)SiC

Diphosphorus trioxideP2O5

Nitrogen trioxideCH4

Nitrogen monoxideSO3

Chlorine dioxideH2O

Dinitrogen oxideSiO2

Carbon monoxidePCl5

Arsenic tribromideI2 (gas)

Phosphorus pentabromideNO2

Dinitrogen tetroxideSF4

Silicon carbideH2 (gas)

Chemical equationsIntroductionChemical reactions can be written as equations . The format in which these are displayed is:Reactant(I) + Reactant (II) Product(I) + Product (II): Reacts to produceThe products will be new substances of different properties.Word equationsWord equations are written out by name, not by chemical formula:Water Oxygen gas + Hydrogen gasWhats going on here?Water is being split into oxygen gas and hydrogen gas through electrolysisSkeleton equationsReactants and products are written out in their equationsH2O O2 (g) + H2 (g)Note (I): This is not balancedNote (II): Sometimes, especially for gaseous substances, the states of the elements are written after the chemical formulas. Gas: (g) Solid: ( s) Liquid: (l ) In solution: (ag)The law of conservation of matterMatter cannot be created or destroyed.Therefore, the number of atoms must be equal in both sides of the Sometimes the number of atoms will not be equal in a reaction, so one must balance the equations.Balancing chemical equationsTake H2O O2 + H2This is not a balanced equation, and therefore, one must balance it. When one balances, their objective is to ensure that the left side equals the right side.Understand that the chemical composition CANNOT be changed (ex: H2O cannot be changed to H2O2, you may note that this results in a change from water to hydrogen peroxide)To balance equations, use a co-efficient, in front of an atom to balance. Never change subscripts.ExampleIn the case ofH2O H2 + O2Not balancedAdd a co-efficient of 2 to H2O and H2This becomes2H2O 2H2 + O2

Strategies for balancing equations Start from left to right Do one element at a time. Dont forget to change only the co-efficient; do not change subscripts

Chemicals in lifeMacro minerals

Many metals are prominent in our bodies, they are essential for a healthy, functioning body. Minerals, a commonly used misnomer, our body doesnt require any rocks or stones to function, they actually need ionic compounds, like table salt or NaCl. Many of the below minerals are beneficial to our bodies during exercise.Calcium Calcium makes up approximately 1.67% of a human body Calcium helps strengthen our bones and teeth, it improves nerve conduction, muscle contraction, energy production, immunity, and it prevents blood clotting Green leafy vegetables, like lettuce and spinach, as well as dairy products are excellent sources of calciumPhosphorous Phosphorous makes up approximately 1.14% of a human body Phosphorous, like calcium helps strengthen our bones, and phosphorous also is good for cellular function, and is a vital ingredient in cell membranes Dairy product, fish, eggs and meats are all excellent source of phosphorousPotassium Potassium makes up about 0.342% of a human body Potassium improves muscle contraction and nerve impulses Fruits and vegetables are excellent sources of potassiumSulfur Sulfur makes up about 0.228% of a human body Sulfur is vital for producing protein Meat, meat by-products (dairy products, eggs), garlic and onions are excellent sources of sulfurChloride Chloride makes up about 0.152% of a human body Chloride helps us maintain our bodys electrolyte and fluid balances, and our digestive juices Table salt is an excellent source of ChlorideSodium Sodium makes up about 0.137% of a human body Sodium helps us balance water in our tissues Table salt is an excellent source of sodiumMagnesium Magnesium makes up about 0.053% of a human body Magnesium is good for enzymes in our body, that help us break down food into energy Leafy greens, fish, nuts, beans and whole grains are excellent sources of Magnesium

Micro mineralsThe human body requires small amounts of some essential minerals, called micro mineralsIron Iron makes up about 0.00638% of a human body Iron is important for hemoglobin function and synthesis, enzyme actions in energy production, the production of collagen and elastine, and is also important for neurotransmitters Meats, especially organ meats, fish and spinach are good sources of ironFluorine Fluorine makes up about 0.00395% of a human body Fluorine is important because it binds the calcium in our bones and teeth Fluoridated water and toothpaste are excellent sources of fluorine Zinc Zinc makes up about 0.00465% of a human body Zinc is good for our eyesight, immunity, and many enzyme activities Whole grains, brewers yeast fish and meat are all good sources of zincCopper Copper makes up about 0.000137% of a human body Copper is important of hemoglobin synthesis and function, collagen production, elastin production, neurotransmitter production, and melanin formation Organ meats, shellfish, nuts and fruits are all good sources of copperIodine Iodine makes up 0.0000228% of a human body Iodine regulates metabolism, as par of thyroid hormones) Seafood and Iodised salt are good sources of iodineSelenium Selenium makes up about 0.0000228% of a human body Selenium is important for our metabolism Vegetables like broccoli, onions, celery, garlic and cabbage, as well as whole grains, brewers yeast and organ meats are good sources of seleniumManganese Manganese makes up about 0.00000198% of a human body Manganese serves many roles in the human body (none were specified in class) Grains and nuts are both good sources of manganeseMolybdenum Molybdenum makes up about 0.0000122% of a human body Molybdenum is important for detoxification of hazardous substances Organ meat, grains, leafy vegetables, milk and beans are good sources of molybdenumChromium Chromium makes up about 0.0000091% of a human body Chromium stimulates enzymes that use glucose for energy Whole grains, brewer's yeast, spices and meats are good sources of chromiumIons in our tap waterWater often contains dissolved minerals, and these are what makes water from one municipality taste different in another. Most water contains some ions that shouldn't be in it, and may actually be detrimental to our health.

Arsenic Arsenic can cause kidney damage, diarrhea, muscle tremors and convulsions It can get in our water through industrial waste dumpingCadmium Cadmium can cause kidney damage, and reduced brain and lung function It can get into our water from sources that have been affected by mining or quarrying, it can also get into our water from smoldering in pipesMercury Mercury can cause kidney damage, nervous system disorders and blood poisoning It can get into our water through paper millingLead Lead can cause nervous system damage, and is highly toxic to infants, pregnant women and symptoms of lead poisoning are vomiting, staggering walk, muscle weakness, seizures, and can eventually lead to comas Lead leaches from lead pipe and lead based solder in pipe jointsFluorine Although our bodies need a small amount of fluorine, too much can cause skeletal damage Fluorine is added to our drinking water by municipalities, and can also be found in toothpaste.Acids and basesAcidsAcids are compounds that increase the amount of hydrogen ions in waterEx: HCL: The hydrogen atom dissolves from the chlorine atom to form two ions in water.HCL(aq) --> H + ClPolyatomics in acidsSome polyatomics will also form acids in water.ExampleNO3 + H --> HNO3Try theseAcetic acid: HCH3COONitric acid: HNO3Nitrous acid: HNO2Chloric acid: HCLO3Carbonic acid: H2CO3Sulfuric acid: H2SO4Sulfurous acid: H2SO3Phosphoric acid: H3PO4Characteristics of acids Sour taste Water soluble Good at conducting electricity Corrosive in high concentrations Represented by 0-6 on a pH scaleMaking acidsAcids are made with non-metalsThese non-metals can be combined with oxygen through combustion, and this will react with water to form an acidExample IS+ O2 -->SO3C + O2 --> CO2Example IISO3 + H2O --> H2SO4CO2 + H2O --> H2CO3Note: These equations can work both ways, go to types of reactions (Below) for more information.

The composition of basesBases increase the amount of hydroxide ions in waterEx: NaOHNaOH (aq) --> Na + OMetals can join with OH to form basesEx: Ca + OH --> Ca(OH)2Try thesePotassium hydroxide________________________________________KOHAluminium hydroxide________________________________________Al(OH)2Iron (II) Hydroxide __________________________________________Fe(OH)2Copper (I) Hydroxide________________________________________CuOHCharacteristics of bases Bitter taste Water soluble Slippery texture Conducts electricity Represented by numbers 8-14 on the pH scaleMaking BasesBases are made with metalsMetals can be reacted with water (if reactive enough) to form basesEx: K + H2O --> H2O + KOHIf the metals do not react in water, they can be combined with oxygen (by combustion) to form a metal oxide and then added to water to form a base.

Metal oxides are always solidTry theseSymbolAcid or BaseName

KOHbase potassium hydroxide

H2SO4acidSulfuric acid

H2CO3ACIDhydro carbonic acid

NaOHbasesodium hydroxide

HClacidhydrochloric acid

NeutralityNeither an acid or a base, and represented by 7 on a pH scale.when they combine, hydrogen ions form the acid combine with the hydroxide ions to form the base, making water. This reduces the number of H and OH in both solutions, making them more neutral.ExampleHCl +NaOHH + Cl + Na + OH --> H2O +NaClIndicatorsWe can identify acids and bases using indicators. An indicator will change colour in the presence of hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions.List of indicators most commonly knownIndicatorColor in acidColor in base

litmusredblue

phenolphthalein colorlesspink

Bromothymol blueyellowblue

The pH scalepH stands for power of hydrogen, meaning the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solutionThe scale:AcidicNeutralBasic01234567891011121314

The pH scale is what we call a log scale, meaning logarithmic. Each step on the pH scale represents a 10x change in concentration of hydrogen ionsEx: pH 3 is 10x more acidic than pH 4 pH 3 is 100x more acidic than pH 5Types of reactionsMany chemical reactions (although not all of them) can be classified into one of four major categories, In each case the reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms.SynthesisA synthesis reaction also called an addition or combinations reaction, is a reaction in which atoms and molecules join together to produce larger molecules.Equations for synthesis reactions are usually of the type:

A + B --> ABExample2H2 +O2 --> 2H2ODecompositionDecomposition are just the opposite of synthesis reaction. in the case one compound decomposes, or breaks down in two. Equations for decomposition reactions are usually of this type:

AB --> A + BExample2H2O --> 2H2 +O2Single displacementDisplacement reactions involve a change of partners. In these reactions, one atom or group of atoms is replaced by another atom or group of atoms. Equations for displacement are usually of the type:

A + BC --> AC + BExampleCu + 2AgNO3 --> Cu (NO3)2 + 2AGDouble displacementDouble displacement reactions involve a joint exchange of partners. In other words, both of the compounds changed their partners to produce two new compounds.Equations for double displacement:

AB + CD --> AD + CB

Example2KI + Pb(NO3)2 --> PbI2 + 2KNO3PracticeBalance and classify the reaction of these equationsCu + O2 -->CuO_____________________________________

Al + Fe2O3 --> Al2O3 + Fe _____________________________________

Ag + S --> Ag2S_____________________________________

H2O + Electricity --> H2 + O2_____________________________________

FeS + HCl --> FeCl2 + H2S_____________________________________

NaCl --> Na + Cl2_____________________________________

NaOH + HCl --> NaCl +H2O_____________________________________

Zn + HCl --> ZnCl2 + H2_____________________________________

Write balanced chemical equations for the followingThe decomposition reaction of hydrogen sulfide

_____________________________________________________________________The single displacement reaction of copper (II) and silver nitrate

_____________________________________________________________________

The synthesis reaction of sodium and fluorine

_____________________________________________________________________

The double displacement reaction of aluminium sulfate and calcium hydroxide

_____________________________________________________________________Single and double displacement relationsWrite the balanced equations and the type of displacement reaction

BaO + Mg -->_______________________________________________

Type of displacement reaction__________________________________

CaOH + HCl --> _____________________________________________

Type of displacement reaction__________________________________

MgCl2 + Sr -->______________________________________________

Type of displacement reaction__________________________________Ca + H2O --> _______________________________________________

Type of displacement reaction__________________________________

NaOH +HBr --> ______________________________________________

Type of displacement reaction__________________________________KOH + HF --> _______________________________________________Type of displacement reaction__________________________________Ag2SO4 + Cu(NO3)2 --> ______________________________________Type of displacement reaction__________________________________

NomenclatureWrite the formulas for the following compoundsNameFormulaName Formula

Lead (II) nitrate

Copper (I) bromide

Silicon dioxide

Beryllium phosphide

Magnesium nitrate

Aluminium nitride

Lead (IV) fluoride

Nitrogen gas

Lithium iodide

Diphosphorus trioxide

Dinitrogen tetroxide

Iron (II) sulfate

Ammonia

Tin (IV) nitrate

Potassium hydroxide

Oxygen gas

Write the names of the following compoundsFormulaNameFormulaName

Mg3P2

CH4

N2O4

Fe2(SO4)3

FeSO4

CuI

NaNO3

H2O

PbCl4

FeP

F2

NaOH

CaO

PCl5

Na3N

Complete Nomenclature practiceNitrogen Gas

Copper(II) Fluoride

Sodium BicarbonateAluminum Carbonate

Calcium CarbonateLithium Hydroxide

Phosphoric AcidMolecular Sulfur

Oxygen GasTrinitrogen Tetrasulfide

Phosphorus DisulfideSodium Nitride

Molecular PhosphorusCalcium Selenide

Sodium ChlorideNitric Acid

Lead(IV) OxideAluminum Phosphate

Magnesium SulfateIron (II) Sulfide

Helium GasHydrogen Peroxide

Calcium HydroxideHydrogen Gas

Hydrofluoric AcidCarbon TetraChloride

Sulfurous AcidMethane

Potassium PhosphatePCl5

Copper(I) Nitride

MgS

Fluorine Gas

PbO

Calcium Phosphate

HClO3

Aluminum Sulfide

Ni(HCO3)2

Neon Gas

Cl2

Iron(II) SulfateCu2SO4

WaterCH4

Carbon MonoxideMg(OH)2

Iron(III) NitrideBeO

Lead(II) OxideLiNO2

Dinitrogen TrioxideHNO2

Silicon DioxidePBr3

Sodium BicarbonateFeBr3

Optics Study DocumentThe ray model of lightLight generally travels in straight lines, unless it encounters different mediums or optical densities.This can be shown through optical ray diagrams:

The orange circle emits light; this light is represented by the lines ending in arrows. The arrows indicate the direction of travel of the rays. We can use ray diagrams like these to explain and demonstrate different phenomena we see with light, such as in mirror problems.How do we see things? ExplanationWe see things because they reflect light from other light sources into our eyes. Most objects give off light in all directions (scatter) because they dont have a very smooth surface. Mirrors on the other hand have a very smooth surface, so they generally give off light in one direction.Light that scatters off of uneven surfaces is divergent lightEven surfaceUneven surface (Divergent light)

Our eyes tell us where light diverges from, for exampleSun

Important termsOpaque objects, like the cube in the diagram on page 1 absorb and reflect energy, but they do not transmit energy.Translucent materials, such as stained glass and wrapping paper do transmit some light, but not enough to see through the material clearly.

Transparent materials such as glass and clear plastic transmit light freely

You may be thinking that: If light is transmitted freely through glasses, windows and other transparent things, how come we can see them?The answer is that light refracts, or bends and reflects off of the surfaces of these objectsIt is however difficult for migratory birds to see windows at night, because of the bright indoor lights, shining out. Light reflectionLight behaves consistently, when interacting with a flat surface, or a Plane MirrorThe relationship between the where the light source is shone upon a mirror (angle of incidence), vs. where it is reflects (angle of reflection) isAngle of incidence = Angle of reflectionThis means

A B

Basically A=BImportant termsThe normal: A line drawn perpendicular to the mirror at the point of reflection. (The blue line)Incident ray: The incoming rayAngle of incidence: The angle between the incident ray and the normal. (Angle A)Reflected ray: The outgoing rayAngle of reflection: The angle between the reflected ray and the normal. (Angle B)The law of reflection: Seeing images in a mirrorImages are the optical counterparts of objects produced by an optical device, such as a lens or mirror.Virtual images are any image formed by rays that do not come from the location of the image. Images that we see from a plane mirror are virtualWe locate images in a mirror, the same way we locate objects in the world because our brains do not process them differently. The point where our brain believes an object originates from is what we can see on a mirror.DiagramNote: The blue line is the mirror, and the purple line is the normal.

The angle in which light reflects on to the mirror, with regards to the normal is equal to the angle in which it reflects off of the mirror. We can use ray diagrams to figure out if we can see something in a mirror.ExampleRaymond has a neck injury that prevents him from looking down (how unfortunate). He wants to look at his shoes and all he has is a mirror mounted on the wall at about eye level. He is standing at a set distance from the mirror.

Raymond cannot see his feet.Light wavesA wave of light is a disturbance that transfers energy from one point to another, like the ripples in a pond after you throw a stone in it.Wavelength: The distance from one place in a wave to the same point in the next wave. Represented by lambda ()Frequency: The rate of wave repetition. Measured in Hz (Hertz, cycles per second) represented by FSpeed: How quickly the wave travels. (velocity) Represented by SFrequencies and wavelength are relatedAs frequencies increase, wavelengths decreaseAs frequencies decrease, wavelengths increaseFrequency and wavelength have an inverse relationshipThe mathematical relationship between speed (v), frequency (f) and wavelength () isSpeed= frequency X wavelength)ExampleIf the wavelength is .10m and the frequency is 5 Hz, what is the speedGiven =.1 and f=5HzRequired: v=?)Substitute known values

StatementThe speed of the wave is .50 metres per secondPractice1. Two children are skipping rope in a park, they produce waves by moving the rope up and down. If the waves are .3 metres in length and they produce the waves at .5 m/s, what is the frequency of the waves?

2. Radio waves travel at the speed of light (299,792,458 m/s), and can be 30 metres long, what is the frequency of these waves

3. Some students are dropping weights in a pool, making ripples, the ripples are moving at about 5 m/s and at a frequency of 420 Hz, how long are the ripples

4. A boat bobs up and down on a lake at a frequency of 20 Hz (cycles per minute), if the wavelengths are .5 metres long, what is the speed of the waves

Converging mirrorsDefinition Also known as concave mirrors, converging mirrors reflect surface curves inward like a bowl.Ray diagram terminology1. Vertex: The middle point of a curved mirror2. Centre of curvature: the centre of the whole circle. (If the curve of the mirror is extended, this point will be the middle of the circle created.)3. Principle axis: The line about which the mirror is symmetrical4. Focus: The point at which parallel light into a curved mirror converges

3.)Principle axis

2.) Center of curvature 1.) Focus 1.)Vertex

Rays and the way they reflectIn concave mirrors, there are four lines that can be used to determine the reflected image1. Lines that go through the focus will reflect parallel to the normal.2. Lines that go parallel to the normal will reflect through the focus.3. Rays that go through the vertex will have the same angle of incidence as the angle of reflection4. Lines on the principle axis come back to the centre of curvature.Generally, the fourth line does not need to be used

Considering that all lines start from one point, where they (all three lines) converge, meaning come together, is where that point will be reflected to, on the other side of the parallel axisThe image must now be described, the way to describe this is with SALT, salt is Size: Can be larger or smaller Attitude: upright or inverted Location: Beyond, between or in front of the focus Type: Real or virtualExplanation of SALTSize is the size in comparison to the original shapeAttitude is whether it is the same way the shape is pointing or if it is flipped aroundLocation is where the reflected image is in comparison to the focusType is where the arrow is drawn in with regards to the mirror, if it is in front; it is real, if behind then virtualApplication of salt to the above diagram Size: Larger Attitude: Inverted Location: Beyond the focus Type: RealDiverging mirrorsAlso known as a convex mirror, the reflecting surface curves outwardThe line rules from converging mirrors apply to diverging mirrors, but in this instance, the focus and the centre of curvature are on the opposite of mirror1. Lines that are parallel to the normal will reflect at the same angle as if they go through the focus2. Lines that align to go through the focus will come back out parallel to the normal3. A ray to the vertex will have the same angle of incidence as that of reflection4. A line going through the centre of curvature will come straight back

Dont forget SALT Size: Smaller Altitude: upright Location: in front of Type: VirtualNote that if the object is on the focus, no image is formed, and if it is in front of the focus, the image will be virtual.Snells LawSnells law is a formula that uses values for the index of refraction to calculate the new angle that light ray will take after entering a different medium. In Snells law, the indexes of refraction of the two media areand , the angles of incidence and refraction are and The Formula for Snells law is

When encountering, use the G.R.A.S.S method and the formula, re-arrange formula if need be.ExampleUse the G.R.A.S.S method to solve for the angle of refractionGivenIndex of refraction of air Index of refraction of still waterAngle of incidence RequiredAngle of refraction Analysis and solution

StatementThe angle of refraction is approximately RefractionLenses like those in glasses and microscopes use refraction to direct light and focus it. When light moves through a medium that is more or less optically dense, the light will bendRefraction properties are also used in fiber optics to transmit information. Fiber optics transmits information at the speed of light. Fiber optics also allow the use of a higher bandwidth. Refraction is the bending of light rays as they pass from one medium into anotherRefraction occurs when light slows down or speeds up because it passes from one medium to another medium with different optical densityOptical density, also known as the index of refraction is a measure of how much the speed of light is slowed down in that medium. The higher the optical density, the slower light travels. This is why deeper bodies of water seem shallower to the naked eye and straws and spoons seem to break when they enter a glass of translucent liquid. Light travelling from a less optically dense medium will move towards the normal Light travelling from a more optically dense medium will move away from the normalFinding the index of refractionThe formula for finding the index of refraction is

n is the refractive index c is the speed of light in a vacuum v is the speed of light in the medium the refractive index is being calculated forExampleThe speed of light in a sample of glass is Calculate the reflective index of the glass using the speed of light in a vacuum using GRASSGivenThe speed of light in the sampleThe speed of light in a vacuum Required

Analysis and solution

Manipulate the equation to solve for other variables

Different sources of lightIncandescence: The act of generating light through being heated Incandescent light bulbs contain a filament that generates light when heatedTriboluminescence: The act of generating light through friction The ionization of nitrogen through friction is a strong reaction that creates some lightElectric Discharge: Discharge between electrodes creating visible streamers of ionized particles Lightning is an example of Electric Discharge, electrodes in clouds create flashes of lightPhosphorescence: The act of emitting light from stored energy Glow in the dark materials are generally phosphorescentChemiluminescent: The emission of light from a chemical reaction Glow sticks are an example of Chemiluminescence, numerous chemicals combine to generate light

Climate ChangeThe Greenhouse effectThe greenhouse effect happens when sunlight passes through the atmosphere. Some of the solar radiation is absorbed, while the rest reflects back as infrared radiationSome of the infrared radiation is contained within the atmosphere, because of greenhouse gasses. Gasses like carbon monoxide, methane and ozone trap some of the radiation. This heats the atmosphere. Although this is good, because it ensures that our planet stays at a good temperature, too many greenhouse gasses will cause the temperature to rise The carbon cycleDecay of organics

Cellular respiration and Burning

Carbon Gas EmissionsCarbon offsets Individuals or corporation can purchase carbon offsets to reduce their carbon footprints. These offsets compensate for their greenhouse gas emissions by contributing money or resources to improve a carbon sink. The money provided has various uses; the main uses are development of renewable energy and re-forestation.Emissions trading Governments can legislate the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions. A government may decide on the annual amount of carbon Dioxide that each company can emit. If a company reduces its emissions to under the government rate, they can trade the surplus allowance of carbon to other companies who have exceeded their maximums.Carbon TaxA fee that is payable from an individual or company for creating greenhouse gasses. It is considered a tax for polluting our atmosphere. The government collects these taxes and uses them to neutralize the amount of harm being done to the atmosphere.The effects of climate change in the atmosphereHeat wavesA hot, humid and often smoggy air mass in an area is a heat wave. Heat waves are becoming more frequent, wide spread and severe than in the past. As air becomes warmer, soil, lakes and rivers will become warmer, potentially causing a shift in climate zone borders.DroughtWith no seasonal precipitation, water sources recede, soil and crops dry up, and animals die, leaving the population with inadequate food and water supply.FloodsWhen the air temperature warms up rapidly in spring, the snow can melt too quickly for the rivers and streams to handle the run off. These seasonal floods can damage property, crop land and habitats. Floods are becoming much more frequent and severe.

The effects of climate change on wildlifeThe territory of some animals and plants are shifting, this threatens many organisms.There has been a decline in fish stocks, such as pacific salmon due to increasing ocean temperaturesBecause of artic sea ice melting, polar bear populations have been decreasing, and the bears have been found more south than ever beforeOther organisms however benefit from increased temperaturesFree living jellyfish populations have increased in coastal areas of oceansMany organisms gain a larger habitat because of the warming.Evidence of climate changeIce cores: Ice contains bubbles of air, and samples of water that give clues about weather patterns in certain years, seasons and periodsTree rings: Because each tree ring is formed each year, the size of these rings can give clues to weather patterns in a certain year. A larger ring means that there were better growing conditions at the timeIce Cover: Measuring the amount of ice, and its receding/expanding gives climatologists key information about climate changeClimoraphs: Show average monthly and yearly precipitation and temperatures. They demonstrate how the climate patterns are changingExtreme weather events: Climate change causes more extreme and frequent weather patterns, tornadoes, hurricanes and intense storms are a product of global warming.