gordana dodig-crnkovic

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Gordana Dodig-Crnkovic

Department of Computer Science and ElectronicsMälardalen University

20 August 2008

ETHICS, PROFESSIONALISM AND CRITICISM OF THE SOURCES

MIMA LECTURE

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Professional Ethics Course

Information about the course:

http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/cd5590

http://www.idt.mdh.se/kurser/ethics/

[Website provides ethics resources including case studies and contextualized scenarios in applied/professional ethics, working examples of applied ethical problems used in teaching to highlight relevant ethical principles, materials on informed consent, confidentiality, assessment, privacy, trust and similar. ]

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CONTENT

– Identifying Ethical Issues Basic Moral Orientations Ethical Relativism, Absolutism, and Pluralism Immanuel Kant The Ethics of Duty (Deontological Ethics) Utilitarianism Rights Justice The Ethics of Character: Virtues and Vices Egoism Moral Reasoning and Gender Environmental Ethics Professional Issues Criticism of the Sources Conclusions

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Identifying Ethical Issues

Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.Director, The Values Institute

University of San Diego

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Ethics and Morality

The terms ethics and morality are often used interchangeably - indeed, they usually can mean the same thing, and in casual conversation there isn't a problem with switching between one and the other. However, there is a distinction between them in philosophy!

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Ethics and Morality Etymology

Morality and ethics have same roots, mores which means manner and customs from the Latin and etos which means custom and habits from the Greek.

Robert Louden, Morality and Moral Theory

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Ethics and Morality

Strictly speaking, morality is used to refer to what we would call moral standards and moral conduct while ethics is used to refer to the formal study of those standards and conduct. For this reason, the study of ethics is also often called "moral philosophy."

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Ethics and Morality

Morality: first-order set of beliefs and practices about how to live a good life.

Ethics: a second-order, conscious reflection on the adequacy of our moral beliefs.

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ETHICS

Philosophers commonly distinguish: descriptive ethics, the factual study of the ethical

standards or principles of a group or tradition;

normative ethics, the development of theories that systematically denominate right and wrong actions;

applied ethics, the use of these theories to form judgments regarding practical cases; and

meta-ethics, careful analysis of the meaning and justification of ethical claims

Source: www.ethicsquality.com/philosophy.html

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ETHICS

SOCIETY VALUES

LAW MORAL

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Identifying Moral Issues

Moral concerns are unavoidable in life. They are not always easy to identify

and define.

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Ethics as an Ongoing Conversation

Professional discussions of ethical issues in journals.

We come back to ideas again and again, finding new meaning in them.

See http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/e/ethics.htm

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The Focus of Ethics

Ethics as the Evaluation of Other People’s Behavior– We are often eager to pass judgment on

others Ethics as the Search for Meaning and

Value in Our Own Lives

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Ethics as the Evaluation of Other People’s Behavior

Ethics often used as a weapon Hypocrisy Possibility of knowing other people The right to judge other people The right to intervene Judging and caring

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Ethics as the Search for Meaning and Value in Our Own Lives

Positive focus Aims at discerning what is good Emphasizes personal responsibility for

one’s own life

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What to Expect from Ethics

Identificationa and description of an issue

Explanation Support in deliberation

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The Point of Ethical Reflection

Ethics as the evaluation of other people’s behavior

Ethics as the search for the meaning of our own lives

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Basic Moral Orientations

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On what basis do we make moral decisions? (1)

Divine Command Theories -- “Do what the Bible tells you” or the Will of God

Utilitarianism -- “Make the world a better place” Virtue Ethics -- “Be a good person” The Ethics of Duty -- “Do your duty” Immanuel Kant’s Moral Theory Ethical Egoism -- “Watch out for #1”

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On what basis do we make moral decisions? (2)

The Ethics of Natural and Human Rights -- “...all people are created ...with certain unalienable rights”

Social Contract Ethics Moral Reason versus Moral Feeling Evolutionary Ethics

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Divine Commands

Being good is equivalent to doing whatever the Bible--or the Qur’an or some other sacred text or source of revelation--tells you to do.

“What is right” equals “What God tells me to do.”

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Utilitarianism(Consequentialism)

Hedonistic utilitarianism: Seeks to reduce suffering and increase pleasure or happiness

Epicurus (341-270 BC) Greek“We count pleasure as the originating principle and the goal for the blessed life”. (Letter to Menoeceus)

Frances Hutcheson (1694-1747) Irish“The action is best, which procures the greatest happiness for the greatest number; and that worst, which in like manner, occasions misery.” (An Inquiry Concerning Moral Good and Evil, 3.8)

Bentham’s Utilitarian Calculus Mill’s Utilitarianism

“Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote [general] happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of [general] happiness. (Utilitarianism, 2)

http://www.utilitarism.net/ (in Swedish)

John Stuart Mill1806-1873

Jeremy Bentham(1748-1832)

Epicurus (341-270 BC)

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Virtue Ethics

One of the oldest moral theories. Ancient Greek epic poets and playwrights Homer and Sophocles describe the morality of their heroes in terms of virtues and vices.

Plato - cardinal virtues: wisdom, courage, temperance, and justice. Even accepted by early Christian theologians.

Aristotle: The Nichomachean Ethics

Morality is a matter of being a good person, which involves having virtuous character traits.

Seeks to develop individual characterAristotle (384-322 BCE.)

Plato (427-347 BCE)

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The Ethics of Duty(Deontological* Ethics)

Ethics is about doing your duty. Cicero (stoic): On duties (De Officiis)http://www.stoics.com/cicero_book.html Medieval philosophers:

duties to God, self and others Kant: only moral duties to self and others Samuel von Pufendorf (1632-1694):

moral duties spring from our instinctive drive for survival – we should be sociable in order to survive.

Intuitionism: we don’t logically deduce moral duties, we know them as thy are!

For each duty there is a corresponding virtue.

* ‘deon’ = duty

Immanuel Kant1724-1804

Marcus Tullius Cicero (106 - 43) BC

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Immanuel Kant’s Moral Theory

Human reason makes moral demands on our lives

The categorical imperative: Act so that the maxim [determining motive of the will] may be capable of becoming a universal law for all rational beings."

We have moral responsibility to develop our talents


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Ethical Egoism

Says the only person to look out for is yourself Ayn Rand, The Ethics of Selfishness Well known for her novel, especially Atlas Shrugged

shrug - To raise (the shoulders), especially as a gesture of doubt, disdain, or indifference

Ayn Rand sets forth the moral principles of “Objectivism”, the philosophy that holds that man's life--the life proper to a rational being--as the standard of moral values.

It regards altruism as incompatible with man's nature, with the requirements of his survival, and with a free society.

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The Ethics of Rights

The most influential moral notion of the past two centuries

Established minimal conditions of human decency

Human rights: rights that all humans supposedly possess.

natural rights: some rights are grounded in the nature rather than in

governments. moral rights, positive rights,

legal rights, civil rights

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The Ethics of Rights

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) right from nature implies a liberty to protect myself from attack in any way that I can.

John Locke (1632-1704) principal natural rights: life, health, liberty and possessions.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

John Locke (1632-1704)

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Evolutionary Ethics

Human social behavior is an extended development of biological evolution.

Evolutionary ethics: moral behavior is that which tends to aid in human survival.

Darwin: Origin of Species focuses on the evolutionary mechanisms of nonhuman animals.

Biologists and philosophers of nineteenth century attempted to frame morality as an extension of the evolutionary biological process.

Problem of the theory: what is progress? What is good? Any signs of moral improvement since Plato?

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Moral Reason versus Moral Feeling

Morality is strictly a matter of rational judgment: Samuel Clarke (1675-1729)

Since time of Plato: moral truths exist in a spiritual realm.

Moral truths like mathematical truths are eternal.

Morality is strictly a matter of feeling (emotion): David Hume (1711-1729)

We have a moral sense

Samuel Clarke

(1675-1729)

David Hume

(1711-1729)

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Ethical Relativism, Absolutism,

and Pluralism

Based on: Lawrence M. Hinman, Ph.D.Director, The Values Institute

University of San Diego

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Classical Ethical/Cultural RelativismThe Greek Skeptics (1)

Xenophanes (570-475 BCE)“Ethiopians say that their gods are flat-nosed and dark, Thracians that theirs are blue-eyed and red-haired. If oxen and horses and lions had hands and were able to draw with their hands and do the same things as men, horses would draw the shapes of gods to look like horses and oxen to look like ox, and each would make the god’s bodies have the same shape as they themselves had.”

The historian Heroditus(484-425 BCE)

“Everyone without exception believes his own native customs, and the religion he was brought up in, to be the best.”

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Classical Ethical/Cultural RelativismThe Greek Skeptics (2)

Sextus Empiricus (fl. 200 CE)

Gives example after example of moral standards that differ from one society to another, such as attitudes about homosexuality, incest, cannibalism, human sacrifice, the killing of elderly, infanticide, theft, consumption of animal flesh…

Sextus Empiricus concludes that we should doubt the existence of an independent and universal standard of morality, and instead regard moral values as the result of cultural preferences.

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Later Ethical Relativism (1)

French philosopher Michael de Montaigne (1533-1592):Custom has the power to shape every possible kind of cultural practice. Although we pretend that morality is a fixed feature of nature, morality too is formed through custom.

Scottish philosopher David Hume (1711-1776) “fashion, vogue, custom, and law are the chief foundation of all moral determinations”

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Later Ethical Relativism (2)

The fact of moral diversity

We should not pass judgment on practices in other cultures when we don’t understand them

Sometimes reasonable people may differ on what’s morally acceptable

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Insights of Ethical Relativism

Ethical relativism has several important insights: The fact of moral diversity The need for tolerance and understanding We should not pass judgment on practices in

other cultures when we don’t understand them

Sometimes reasonable people may differ on what’s morally acceptable

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Ethical Relativism: Limitations

Presupposes an epistemological solipsism*

Is unhelpful in dealing with overlaps of cultures--precisely where we need help.– Commerce and trade– Media– World Wide Web

[*Solipsism - belief in self as only reality: the belief that the only thing somebody can be sure of is that he or she exists, and that true knowledge of anything else is impossible]

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Ethical Relativism:Overlapping Cultures, 1

Ethical relativism suggests that we let each culture live as it sees fit.

This is only feasible when cultures don’t have to interact with one another.

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The challenge of the coming century is precisely overlapping cultures:– Multinational corporations– International media--BBC,

MTV, CNN– International sports--

Olympics– World Wide Web

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The actual situation in today’s world is much closer to the diagram at the right.

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Ethical Relativism: Our Global Village, 5

What if our world was a village of 100 people?– 58 would be Asians, 15 Europeans, 13 would come from

the Western Hemisphere, 12 would be Africans– 70 would be non-white– 67 would be non-Christian (33 Christians; 18 Moslems;

14 Hindus; 6 Buddhists; 5 atheists; 3 Jews; 24 other.)– 16 would speak Chinese; 8 English; 8 Hindi; 6 Spanish; 6

Russian; and 5 Arabic.– 50 % of the wealth would be held by 6 people.– 70 could not read and – only one would have a university education.

http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/103/3areaoutline.htm

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Ethical Relativism:A Self-Defensive Position

Ethical relativism maintains that we cannot make moral judgments about other cultures

The corollary of this is that we are protected in principle against the judgments made by other cultures

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From the solitude of the Holy Cross Abbey in Virginia, a monk works on the Internet, 21th century

Rembrandt Monk Reading, 1661

Taliban law requires women in Afghanistan to wear a chador or burqa that covers the face and entire body.

Fencer – protective suit

Amazonian indigenous woman with child

How Much Dressed? Naked?

Nuns uniforms

A proper dress?

Apollo Belvedere 320 BCE

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How Much Dressed? Naked?

Leonardo da Vinci Lady with an Ermine 1483-90Dieric Bouts - Madonna and Child Holbein’s Family 1528

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Arguments Against Ethical Relativism

There Are Some Universals in Codes of Behavior across Cultures

Three core common values: – caring for children – truth telling (trust) and – prohibitions against murder

The society must guard against killing, abusing the young, lying etc. that are at its own peril. Were the society not to establish some rules against such behaviors, the society itself would cease to exist.

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Ethical Objectivism

The view that moral principles have objective validity whether or not people recognize them as such, that is, moral rightness or wrongness does not depend on social approval, but on such independent considerations as whether the act or principle promotes human flourishing or ameliorates human suffering.

What is moral depends on the fabric of human nature.

Plato (427-347 BCE)


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Ethical Absolutism/Universalism

Ethical Absolutism: Morality is eternal and unchanging and holds for all rational beings at all times and places. In other words, moral right and wrong are fundamentally the same for all people. (Morality is considered different than mere etiquette).

There is only one correct answer to every moral problem. A completely absolutist ethic consists of absolute principles that provide an answer for every possible situation in life, regardless of culture.

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Ethical Absolutism

Absolutism comes in many versions--including the divine right of kings

Absolutism is less about what we believe and more about how we believe it

Common elements:– There is a single Truth– Their position embodies that

truth

Louis XIV(1638 – 1715)

Louis the Great, The Sun King

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Ethical Absolutism

Ethical absolutism gets some things right– We need to make judgments – Certain things are intolerable

But it gets some things wrong, including:– Our truth is the truth– We can’t learn from others

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Ethical Pluralism (1)

Combines insights of both relativism and absolutism:

– The central challenge: how to live together with differing and conflicting values

– Fallibilism: recognizes that we might be mistaken

– Sees disagreement as a possible strength

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Moral pluralists maintain that there are moral truths, but they do not form a body of coherent and consistent truths in the way that one finds in the science or mathematics. Moral truths are real, but partial. Moreover, they are inescapably plural. There are many moral truths, not just one–and they may conflict with one another.

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Pluralism is the cultural manifestation of ethical individualism; it is implied by the respect for the human being, for what it means to be human.

We have differing moral perspectives, but we must often inhabit a common world.

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Ethical Pluralism (4)Ethical pluralism offers three categories to

describe actions: Prohibited: those actions which are not seen

as permissible at all– Absolutism sees the importance of this

Tolerated: those actions and values in which legitimate differences are possible– Relativism sees the importance of this

Ideal: a moral vision of what the ideal society would be like

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For each action or policy, we can place it in one of three regions:– Ideal--Center– Permitted--Middle

• Respected• Tolerated

– Prohibited--Outside

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Five Questions

What is the present state? What is the ideal state? What is the minimally acceptable state? How do we get from the present to the

minimally acceptable state? How do we get from the minimum to the

ideal state?

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Immanuel Kant THE ETHICS OF DUTY (Deontological* Ethics)

* ‘deon’ = duty

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Living by Rules

Most of us live by rules much of the time.

Some of these are what Kant called Categorical Imperatives.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

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Categorical Imperatives

Always act in such a way that the maxim of your action can be willed as a universal law of humanity.

--Immanuel Kant

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The Ethics of Respect (1)

One of Kant’s most lasting contributions to moral philosophy was his emphasis on the notion of respect (Achtung).

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The Ethics of Respect (2)

Respect has become a fundamental moral concept in contemporary West– There are rituals of respect in almost all

cultures. Two central questions:

– What is respect?– Who or what is the proper object of

respect?

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Kant on Respect

“Act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end.”

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Kant on Respecting Persons Kant brought the notion of respect

(Achtung) to the center of moral philosophy for the first time.

To respect people is to treat them as ends in themselves. He sees people as autonomous, i.e., as giving the moral law to themselves.

The opposite of respecting people is treating them as mere means to an end.

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Using People as Mere Means

The Tuskegee Syphilis Experiments– More than four hundred

African American men infected with syphilis went untreated for four decades in a project the government called the Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male.

– Continued until 1972

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Treating People as Ends in Themselves

What are the characteristics of treating people as ends in themselves?

Not denying them relevant information

Allowing them freedom of choice

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Additional Cases

Plant Closing Firing Long-Time Employees Medical Experimentation on

Prisoners Medical Donations by Prisoners Medical Consent Forms

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What Is the Proper Object of Respect?

For Kant, the proper object of respect is the will. Hence, respecting a person involves issues related to the will--knowledge and freedom.

Other possible objects of respect:– Feelings and emotions– The dead– Animals– The natural world

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Self-Respect

Is lack of proper self-respect a moral failing?

The Deferential* Wife– See article by Tom Hill, “Servility and Self-

Respect”

*Deferential = Respectful, considerate

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Self-Respect

Aristotle and Self-Love– What is the difference between self-respect

and self-love? Clearly, there is at least a difference in the affective element.

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The Kantian Heritage What Kant Helped Us to See

Clearly

The Admirable Side of Acting from Duty– The person of duty remains committed, not

matter how difficult things become. The Evenhandedness of Morality

– Kantian morality does not play favorites. Respecting Other People

– The notion of treating people as ends in themselves is central to much of modern ethics.

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The Kantian Heritage Critique of Kant´s Deontology

The Neglect of Moral Integration– The person of duty can have deep and

conflicting inclinations and this does not decrease moral worth—indeed, it seems to increase it in Kant’s eyes.

The Role of Emotions– For Kant, the emotions are always

suspect because they are changeable.

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The Kantian Heritage Critique of Kant´s Deontology

The Place of Consequences in the Moral Life– In order to protect the moral life from

the changing of moral luck, Kant held a very strong position that refused to attach moral blame to individuals who were acting with good will, even though some indirect bad consequences could be foreseen.

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The Kantian Heritage Conclusion

Overall, after two hundred years, Kant remains an absolutely central figure in contemporary moral philosophy, one from whom we can learn much even when we disagree with him.

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UtilitarianismUtilitarianism

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Basic Insights of Utilitarianism

The purpose of morality is to make the world a better place.

We should do whatever will bring the most benefit to all of humanity.

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The Purpose of Morality

The utilitarian has a simple answer to the question of why morality exists at all:– The purpose of morality is to guide

people’s actions in such a way as to produce a better world.

Consequently, the emphasis in utilitarianism is on consequences, not intentions. (At times, the road to hell is pawed with good intentions)

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Fundamental Imperative

The fundamental imperative of utilitarianism is:Always act in the way that will produce

the greatest overall amount of good in the world.

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The Emphasis on the Overall Good

Utilitarianism is a demanding moral position that often asks us to put aside self-interest for the sake of the whole.– It always asks us to do the most, to

maximize utility, not to do the minimum.– It asks us to set aside personal interest.

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The Dream of Utilitarianism:Bringing Scientific Certainty to

Ethics Utilitarianism offers a powerful vision of

the moral life, one that promises to reduce or eliminate moral disagreement.– If we can agree that the purpose of

morality is to make the world a better place; and

– If we can scientifically assess various possible courses of action to determine which will have the greatest positive effect on the world; then

– We can provide a scientific answer to the question of what we ought to do.

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Standards of Utility: Standards of Utility: Intrinsic Value

Many things have instrumental value, that is, they have value as means to an end.

However, there must be some things which are not merely instrumental, but have value in themselves. This is what we call intrinsic value.

What has intrinsic value? Four principal candidates:– Pleasure - Jeremy Bentham– Happiness - John Stuart Mill– Ideals - George Edward Moore– Preferences - Kenneth Arrow

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Jeremy Bentham1748-1832

Bentham believed that we should try to increase the overall amount of pleasure in the world.

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Pleasure

Definition: The enjoyable feeling we experience when a state of deprivation is replaced by fulfillment.

Advantages– Easy to quantify– Short duration– Bodily

Criticisms– Came to be known

as “the pig’s philosophy”

– Ignores spiritual values

– Could justify living on a pleasure machine or “happy pill”

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John Stuart Mill1806-1873

Bentham’s godson Believed that

happiness, not pleasure, should be the standard of utility.

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Happiness

Advantages– A higher standard,

more specific to humans

– About realization of goals

Disadvantages– More difficult to

measure– Competing

conceptions of happiness

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Ideal Values G. E. Moore suggested that we

should strive to maximize ideal values such as freedom, knowledge, justice, and beauty.

The world may not be a better place with more pleasure in it, but it certainly will be a better place with more freedom, more knowledge, more justice, and more beauty.

Moore’s candidates for intrinsic good remain difficult to quantify.

G. E. Moore1873-1958

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Preferences Kenneth Arrow, a Nobel Prize

winning Stanford economist, argued that what has intrinsic value is preference satisfaction.

The advantage of Arrow’s approach is that, in effect, it lets people choose for themselves what has intrinsic value. It simply defines intrinsic value as whatever satisfies an agent’s preferences. It is elegant and pluralistic.

KENNETH J. ARROWStanford UniversityProfessor of Economics (Emeritus)

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May this help? Lets make everyone happy!

Happy pill as a universal solution?

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The Utilitarian Calculus

Math and ethics finally merged: all consequences must be measured and weighed!

Units of measurement:– Hedons: positive– Dolors: negative

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What do we calculate?

Hedons/dolors defined in terms of – Pleasure– Happiness– Ideals– Preferences

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What do we calculate?

For any given action, we must calculate:

– How many people will be affected, negatively (dolors) as well as positively (hedons)

– How intensely they will be affected– Similar calculations for all available

alternatives– Choose the action that produces the

greatest overall amount of utility (hedons minus dolors)

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How much can we quantify?

Pleasure and preference satisfaction are easier to quantify than happiness or ideals

Two distinct issues:– Can everything be quantified?

The danger: if it can’t be counted, it doesn’t count.

– Are quantified goods necessarily commensurable?

Are a fine dinner and a good night’s sleep commensurable?

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“…the problems of three little people don’t amount to a hill of beans in this crazy

world.”

Utilitarianism doesn’t always have a cold and calculating face—we perform utilitarian calculations in everyday life.

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism 1. Responsibility

Utilitarianism suggests that we are responsible for all the consequences of our choices.

The problem is that sometimes we can not foresee consequences of other people’s actions that are taken in response to our own acts. Are we responsible for those actions, even though we don’t choose them or approve of them?

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism 2. Integrity

Utilitarianism often demands that we put aside self-interest. Sometimes this may mean putting aside our own moral convictions.

Integrity may involve certain identity-conferring commitments, such that the violation of those commitments entails a violation of who we are at our core.

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism 3. Intentions

Utilitarianism is concerned almost exclusively about consequences, not intentions.– There is a version of utilitarianism

called “motive utilitarianism,” developed by Robert Adams, that attempts to correct this.

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism 4. Moral Luck

By concentrating exclusively on consequences, utilitarianism makes the moral worth of our actions a matter of luck. We must await the final consequences before we find out if our action was good or bad.

This seems to make the moral life a matter of chance, which runs counter to our basic moral intuitions.

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism 5. Who does the calculating?

Historically, this was an issue for the British in India. The British felt they wanted to do what was best for India, but that they were the ones to judge what that was.– See Ragavan Iyer, Utilitarianism and All That

Typically, the count differs depending on who does the counting

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Criticisms of UtilitarianismCriticisms of Utilitarianism 6. Who is included?

When we consider the issue of consequences, we must ask who is included within that circle.

Classical utilitarianism has often claimed that we should acknowledge the pain and suffering of animals and not restrict the calculus just to human beings.

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Concluding Assessment

Utilitarianism is most appropriate for policy decisions, as long as a strong notion of fundamental human rights guarantees that it will not violate rights of minorities, otherwise it is possible to use to justify outvoting minorities.

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Rights

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Rights:Changing Western History

Many of the great documents of the last two centuries have centered around the notion of rights.– The Bill of Rights– The Declaration of the Rights of Man

and Citizen– The United Nation Declaration of Human

Rights

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Human Rights

After the King John of England violated a number of ancient laws and customs by which England had been governed, his subjects forced him to sign the Magna Carta, or Great Charter, which enumerates what later came to be thought of as human rights.

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Human Rights

Among rights of Magna Carta were the right of the church to be free from governmental interference, the rights of all free citizens to own and inherit property and be free from excessive taxes. It established the right of widows who owned property to choose not to remarry, and established principles of due process and equality before the law. It also contained provisions forbidding bribery and official misconduct.

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Rights:A Base for Moral Change

Many of the great movements of this century have centered around the notion of rights.– The Civil Rights Movement– Equal rights for women– Movements for the rights of

indigenous peoples– Children’s rights– Gay rights

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Justifications for Rights

Self-evidence Divine

Foundation Natural Law Human Nature

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Self-evidence

“We hold these Truths to be self-evident, that all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.”

Declaration of IndependenceJuly 4, 1776

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Divine Foundation

“We have granted to God, and by this our present Charter have confirmed, for us and our Heirs for ever, That the Church of England shall be free, and shall have her whole rights and liberties inviolable. We have granted also, and given to all the freemen of our realm, for us and our Heirs for ever, these liberties underwritten, to have and to hold to them and their Heirs, of us and our Heirs for ever.”

The Magna Carta, 1297

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Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Article 1. All human beings are born free and

equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html

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Rights-related Questions

Freedom of Speech Death Penalty The Disappeared Economic & Social Rights Terrorism & Anti-Terrorism Corruption

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Natural Law

According to natural law ethical theory, the moral standards that govern human behavior are, in some sense, objectively derived from the nature of human beings.

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Natural Law Human Nature

Arguments for natural rights that appeal to human nature involve the following steps:

– Establish that some characteristic of human nature, such as the ability to make free choices, is essential to human life.

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Natural Law Human Nature

– Establish that certain empirical conditions, such as the absence of physical constraints, are necessary for the existence or the exercise of that characteristic;

– Conclude that people have a right to those empirical conditions.

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Two Concepts of Rights

The distinction depends on the obligation that is placed on those who must respect your rights.

Negative Rights– Obliges others not to interfere with your

exercise of the right.

Positive Rights– Obligates others to provide you with positive

assistance in the exercise of that right.

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Negative Rights

Negative rights simply impose on others the duty not to interfere with your rights.– The right to life, construed as a negative

right, obliges others not to kill you.– The right to free speech, construed as a

negative right, obliges others not to interfere with your free speech

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Positive Rights

Positive rights impose on others a specific obligation to do something to assist you in the exercise of your right– The right to life, construed as a positive right,

obliges others to provide you with the basics necessary to sustain life if you are unable to provide these for yourself

– The right to free speech, construed as a positive right, obligates others to provide you with the necessary conditions for your free speech--e.g., air time, newspaper space, etc.

– Welfare rights are typically construed as positive rights.

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Positive Rights:Critique

Who is obligated to provide positive assistance?– People in general– Each of us individually– The state (government)

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The Limitations of Rights Concept

Rights, Community, and Individualism

Rights and Close Relationships

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The Limitations of Rights Concept Contradicting rights: Athos and

Women Greek public community is indignant

at the decision recently taken by the Dutch court and at the resolution of European parliament.

In January, a Greek law that allows monks from the Athos Monastery not to let women to the Holy Mount was officially declared in court as contradicting human rights.

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The Limitations of Rights Concept Contradicting rights: Athos and

Women

An official response to the declaration was immediate: governmental spokesman told European human rights activists that the right of the Athos monastery republic not to let women to the Holy Mount was confirmed in the treaty of Greece-s incorporation into the European Union.

119

Concluding Evaluation

Rights do not tell the whole story of ethics, especially in the area of personal relationships.

Rights are always defined for groups of people (humanity, women, indigenous people, workers etc).

120

Personal Integrity vs Public Safety

121

Justice

122

Introduction All of us have been the recipients of

demands of justice.– My 6 year old daughter protesting,

“Daddy, it’s not fair for you to get a cookie at night and I don’t.”

All of us have also been in the position of demanding justice.– I told the builder of my house that, since

he replaced defective windows for a neighbor, he should replace my defective windows.

123

Conceptions of Justice

Distributive Justice– Benefits and burdens

Compensatory/Recompensatory Justice– Criminal justice

124

Distributive Justice

The central question of distributive justice is the question of how the benefits and burdens of our lives are to be distributed.– Justice involves giving each person his

or her due.– Equals are to be treated equally.

125

Goods Subject to Distribution

What is to be distributed?– Income– Wealth– Opportunities

126

Subjects of Distribution

To whom are good to be distributed?– Individual persons– Groups of persons– Classes

127

Basis for Distribution

On what basis should goods be distributed?– Equality– Individual needs or desires– Free market transactions– Ability to make best use of the goods

128

Strict Egalitarianism

Basic principle: every person should have the same level of material goods and services

Criticisms– Unduly restricts individual freedom– May conflict with what people deserve

129

The Difference Principle

More wealth may be produced in a system where those who are more productive earn greater incomes.

Strict egalitarianism may discourage maximal production of wealth.

130

Welfare-Based Approaches

Seeks to maximize well-being of society as a whole

131

Desert*-Based Approaches

Distributive systems are just insofar as they distribute incomes according to the different levels earned or deserved by the individuals in the society for their productive labors, efforts or contributions. (Feinberg)

*desert - förtjänst; förtjänt lön, vedergällningaccording to one's deserts efter förtjänst

132

Desert*-Based Approaches

Distribution is based on:– Actual contribution to the social product– Effort one expend in work activity– Compensation to the costs

Seeks to raise the overall standard of living by rewarding effort and achievement

May be applied only to working adults

133

Try to run “Wealth Distribution”, a model that simulates the distribution of wealth.

http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/models/WealthDistribution

134

The Ethics of Character:Virtues and Vices

135

Introduction

Concern for character has flourished in the West since the time of Plato, whose early dialogues explored such virtues as courage and piety*.

Plato (by Michaelangelo)

* fromhet

136

Two Moral Questions

The Question of Action:– How ought I to act?

The Question of Character– What kind of person ought I to be?

Our concern here is with the question of character

137

An Analogy from the Criminal Justice System

• As a country, we place our trust for just decisions in the legal arena in two places:– Laws, which provide the necessary rules– People, who (as judge and jury) apply rules judiciously

• Similarly, ethics places its trust in:– Theories, which provide rules for conduct– Virtue, which provides the wisdom necessary for

applying rules in particular instances

138

Virtue Strength of character

(habit) Involving both feeling,

knowing and action Seeks the mean

between excess and deficiency relative to us

Dynamic balance Secure desirable

behaviorAristotle (by Michaelangelo)

139

The Seven Essential VirtuesDefining “Moral IQ”

Empathy Conscience Self-Control Respect Tolerance Fairness Kindness

Wisdom* Courage* Temperance* Justice* Integrity Responsibility Honesty

*Aristotles cardinal virtues

140

Virtues (1)Sphere of Existence

Deficiency Mean Excess

Attitude toward self

Servility Self-deprecation

Proper Self-Love Proper Pride Self-Respect

Arrogance Conceit Egoism Narcissism Vanity

Attitude toward offenses of others

Ignoring them Being a Doormat

Anger Forgiveness Understanding

Revenge Grudge Resentment

Attitude toward good deeds of others

Suspicion Envy Ignoring them

Gratitude Admiration

Over indebtedness

Attitude toward our own offenses

Indifference Remorselessness Downplaying

Regret, Remorse Making Amends Self-Forgiveness

Toxic Guilt Scrupulosity Shame

Attitude toward our friends

Indifference Loyalty Obsequiousness

141

Virtues (2)Sphere of Existence

Deficiency Mean Excess

Attitude toward our own good deeds

Belittling Disappointment

Sense of Accomplishment Humility

Self-righteousness

Attitude toward the suffering of others

Callousness Compassion Pity “Bleeding Heart”

Attitude toward the achievements of others

Self-satisfaction Complacency Competition

Admiration Emulation

Envy

Attitude toward death and danger

Cowardice Courage Foolhardiness

Attitude toward our own desires

Anhedonia Temperance Moderation

Lust Gluttony

Attitude toward other people Exploitation Respect Deferentiality

142

Two Concepts of Morality

In a simplified scheme, we can contrast two approaches to the morality.– Restrictive concept:

• Child vs. adult• Comes from outside (usually parents).• “Don’t touch that stove burner!”• Rules and habit formation are central.

– Affirmative concept:• Adult vs. adult• Comes from within (self-directed).• “This is the kind of person I want to be”• Virtue-centered, often modeled on ideals.

143

Rightly-ordered Desires and the Goals of Moral Education

Moral education may initially seek to control unruly desires through rules, the formation of habits, etc.

Ultimately, moral education aims at forming and cultivating virtuous conduct.

144

Virtue As the Golden Mean

Strength of character (virtue), Aristotle suggests, involves finding the proper balance between two extremes.– Excess: having too much of something.– Deficiency: having too little of something.

Not mediocrity, but harmony and balance.

145

Virtue and Habit

For Aristotle, virtue is something that is practiced and thereby learned—it is habit (hexis).

This has clear implications for moral education, for Aristotle obviously thinks that you can teach people to be virtuous.

146

EgoismEgoism

147

Two Types of Egoism

Two types of egoism:– Psychological egoism

• Asserts that as a matter of fact we do always act selfishly• Purely descriptive

– Ethical egoism• Maintains that we should always act selfishly

148

What does it mean to be selfish?

If we are selfish, do we only do things that are in our genuine self-interest?– What about the chain smoker? Is

this person acting out of genuine self-interest?

– In fact, the smoker may be acting selfishly (doing what he wants without regard to others) but not self-interestedly (doing what will ultimately benefit him).

149

What does it mean to be selfish?

If we are selfish, do we only do things we believe are in our self-interest?– What about those who believe

that sometimes they act altruistically?

– Does anyone truly believe Mother Theresa was completely selfish?

Think of the actions of parents. Don’t parents sometimes act for the sake of their children, even when it is against their narrow self-interest to do so?

Mother Theresa (1910-1997)

150

Re-conceptualizing Psychological Egoism

In addition to having two independent axes, we must distinguish between the intentions of actions and their consequences. Thus we get two graphs:

High beneficial To others

Highly harmful to self

Strongly intended to help others

Not intended to benefit

self

Highly harmful to othersStrongly intended to harm others

Intentions Consequences

Highly beneficial

to self

Strongly intended to benefit

self

151

Ethical Egoism

152

Ethical Egoism

Selfishness is extolled as a virtue– Ayn Rand, The Virtue of Selfishness

May appeal to psychological egoism as a foundation

Often very compelling for high school students

Ayn Rand (1905-1982). (born Alice Rosenbaum)

153

Versions of Ethical Egoism

Personal Ethical Egoism– “I am going to act only in my own interest, and

everyone else can do whatever they want.” Individual Ethical Egoism

– “Everyone should act in my own interest.” Universal Ethical Egoism

– “Each individual should act in his or her own self interest.”

154

Altruism

Unselfish concern for the welfare of others; selflessness, charity, generosity.

Zoology. Instinctive cooperative behavior that is detrimental (harmful) to the individual but contributes to the survival of the species.

155

Universalizing Ethical Egoism Can the ethical egoist consistently will that

everyone else follow the tenets of ethical egoism?– It seems to be in one’s self-interest to be selfish

oneself and yet get everyone else to act altruistically (especially if they act for your benefit). This leads to individual ethical egoism.

Some philosophers such as Jesse Kalin have argued that in sports we consistently universalize ethical egoism: we intend to win, but we want our opponents to try as hard as they can!

156

AristotleTocqueville’s

“Self-interest rightly understood”

Egoism, Altruism, and the Ideal World

Ideally, we seek a society in which self-interest and regard for others converge—the green zone.

Egoism at the expense of others and altruism at the expense of self-interest both create worlds in which goodness and self-regard are mutually exclusive—the yellow zone.

No one want the red zone, which is against both self-interest and regard for others.

HighAltruism

Low Egoism

LowAltruism

HighEgoism

Self-sacrificingaltruism

Self-interestat the expense

of others

Self-interestand regardfor othersconverge

Not beneficialeither to self

or others

Kant

Hobbes’sState of Nature,

Nietzsche?

Drug addictionAlcoholism, etc.

157

Sinking Titanic: Egoism vs. Altruism(Even risks in technical systems)

158

Moral Reasoning and Gender

The Kohlberg-Gilligan Debate and Beyond

159

Le Deuxième Sexe - The Second SexSimone de Beauvoir 1949

Woman as Other – “For a long time I have

hesitated to write a book on woman. The subject is irritating, especially to women; and it is not new. Enough ink has been spilled in quarrelling …”

Simone de Beauvoir

http://www.philosophypages.com/ph/beav.htm

160

Lawrence Kohlberg

American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (Harvard) studied under Swiss psychologist and philosopher Jean Piaget (1965), who had developmental approach to learning. Kohlberg extended the approach to stages of moral reasoning.

Using surveys, Kohlberg presented his subjects with moral dilemmas and asked them to evaluate the moral conflict. He was able to prove that youth at various ages, as youth proceed to adulthood, they are able to progress up the moral development stages presented, Lawrence Kohlberg

(1927 - 1987)

161

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

LEVEL STAGE SOCIAL ORIENTATION

1 Obedience and Punishment

Pre-conventional 2 Individualism, Instrumentalism, and

Exchange

3 "Good boy/girl" Conventional

4 Law and Order

5 Social Contract Post-conventional

6 Principled Conscience

162

Gender and Kohlberg’s scale

Women are more likely to base their explanations for moral dilemmas on concepts such as caring and personal relationships. These concepts are likely to be scored at the stage three level. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to base their decisions for moral dilemmas on social contract or justice and equity. Those concepts are likely to be scored at stage five or six.

163

Carol Gilligan

University Professor of Gender Studies, Harvard University (1997-present)

In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development, book 1982.

Carol Gilligan, 1936 - present

164

How do we understand Gilligan’s claims?

Plato: Meno

SOCRATES: (…) By the gods, Meno, be generous, and tell me what you say that virtue is; (…)

MENO: (…) Let us take first the virtue of a man--he should know how to administer the state, and in the administration of it to benefit his friends and harm his enemies; and he must also be careful not to suffer harm himself. A woman's virtue, if you wish to know about that, may also be easily described: her duty is to order her house, and keep what is indoors, and obey her husband. Every age, every condition of life, young or old, male or female, bond or free, has a different virtue (…)

165

How do we understand Gilligan’s claims?

With the advent of industrial revolution, and welfare state where all children are given education, and physical strength has no dominant role, women have entered the public sphere traditionally dominated by males.

Female professionals have encountered a culture that was historically male territory. It caused cultural shock.

166

How do we interpret Gilligan’s claims?

Four possible positions about female vs. male moral voices:

Separate but equal Superiority thesis Integrationist thesis Diversity thesis

167

The Diversity Thesis

– Suggests that there are different moral voices

– Sees this as a source of richness and growth in the moral life

– External diversity• Different individuals have different, sex-based moral

voices• Males with female voices and females with male voices

are admitted

– Internal diversity• Each of us have both masculine and feminine moral

voices within us• Minimizes gender stereotyping

168

Conclusion “The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury)

Kohlberg – Gilligan controversy is but a beginning of a long process of re-thinking position of women in a post-modern society.

The end of industrialist era and the emergency of new information technology results in conditions that even more favor female professionals.

169

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

170

The Earth

"We have not inherited the Earth from our fathers. We are borrowing it from our children."

Native American saying

171

Environmental Ethics and PhilosophyAre There Universal Ethical Principles?

Universalists: Plato, Kant believe that fundamental principles of ethics are universal, unchanging and eternal

Relativists: Sophists- everything contextual. Believe that moral principles are always relative to a particular person

Nihilists: Schopenhauer- arbitrary survival. Claim that the world makes no sense at all and that everything is completely arbitrary

Utilitarians: Bentham - greatest good for greatest number of people

172

Values, Rights, and Obligations

Moral agents. Some philosophers believe that only humans are moral agents

Moral subjects. Children are considered moral subjects not moral agents

Inherent, instrumental value Non-living things, do they have value?

173

Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives

Individual beliefs towards ecology depend on ethical perspectives

Most people have set of core values or beliefs

Environmental concerns are a source for comparisons among different values and perceptions

174


Domination

Interpretation of some religious values has lead in past to anthropocentric (human-centered) ecological principles which believe that humans are the focus of creation

Current movement in religious organizations to fight for ecological concerns

175


Stewardship

Responsibility to manage our ecosystem. To work together with human and non-human forces to sustain life

176


Biocentrism (life-centered), Animal Rights, and Ecocentrism (ecologically-centered)

Biocentrism: biodiversity is the highest ethical value in nature

Animal rights supporters focus on the individual Ecocentrism: whole is more important than individual

animal

Ecofeminism

Warren, Shiva, Merchant, Ruether, and King A network of personal relationships

177

Worldviews and ethical perspectives A comparison

Philosophy Intrinsic Value Instrumental Value Role of humans

Anthropocentric Humans Nature Masters

Stewardship Humans & Nature Tools Caretakers

Biocentric Species Abiotic nature One of many

Animal rights Individuals Processes Equals

Ecocentric Processes Individuals Destroyers

Ecofeminist Relationships Roles Caregivers

178

Environmental Justice

Combination of civil rights and environmental protection that demands a safe, healthy life-giving environment for everyone

Most people of low socio-economic position are exposed to high pollution levels

179

Environmental Racism

Unequal distribution of hazardous waste based on race

Black children 2-3 times more likely to have lead poisoning

Dumping Across Borders

Toxic colonialism: targeting third/fourth world countries for waste disposal

Polluting industries move to poor countries Environmental Justice Act (1992)

181

Science as a Way of KnowingA Faustian Bargain?

Technology can create power to save and destroy life

Dr. Faustus sold his soul to the devil in exchange for power and wealth (youth)

182

Management Theory and the Environment

Anthropocentric Theories– Ethics

– Economic

– Corporate Social Responsibility

• Stakeholder• Normative• Social Contract

Green Management Theories– Ecocentricism– Adjusted Stakeholder– Sustainablity– Resource Based Theory

183

Global Environmental EthicsGlobal Environmental Ethics

184

Environmental Ethics and Business

Western Society - Objectifies Nature– Locke - “Something in a state of nature has

no economic value and is of no utility to the human race”

Ethics - a concern with actions and practices directed to improving the welfare of people.

185

Economic Fundamentalism and Ethics

The corporate social responsibility of a business is to increase profit. - M. Friedman

Those things that cannot be traded on the market have no value.

Where does the environment fit in these definitions for environmental ethics?

Will people and corporations do environmentally responsible things on their own? What happens if they do?

186

Corporate Social Responsibility

By doing socially responsible things, businesses better human life.

Hopefully ..good ethics is good business.

Is this true? Is enlightened self interest a good way?

187

Incorporating Environment into Management

Environmental Ethics is a starting point– Expanding ethics to include nature.– What is the difficulty in doing this?– What does the Biocentric ethic say (Goodpaster?)

Biocentrism– Natural objects have intrinsic value and morally

considerable in their own right.– Deep Ecology nature has an ethical status at least

equal to humans.

188

Green Management

Ecocentricism views industrial relationships in a cycle, and a whole set of philosophies. How radical is this?

Sustaincentric - going beyond sustainability of “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.– Human and economic relationships inextricably

linked with natural systems.

189

Resource Extraction and Use

Burning of fossil fuels Destruction of tropical

rainforests and other biologically rich landscapes

Production of toxic wastes

190

Environmental Science

Environment - the circumstances and conditions that surround an organism or a group of organisms

Environmental science - the systematic study of our environment and our place in it

191

IntentionIntention ActionAction ConsequenceConsequence

DutyDutyDeontological EthicsDeontological Ethics

What ought I to do?

192

IntentionIntention ActionAction ConsequenceConsequence

Consequentialist EthicsConsequentialist Ethics

What ought I to do?

193

http://www.envirolink.org/ - Agriculture- Air Quality- Climate Change- Ecosystems- Energy- Environmental Disasters- Environmental Economics- Environmental Education- Environmental Ethics- Environmental Legislation and Policy- Ground Pollution- Habitat Conservation- Human Health- Natural History- Oceans- Outdoor Recreation- Population- Sustainable Business- Sustainable Development- Sustainable Living- Transportation- Urban Issues- Vegetarianism- Waste Management- Water Quality- Wildlife

194

Family(Private Sphere)

Global environment

Society/Nature

Engineering firm

Engineer Colleagues

Managers

ClientsConsumers

Industry(Other firms)

Profession(Societies)

Ethics Contexts

195

Research Ethics Committee University of Mälardalen

Ethics committee decision making

Research ethical issues of MDH, advisory committee:

http://www.mdh.se/namnder/fet/lankar/

http://www.mdh.se/namnder/fet/ledamoter.shtml

Decision-making (policy-making) body in Uppsalahttp://www.epn.se/

196

What is Professional Ethics?

There are many ways to introduce applied/professional ethics with different focus:

Pragmatic Embedded Theoretical Emerging Issues

197

Approach 1Pragmatic

Ethical issues are introduced via a consideration of their practical consequences. Consequences are defined in relation to:

• The framework of rules and procedures defined by regulatory bodies charged with the task of raising or maintaining professional standards.

• Research Ethics Committees and the factors that influence their deliberations

198

Approach 2Embedded

Ethical concerns are presented holistically, as an integral part of some broader area of concern such as:

• Fitness for Practice.

• Professionalism.

The embedded approach places an emphasis on the sense of professional identity.

199

Approach 3Theoretical

This approach focuses on the understanding of ethics theory.

The ethics of life-like situations are presented in terms of the application of different ethical theories.

200

Emerging Professional Issues

Professional ethics introduces new issues and concerns by seeking to guide and shape graduate behaviour as a way of meeting public expectations with regard to professional conduct and accountability.

201

Professional Ethics Primary Objectives

1. To help professionals make choices that they can live with, and by reducing the emotional and psychological stress caused by moral indecision and confusion.

2. To ensure that the professional acts in a way that serves the best interests of society in general and their service-users in particular.

3. To ensure that the professionals acts in a way that serves the best interests of their chosen profession.

202

CRITICISM OF THE SOURCES

Academic Honesty

203

What is cheating?

Plagiarizing - copying, paraphrasing and self-plagiarizing

Unauthorized co-operation Joyriding or taking advantage Fabrication Un-authorized aids

204

Consequences

All suspected cases will be reported to the disciplinary committee

The teacher is not allowed to haggle or punish!

Warning or suspension from classes IDE practice is a zero tolerance against

academic dishonesty

205

Rules

”Individually” means by one single person Be prepared to describe carefully how you

solved the assignment The names on the cover are the names of

those who made the assignment Use references to everything that is not your

own present work! When in doubt – ask teacher Read http://www.mdh.se/ide/utbildning/cheating

206

Concluding Comments

207

Conclusion “The Show must go on” (Freddy Mercury)

Complexity of the real world problems – number of processes go on concurrently

Ambiguity of theoretical representations and interpretations

No absolute truth, but the commitment to the commonly accepted ”good enough” ”reasonably good” solutions

208

World seen in different light

What if we could see in any wavelength of the electromagnetic spectrum, from gamma-rays to radio waves? How would the world appear to us?

209

Images of the sun

RADIO ULTRAVIOLET VISIBLE

INFRARED X-RAY

210

Images of the moon


INFRARED X-RAY

211

Images of galaxy M81


INFRARED X-RAY

http://hea-www.harvard.edu/CHAMP/EDUCATION/PUBLIC/multiwavelengthphotos_pics.html

212

World as seen in the light of different models

An example: one country has started war on the other. What are the possible “optics” we can use to analyze the problem from the ethical point of view?

Virtue Ethics– The leader of one country was very bad character.

Leader of the other was very good. Which one is which depends usually on the side in the war.

213


Utilitarian Ethics– The country have to be helped, pacified, civilized.– The total benefit from the point of view of the one

who sets the rules and counts benefits is obvious.

Rights– As a rule in a war human rights are violated. If you

focus on that aspect of the problem you may get the different picture.

214


Duty– In a war, defending your country/fighting for your

country is seen as a highest duty.

Egoism– In egoist perspective war can be used to gain

huge benefits.

Feminist ethics– Feminist claim wars are male business

215


Justice– The distribution of wealth/natural resources can be

a central issue in a war and so also in ethical analysis of it.

Divine Command– Very often a war can be seen as a clash between

different religions. Each side fights with the divine support. (So it was even in ancient Greece)

216

References

Basic material:– http://ethics.acusd.edu/presentations/Hinman/theory/relativism/

– http://ethics.acusd.edu/socialethics/

– MORAL PHILOSOPHY THROUGH THE AGES, James Fieser, Mayfield Publishing Company, 2001

Additional resources:– http://www.prs.heacademy.ac.uk/projects/ethics/

– http://ethics.acusd.edu/relativism.html

gordana dodig-crnkovic

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