Past Questions: Government, economy and society in the Republic of Ireland, 1949 – 1989

2006 LCHHow do you account for the political instability and the economic problems of the period, 1949 – 1959? To what extent do you agree that Seán Lemass, as Taoiseach, transformed the country and its foreign

relations? In what ways were attitudes towards the Irish language and Irish culture changing during the period,

1949-1989? What were the social and economic effects of Irish membership of the EEC during the period, 1973–89?

2007 LCHWhat were the main features of the First Programme for Economic Expansion, 1958-1963, and how

Successful was it for the economy and society? What changes did the government introduce in one or more of the following during the period, 1949-

1989: education; health; social welfare? What impact had membership of the EEC on economy and society in Ireland after 1973?What impact had one or more of the following on Irish society: Archbishop John Charles McQuaid; Gay

Byrne; Breandán Ó hEithir; Mary Robinson?

2008 LCHWhat were the main social and economic challenges facing Ireland in the period, 1949-1959? What did people such as Sylvia Meehan and/or Mary Robinson contribute to the changing role of woman

in the Republic of Ireland, 1949-1989?How effective was Jack Lynch as Taoiseach in his management of Ireland’s internal and external affairs? What was the impact of the communications revolution (including television) on Ireland?

2009 LCHWhat was the contribution of T.K. Whitaker and/or Seán Lemass to economic change in Ireland? How did membership of the UN and/or the EEC affect the Irish Republic? During the period 1949-1989, what changes took place in education and/or attitudes towards Irish

language and culture? What impact had one or more of the following on Irish society: Archbishop J.C. McQuaid; Garret

FitzGerald; Mary Robinson?

2010 LCHDuring the period 1949-1959, how successful were the social and economic policies of Irish

governments?How effective was Seán Lemass as Taoiseach in his management of internal and external affairs? What were the main challenges facing Irish governments in the 1970s and 1980s, and how well did they

deal with them? What was the impact of television and/or Vatican II on the Republic of Ireland?

2011 LCHDuring the period 1949-1989, what were the main developments in one or more of the following:

education; health; social welfare? Which affected the Republic of Ireland more, membership of the UN or membership of the EEC? Argue

your case, referring to both. What was the contribution to Irish affairs of Charles Haughey and/or Garret FitzGerald?What did one or more of the following contribute to changing attitudes in the Republic of Ireland:

T.K. Whitaker; Gay Byrne; Mary Robinson?

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CASE STUDY: The Impact of RTE, 1962-721. Background

In the 1950s, parts of Ireland along the east and north-east of the country could receive British television. In 1961, 30,000 houses were able to receive British television. A government commission was set up to examine the possibility of establishing a television station in Ireland. As a result the government passed the Broadcasting Act, 1960. This set up the Radio Eireann Authority, which controlled radio and television services. Telefis Eireann began broadcasting on 31 December 1961. There was a live transmission from O'Connell Street. President de Valera, and government ministers spoke, including the minister in charge (Post and Telegraphs). By 1971, 536,000 homes had RTE, which increased to almost 800,000 by 1989. Telefis Eireann expanded in the 1960s and 1970s by developing new Irish-based programmes for schools, and showing Irish sport and comedy.

2. Impact

‘Television programmes took viewers on voyages of discovery of Irish society. Many did not like what they saw.’ Telefis Eireann had a major impact on Irish life. News of Irish and foreign events was broadcast. This made Irish people more aware of conditions in other parts of Ireland and abroad, such as in Africa and Asia. Irish people were introduced to foreign cultures while Irish music and Gaelic games had extensive coverage. Feach, a weekly current-affairs programme in Irish, attracted 600,000 viewers for some editions. Breandan O hEithir was a reporter and presenter on the programme. The Riordans, a rural soap opera, showed country life to city people while Tolka Row, a Dublin-based soap opera, showed city life to country people. Radharc, which specialised in religious programmes, was produced for RTE by an independent production company run by Catholic priests and lay staff. Telifis Feirme provided information and instruction for Ireland's farmers.

3. Gay Byrne and The Late Late Show

The Late Late Show was produced and presented by Gay Byrne. It was first produced for 8 weeks in the summer of 1962 but it became the world's longest-running chat show. Byrne was both host and producer of the show. Many controversial topics were first aired on the show, such as the role of the Catholic Church, contraception, AIDS, unemployment. Religion, the Irish language and sex became issues which were talked about openly. Bishops, priests and politicians were questioned and criticised. One critic later said ‘there was no sex in Ireland before The Late Late Show.’ Byrne also provided a forum for new Irish talent such as bands (like U2), comedians and dancers. The variety of topics and the controversy ensured a wide audience appeal. It also influenced the shape of Irish opinion, opening for discussion many topics that would not otherwise have been discussed publicly. Gay Byrne held mainly middle-class, conservative views yet The Late Late Show, which was broadcast on Saturday nights and switched to Fridays, contributed to the modernisation of Irish society through the 60s and 1970s.

4. Television and Women’s Rights

In the 1950s, the percentage of women in the workforce was low and women had lower-paid jobs. Women were expected to be wives and mothers. The Irish Women's Liberation Movement was founded in 1970. It wanted equal pay, equal educational opportunities and the availability of contraception. It used publicity to highlight these issues; for example, it openly organised the illegal importing of contraceptives from Northern Ireland. However, it was the medium of television, particularly The Late Late Show which highlighted women's issues in a major ground-breaking programme in 1971. The future President of Ireland Mary Robinson, the legal advisor to the Irish Women's Liberation Movement, spoke on their behalf on the show. As a result of the programme, more attention was paid to reports such as that by the Commission on the Status of Women. This led to the setting up of the Council for the Status of Women in 1973. Consequently, the 'marriage bar', which had forced married women to give up civil-service jobs, was lifted in 1973 while equal pay for equal work was made law in 1974.

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5. The 1970s

Different points of view were brought out into the open. This contrasted with the closed society of the 1950s. The spread of television reduced the influence of the Catholic Church, which was more openly criticised and which could not control the discussion of many subjects or topics. Current affairs/politics were discussed but there had to be fair and balanced coverage. Discussion and investigation of political topics caused controversy. Television changed the style of electioneering; the sound bite and instant comment became more important. Seven Days introduced investigative reporting; government politicians did not like criticism and they clashed with RTE. In the early 1970s, the government viewed RTE 'as an instrument of public policy' as they believed that RTE was under government supervision! The Troubles in Northern Ireland presented further problems for RTE. Section 31 was used by the government to control access to television by the Provisional IRA and Sinn Fein. An interview with Sean MacStiofain, head of the IRA, led to the sacking of the RTE Authority. British and American culture was portrayed in many programmes, particularly the consumer culture.

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CASE STUDY: Impact of the EEC on Fisheries1. Background

Ireland benefited greatly from membership of the EEC in 1973. It opened up continental markets to Irish agriculture and industry, thus lessening dependence on the British market. Irish exports to EEC states other than Britain rose from 5 per cent in 1958 to 35 per cent in 1985. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) increased farmers' incomes by giving higher prices and providing subsidies. Industry gained because more markets were now available for Irish products; industry had been adapting since 1960 to free trade. This began to happen with the impact of the Anglo-Irish Free Trade Area Agreement and it continued when Ireland joined the EEC. Ireland was regarded as a disadvantaged area so it was entitled to financial help. Ireland received large transfers of money from the EEC through the social and regional policies of the European Regional Development Fund, set up in 1975 to reduce differences between the richer and poorer regions. Ireland became more attractive to foreign investment because it was now part of the larger EEC market. However, small-scale Irish industry suffered from competition, resulting in job losses. Fishing was one such industry under threat.

2. State of Fishing Industry and EEC Entry

Irish fishing grounds are the last fertile fishing grounds in Western Europe. The continental shelf around Ireland provides a shallow fertile area. The Irish fishing industry made good progress in the 1960s, but it was still underdeveloped when Ireland joined the EEC. There were only about 6,000 full- and part-time fishermen in Ireland in 1973. Irish boats were small and Ireland had the smallest EEC fleet. Fishing remained close to the shore and Denmark caught 20 times more fish. The Irish negotiations for entry to the EEC included agreement on fisheries. This allowed fishermen from other EEC countries to fish in the waters around Ireland. Irish fishermen feared that the bigger EEC trawlers, which had already overfished their own waters, would now move to Irish waters. However, Ireland and Britain were given a ten-year exemption from the free-access rule while Ireland could take advantage of increased markets in Europe. Bord lascaigh Mhara (BIM) was set up in 1952 to develop Irish fishing. Progress was slow as by 1973 Ireland was still behind other EEC countries. After 1973, BIM opened offices abroad to expand markets to the Continent to develop added-value products and to develop more processing facilities in Ireland.

3. Exclusion Zone

In 1975 Iceland declared a 200-mile exclusion zone around the island. This deprived some EEC boats of fishing waters. It forced the EEC to also declare a 200-mile fishery zone around its waters. The fishing industry became more of a business. There were improved processing facilities, better ports, and the development of marine engineering to service boats. By 1986 there were over 12,000 people employed full- or part-time in the industry, an increase of over 50 per cent on the 1975 levels. There were many more employed in the ancillary industries which serviced the fishing industry. The fishing industry provided employment in areas such as the West and North-West, which had little other employment. But Ireland had failed to develop adequate business training for skippers (captains) and boat owners. The Irish fish catch was fixed at the level of catch obtaining at the time of EEC accession. In 1985, over 80 per cent of boat owners were in arrears on repayments and a package had to be brought in to save them.

4. Militant Action

There was an increase in illegal fishing, because of quotas. The EEC opened Irish waters to trawlers from France and later Spain. Irish fishermen set up the Irish Fishermen's Organisation in 1974 to lobby the government on the fishing industry. Fishermen complained that the Irish negotiators gave concessions on fishing in order to gain better terms for farming. They demanded a 50-mile limit for Irish fishermen. The Irish government backed this demand, but eventually had to drop it because the EEC refused to grant it. The fishermen blockaded six ports in support of their demands. The Minister for Foreign Affairs, Garret Fitzgerald, obtained EEC agreement to allow the expansion of the Irish fishing

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industry. Ireland was allowed to double its catch between 1977 and 1979. The Irish government planned to expand the fishing fleet and shore-based industry and services. The EEC wanted to conserve fisheries; they banned herring fishing to conserve stocks.

5. Results (i)

The Common Fisheries Policy was agreed in 1983 and this policy remains the EEC's system for the management of fisheries and aquaculture. It sets fishing limits, establishes catches and quotas, and develops structural policy. Spain and Portugal joined the EEC in 1986; they had large fishing industries and large trawlers, which now had access to Irish waters. The argument was made that Irish fishing was prevented from developing its full potential, owing to quotas. However, Irish fishermen took advantage of EEC grants and loans to buy better boats and equipment.

6. Results (ii)

What was really needed was a modern business approach to the industry. As J.J. Lee has written, ‘Irish coastal waters appear to be sufficiently favoured by fish to make it worthwhile for foreign fisherman to come here. If Irish fishermen cannot compete with them, it is not because the fish have chosen to boycott them.’ Yet fishing provided jobs in economically backward sections of the West of Ireland, especially Galway and Donegal and the numbers employed grew by half between 1973 and 1990. Government policy was too fragmented in the past. Again, Lee is most perceptive: ‘In the modest but promising field of fish-farming, the industry must liaise with no fewer than fifteen official bodies.’ In the long-term, the fishing industry must progress technologically rather than bureaucratically.

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Inter-Party Governments 1948-51 and 1954-571. Foreign Affairs

‘Ottawa Statement’ September 1948: Costello makes known that Ireland will declare itself a republic.- Offshoot of inconsistencies in 1936 External Relations Act (king: symbolic ‘sleeping partner’)- Private ‘Republic Bill’ already tabled by Peadar O’Donnell- Chance for Costello to outmanoeuvre Mac Bride in his own area of expertise

1949 Republic of Ireland Act: Ireland declared a republic and no longer a Commonwealth member but GB still considered Irish citizens as Commonwealth subjects for the purposes of residency.

1949 Ireland Act: Partition was ‘copper-fastened’ by this act (i.e. boundaries of Northern Ireland would remain unchanged unless Stormont gave approval).

NATO entry rejected because of partition issue (condemned by all parties esp. Clann na Poblachta). Not important to US as they had bases in Northern Ireland.

Council of Europe 1949: Beginning of long history of European integration._______________________________________________________________________________________

2. Agriculture

James Dillon (Minister for Agriculture) sought to reintroduce the old slogan as policy: ‘One more cow, one more sow, one more acre under the plough.’

1947 1951Cows 1,166,00 1,182,00 [Total number of cattle rose from 2,405,000 to 2,711,000]Sows 40,000 59,000Acres 724,000 620,000

Land Rehabilitation Project: aimed to reclaim 1 m. acres at the cost of £10 an acre.- Funding of project came from Marshall Aid: £36 m. out of expected £120 m. (seven-eighths

on loan); set to ‘transform our country’ (Costello): 50% of govmt. investments during First IPG.- Project should have developed agricultural efficiency and generated returns on existing land.

_______________________________________________________________________________________

3. Industry

Industrial Development Authority 1949: many initial problems during its foundation- Dan Morrissey (Minister for Industry/Commerce): described as ‘hapless’ by Noel Browne- Dept. of Finance: resented intrusion on its territory and repeatedly stressed that the IDA should

consider themselves ‘fact-finders…not mastermind-planners.’ (Dept. memo)- Dillon:‘Under existing conditions, it is frequently impossible to know who is ultimately

responsible for anything...’ 1948 Local Govmt. estimates: 110,000 houses required (Ministers T.J. Murphy & M.J. Keyes)

- 1951: 11,305 houses completed with state aid (ten-fold increase since 1947!) Patrick McGilligan: expansionist Minister for Finance – advocated borrowing for expenditure; aided

by Patrick Lynch: economic advisor to Costello- Long-Term Recovery Programme (October 1948): ‘doubling’ of exports by 1952-53 (!)- OEEC criticised the Irish report, stating that there was ‘little information on investment policy’- 1947 taken as base year for future performance (worst weather on record and ‘Foot and Mouth’)- Long-term projects (afforestation, electricity, telephones) offered no hope of short-term returns.

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4. Health

Mother and Child Scheme: De Valera created new Health and Social Welfare departments in Jan. 1947 - Appointed Dr Jim Ryan, a consummate politician: Dev foresaw importance of portfolio

Succeeded by Noel Browne; only other Clann na Poblachta minister; minister on first day in Dail- Free medical service for mothers and children up to age of 16 (doctors: possible state salary?)- Medical inspection of schools- Succeeded in eradicating TB and limiting of contagious diseases

RCC objections by Archbishops McQuaid (Dublin) and Browne (Galway); Irish Medical Organisation opposed scheme on behalf of doctors

- State sought to replace Catholic social teaching and take away parents’ right to choose- No cabinet approval for Noel Browne’s scheme (deliberately isolated)- March 1951: Scheme implemented - April 1951: Browne resigned as Minister

1953 Health Act: Fianna Fail introduced almost identical scheme (apart from modest means test)_______________________________________________________________________________________

5. Second IPG 1954-57:

1954 Election: Fianna Fail fell to 65 seats (from 69) due to ‘austere economics’ (Terence Brown) while

Fine Gael won 50 seats (up from 40 in 1951); Clann na Poblachta lost 8 of its 10 seats Gerald Sweetman: Minister for Finance (conservative approach)

- 1955: Balance of Payments deficit = £35 million- Agricultural exports were to blame primarily (inefficient production methods)- 1956: Higher taxes as a consequence

Clann na Poblachta support withdrawn in 1957 (seats fell from 3 to 1) – had ceased to be ‘…an attractive blend of radical republicanism and of social and economic reform.’ (J.A. Murphy)

1957 Election: Fianna Fail – 77 seats; Fine Gael – 40 seats Although it had gained power in 1948 in an anti-De Valera coalition (‘A common enemy covers a

multitude of differences’), the IPG was notable if only because it ‘showed there was a viable alternative to Fianna Fail.’ (J.J. Lee)

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What was the contribution of Sean Lemass to Irish political life as Taoiseach?

1. Background

The outbreak of World War 2 ended all hopes of economic expansion, and survival became the national imperative. Lemass was one of the three-man Cabinet emergency committee which devised the policies needed to cope with the situation. He was also Minister for Supplies (or "Shortages", as the joke of the time had it) and was chiefly concerned with rationing. However, he was respected, especially because of his single-minded pursuit of those involved in black market activities. Through radio and the newspapers he constantly prepared the people "for the worst", which meant that it never came. Thus he mitigated some of the discomfort of the Emergency. In 1942, Lemass persuaded the government to set up a committee to plan for the post-Emergency situation. However, when the war ended few Ministers had the physical or mental energy to embark on the economic revival urged by Lemass. This, coupled with the unavailability of raw materials, and bad relations with employers and workers (resulting from severe labour laws necessitated by the Emergency) made it impossible for Lemass to push his economic plans to a successful conclusion.

By 1948 it was clear that the country was turning against Fianna Fail. When Clann na Poblachta won a number of by-elections, Lemass persuaded de Valera to call a general election - which he did, and lost. In opposition from 1948-1951 and 1954-1957, Lemass became director of organisation after the 1954 general election, and his efforts led to the general election victory of 1957 when the party won 78 seats, the largest number ever.

2. Taoiseach

Lemass became Taoiseach when de Valera was elected president in 1959. Many older Ministers were replaced by younger men. Cabinet meetings became quick and decisive. Ministers were encouraged to take initiatives. For example, in September 1966, Donagh O'Malley, the Minister for Education, announced his scheme for free post-primary education for all - even though the matter had never been discussed in Cabinet. (Perhaps this was Lemass's way of outflanking conservative colleagues worried about costs). T.K. Whittaker drew up the First Programme for Economic Expansion in 1958. The programme encouraged an open, free-trade economy in contrast with the closed protectionist economy of the 1930s. Nevertheless, Lemass implemented it, for while protectionism had been needed to encourage industrial development in the 1930s, it merely encouraged inefficiency in the 1950s. Knowing that Irish companies lacked the money and expertise to engage in large-scale foreign trade, Lemass offered "tax-free holidays" and other incentives to foreign companies establishing export-oriented industries in Ireland. The economy quickly showed results. Employment, production and exports increased and there was a dramatic decline in emigration.

3. Economy

Economic vulnerability of the 1950’s was primarily due to a heavy reliance on a narrow range of exports to a single market; therefore, a diversification of markets and policies was necessary.

Garret Fitzgerald: ‘…the snatching by the Department of Finance of the initiative in planning.’

Programme for Economic Expansion (Lemass’ methods for modernising Ireland)1. Movement from protection to free trade2. Encouragement of foreign investment (IDA and Coras Trachtala: heavily funded to attract same)3. Export-oriented agriculture4. Industrial growth based on private and public sector co-operation (i.e. planning and management)

1959-64: proposed budget of £220 million to achieve aims; actually closer to £297 million!8

1959: Manufacturing exports rose as much as 1951-8 period: £25.1 million to £35.6 million. 1961: Committee on Industrial Organisation – analyses of Irish industrial sector. 1963: Unilateral tariff cuts (joined GATT). 1964: Control of Manufacturers Act abolished 1965: Anglo-Irish Free Trade Agreement: tariff-free access to GB markets. 1950-58: Annual Growth Rate – 1%; 1959-73: Annual Growth Rate – 4%

4. Social Change

Education: ‘There was no realisation of the importance of education in the modern world.’ (Lemass 1969)

Best ministers given Education portfolio: Patk. Hillery, George Colley and Donagh O’Malley Secondary schools bore greatest challenge – Investment in Education report: 1966 Comprehensive schools established with a broader range of subjects: 1963 Secondary building grants initiated: 1964 Free education system: 104,000 in 1966 – 144,000 pupils in 1969

Housing: Still a huge problem given slow growth of economy and lack of post-war development.

Dwellings with 2 or more people per room – 1961: 63,000 1966: 59,000 Number of new houses built with state aid did not surpass 1955 figure (of 10,490) until 1968 Emphasis on social/developmental institutes: NIEC (1963); ERI (1964); An Foras Forbartha (1964)

5. Political Change

‘…it is clear to all that the hour and the man are well-matched.’ (Irish Press editorial 1957)

October ’61 election: dropped from 78 to 70 seats – FF in a minority government until 1965 Irish application to EEC vetoed by France in 1961 (De Gaulle: anti-GB) Ministers and civil servants of a high calibre came to the fore in Foreign Affairs: Conor Cruise O’Brien;

Con Cremin; F.H. Boland – sought to model Ireland’s international role on Sweden. Irish contributions to anti-colonialism (re: Aiken), peace-keeping (re: Congo 1961-4) and disarmament. Took part in 7 of 12 UN peace-keeping missions – only matched by three other countries.

6. Foreign Affairs

Hitherto, Lemass had shown little interest in foreign affairs; as Taoiseach, he had to. His efforts to join the EEC and EFTA failed, but he secured a favourable free-trade agreement with Britain. He followed a pro-US, anti-Communist line internationally and played an active role in the United Nations. It was during his time as Taoiseach that large contingents of Irish troops began to serve in UN peace-keeping forces. Lemass was a committed nationalist who believed passionately in the unification of the island. However, he rarely resorted to republican rhetoric, believing that unity could best be achieved by showing goodwill to the North. Terence O'Neill, the Northern Prime-Minister, wished to break the political log-jam in his part of the island, and he calculated that a meeting with Lemass would accomplish this. The meeting took place in January 1965. Lemass declared that "things will never be the same again". Unionists shouted "betrayal", and turned to violence to express their distaste for any accommodation with the South. Lemass was now conscious of his age. His powers showed no sign of failing but he did not want to become "a national monument". He resigned as Taoiseach in 1966, retired from the Dail in 1969 and died in 1971.

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‘Lemass is different somehow to the rest of us.’ – Gerry Boland

The Impact of EEC Membership

1. Ireland joined the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973, along with Britain and Denmark. Patrick Hillery was appointed Ireland’s first Commissioner. His portfolio was Social Affairs.

2. Ireland benefited greatly from membership of the EEC. Membership of the EEC opened up continental markets to Irish agriculture and industry. This lessened dependence on the British market. Irish exports to EEC states other than Britain rose from 5% in 1958 to 35% in 1985.

3. Agriculture: The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) increased farmers’ incomes by giving higher prices and providing subsidies. CAP increased output.

4. Industry: Industry gained because more markets were now available for Irish products; industry was adapting since 1960 to free trade. But small-scale Irish industry suffered from competition which resulted in job losses. This began to happen with the impact of the Anglo-Irish Free Trade Area Agreement and it was continued when Ireland joined the EEC. Ireland became more attractive for foreign investment because it was now part of the larger EEC market. US and Japanese firms were attracted to set up factories here. However, Ireland did not gain immediately because of the effects of the first and second Oil Crises (1973 and 1979).

5. Funds: Ireland was regarded as a disadvantaged area of the EEC so it was entitled to financial help. Ireland got large transfers of money from the EEC through the social and regional policies. The European Regional Development Fund was set up in 1975 to reduce differences between the richer and poorer regions in the EEC.

6. Ireland joined the European Monetary System in 1979 but Britain did not. This cut the link between the Irish pound and £sterling. But this presented difficulties for the Irish economy. Irish interest rates increased in the 1980s and this contributed to higher unemployment.

7. But Ireland closed the gap in living standards between itself and the average EEC living standards – by 1990 Ireland had almost caught up.

8. Reform of social policy was speeded up by EEC membership – these included equal pay, development of women’s rights. Mary Robinson played an important part in using European rulings to force changes in Ireland.

9. Ireland’s role as President of the European Council has been very effective and has increased the prestige of the country in Europe. Membership strengthened Ireland’s sense of identity (the sense of being Irish). It put Britain and Ireland on a more equal status.

10. The government in Dublin has got more power over the country because only it could negotiate directly with the EEC.

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The 1960s – Lemass, Lynch, Economic Expansion and International Involvement

The Lemass Era, 1959-19661. Sean Lemass became Taoiseach after de Valera resigned.

Fianna Fáil failed to win an overall majority in the 1961 general election so Lemass led a minority government from 1961 to 1965.

2. Lemass appointed young and able men to his government.

They included Patrick Hillery, Donogh O'Malley, Brian Lenihan and Lemass’s son-in-law, Charles Haughey.

These men helped to implement the economic and social changes of the 1960s and led Fianna Fail over the next 30 years.

Economic Policy

1. Lemass was responsible for bringing in a new economic policy and ending the policy he was responsible for in the 1930s. The policy of protectionism had failed.

2. Economic Growth was based on

Economic planning – government investment to encourage export orientated industries Good international conditions - “a rising tide lifts all boats”, said Lemass - Ireland benefited from

improved economic conditions in the 1960s

Economic Plans

1. Lemass introduced the First Programme for Economic Expansion 1958-1963. This was followed by the Second Programme for Economic Expansion 1964-1970 which was more detailed, but less successful.

2. The main points of the new policies were

The aim of self-sufficiency was dropped The protection of home industries by high tariffs was ended Exports and free trade were encouraged

Case Study: The First Programme for Economic Expansion, 1958-1963

1. T. K. Whitaker was appointed Secretary of the Department of Finance by Gerard Sweetnam, Minister for Finance, in the Second-Inter Party Government.

2. Ireland since the 1930s followed a policy of protectionism. But by the mid 1950s the Irish economy was in serious difficulty with slow growth, inflation, high unemployment and emigration

3. Whitaker believed that the solution to Ireland’s economic problems was free trade and a greater emphasis on industry over agriculture.

4. Whitaker and his officials in the Department of Finance undertook a detailed study of the Irish economy and produced the report Economic Development. These became the basis of the First Programme for Economic Expansion.

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5. By the time Economic Development and the First Programme for Economic Expansion were ready, Fianna Fáil were in power.

Seán Lemass became Taoiseach in 1969 and he was responsible for bringing in the new economic policy and ending the policy of protection which he was responsible for in the 1930s.

6. The new plan changed the emphasis in the Irish economy because it

got rid of protectionism encouraged foreign investment and encouraged export-led growth.

The old aim of economic self-sufficiency was gone.

7. Industry: Foreign industries were attracted through grants for new industries and export profits tax exemption

The foreign industries came mostly from Britain, America and Germany Existing industry was helped to modernise factories and train managers and workers Some survived but some also failed to meet competition

8. Agriculture: There was more emphasis on grassland farming (cattle, dairying)

There was a plan to eradicate Bovine TB There was more emphasis on research and marketing There were price supports for wheat, beet and milk

9. Results

The economy grew faster than expected. This was mainly due to industrial growth. Workers were better off with higher wages Unemployment fell by 1/3 and emigration fell The population rose after its decline in the 1950s; it rose from 2.8 million in 1961 to almost 3

million in 1971

The Second Programme for Economic Expansion

1. This had more ambitious targets

The economy was planned to grow faster Emigration was to be cut by 10,000 a year A large expansion of industry was planned to produce 80,000 new jobs

2. Results

But the Second Programme failed; unemployment and emigration (20,000 in 1965) rose3. The Plan failed mainly because

Ireland did not join the EEC - Ireland applied for membership of the EEC in 1961 but France vetoed the British application and Ireland did not continue with its application

Britain experienced an economic crisis so Irish exports suffered

4. Other Economic Developments - Greater free trade

Ireland joined GATT (General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs) in 1960

Ireland signed the Anglo-Irish Free Trade Agreement (1965)

Irish industrial goods were given tariff-free access to British markets Ireland had to reduce tariff barriers to British imports by 10% each year until 1970

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Lemass and Education

1. There was greater investment in education because of the need for a more skilled and educated workforce;

Small rural primary schools were combined to improve conditions and facilities for children. Grants were given to build new secondary schools or expand old ones. In 1963 comprehensive (later community) schools were introduced to provide second-level

education in new suburbs and country towns where no schools existed. They were usually co-educational.

2. Syllabuses were revised and modernised and grants were given to encourage the teaching of science.

3. Free education: the Minister for Education, Donogh O'Malley said that

all schools up to Intermediate level would be free from 1969 free transport would be provided for students to go to the nearest school

Lemass, Anglo-Irish Relations and International Involvement

Lemass presided over changes in Irish foreign policy; Ireland was now becoming more involved in European and world affairs.

1. United Nations: Minister of External Affairs, Frank Aiken, began the development of a more independent foreign policy.

Ireland played a more independent role in the UN because of her colonial past; also Ireland could be non-aligned to (independent of) any power bloc.

Ireland supported limiting the spread of nuclear weapons Ireland supported the admission of Communist China to the UN but criticised Chinese treatment of

Tibet2. Ireland participated in UN peace-keeping forces in the Belgian Congo (where Irish soldiers were killed in an ambush) in 1960. Irish soldiers were also on peace-keeping missions in Cyprus and the Middle East.

Some Ministers were opposed to Ireland’s participation because of the cost but Lemass succeeded in getting agreement.

3. Ireland modified her independent stand in the UN when the country applied for membership of the EEC (European Economic Community) e.g. Ireland voted against the admission of Communist China in 1961

4. Aiken was in favour of neutrality in principle, but Lemass was more practical about it; he said a “military commitment will be an inevitable consequence of our joining the Common Market (EEC).”

5. European Economic Community: Ireland, along with Britain and Denmark, applied to join the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1961, but the government did not continue with the application when de Gaulle, the French Prime Minister, vetoed the British application.

6. Lemass negotiated the Anglo-Irish Free Trade Area Agreement (1965). This reduced tariffs between the two countries and improved relations.

7. President John F Kennedy visited Ireland in 1963; this improved Irish and America relations which were built on later on during the Troubles in Northern Ireland.

Lemass and Northern Ireland13

1. Lemass was committed to a united Ireland, but he believed that unionists would be more attracted to join a prosperous country than forced to join it.

He realised that national unity would not come about without economic co-operation beforehand. He believed that the Border was hindering the Irish economy on both sides. Lemass said he was more interested in the unification of people rather than territory.

2. Lemass developed a new policy towards Northern Ireland.

Lemass did not follow the anti-partitionist policy. He proposed co-operation between the two governments on cross-border matters such as tourism,

trade, electricity and fisheries. 3. While Lord Brookeborough was Prime Minister, Lemass failed to get agreement with the North.

4. In 1963 Terence O'Neill, succeeded Brookeborough. He wanted to build better relations between the two communities in the North and between North and South

5. Lemass and O’Neill met in Belfast in January 1965; then they met in Dublin in February.

6. O’Neill was attacked by extreme unionists led by Rev. Ian Paisley for ‘selling out the North’; the Northern Nationalist Party agreed to enter the Stormont parliament.

7. The 50th anniversary celebrations of the 1916 Rising in the south caused friction with the Northern Unionists.

8. The O’Neill-Lemass meetings were not followed up. The beginning of the Troubles in 1969 postponed better relations.

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Jack Lynch as Taoiseach – Northern Ireland and the EEC

1. Northern Ireland: The Troubles in Northern Ireland began in 1969. There was serious rioting and attacks on Catholics and nationalists. Nationalist refugees came across the Border to the South for safety.

2. Jack Lynch went on television and said that the Irish government “could no longer stand by and see innocent people injured and perhaps worse.”

3. The Irish government lobbied the United Nations to send a peace-keeping force to Northern Ireland. But Ireland got no response.

4. The government’s policy was not to use force in the North. But some ministers wanted the Irish army to intervene in Northern Ireland.

5. Jack Lynch sacked two ministers, Charles Haughey and Neil Blaney, because of their failure to follow government policy. Another minister, Kevin Boland, resigned in protest at their sacking.

6. The use of internment in the North and Bloody Sunday when 13 northern nationalists were killed by the British army in Derry all caused tension between the British and Irish governments.

7. The EEC: In 1968, the new French President, Georges Pompidou, lifted objections to Britain’s entry to the EEC.

8. Over the next few years, Ireland, along with Britain and Denmark, negotiated terms with the EEC. These were largely conducted by Jack Lynch and Patrick Hillery, Minister for Foreign Affairs

9. In 1972, over 80% of the electorate voted in favour of Ireland’s entry to the EEC.

The main political parties, Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, the farmers’ organisations and business stressed the economic advantages of EEC membership.

The Labour Party opposed membership because they said Ireland would lose jobs and Ireland would have to give up some power to Brussels. Ireland became a member of the EEC on 1 January, 1973.

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