GMUNC VIII

EUROPEAN UNION (VIRTUAL SPECIALIZED)

RELIGIOUS AND POLITICAL RADICALISATION

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Table of Contents (with clickable links!)

1. Table of Contents (with clickable links!)

2. Welcome Letter

3. Staff Bios

a. Brooklyn Tory (she/her)

b. The Spirit of Dwayne “the Rock” Johnson (he/him)

4. Position Paper Requirements (READ THIS!)

5. Key Definitions

6. Introduction

7. Historical Context

a. Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism

b. Judaism and Islam

8. Current Situation

a. Case Study: Radicalisation in France

b. Political Confrontation

9. Past EU Actions

10. Committee Agenda

a. Agenda Questions

11. Guiding Questions

12. Reference Materials

13. Works Cited

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Welcome Letter

Welcome to GMUNC VII! While Gunn Model UN is working tirelessly to bring

delegates back to our welcoming classrooms for our annual conference, the uncertainty of the

ongoing COVID-19 pandemic has left many schools unable to travel the usual distance to join us

in person. So, whether you are from far away, still quarantining, or simply unwilling to leave the

cozyness of the couch, welcome once again to our virtual committee setting.

Virtual Model UN has its many advantages and drawbacks. The ability to pass notes,

collaborate on working papers, and share documents between delegates and chairs is

unparalleled, however Zoom often lacks the ability to jump from person to person and hear from

a variety of people, as is often necessary in effective diplomacy. Having worked through these

difficulties for over a year, I believe we can offer an experience that fosters learning and

community building, but technology has the wonderful tendency to glitch at the worst possible

time, so whatever happens, please be patient with us and know that we want, as much as you do,

to have a great time.

As you might already be aware, GMUNC strives to be a learning-oriented conference.

This means that the people around you may very well have utterly different experience levels,

and that is okay! The ability to learn from more experienced delegates is one of the best aspects

of Model UN. This also means that I will be doing my best to explain parliamentary procedure

throughout the conference and offer chances for any questions along the way. If you are a newer

delegate, rest assured that I will do my best to make this as clear and enjoyable as possible for

you. If you are more experienced, please be mindful of those around you and do your best to be

the kind and inviting person that you are and help others along the way.

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Below is what we in the biz call a “background guide.” It is just this—a basic overview

of the history and past action on the topic, and should not be read as a textbook or a biblical

work. (Fun fact: I am not God! I know, I myself was shocked to hear this). Please DO make sure

to read it in its entirety, however long and daunting it may look, (many of us have a tendency to

jump right to research, I am well aware) to understand how the staff perceive the topic and the

direction we have planned for the committee. However, be prepared to also do your own

research and summarize it in one, brilliant, insightful, and properly-formatted position

paper, due October 1st! Clapping is in order.

With all that in mind, I am beyond excited to dive right in and hear all your wonderful

ideas. If you have any questions or concerns, please do not hesitate to contact me at

eu.gmunc@gmail.com.

Sincerely,

Brooklyn Tory

Staff Bios

Brooklyn Tory (she/her)

Brooklyn is a Freshman at McGill University in Montreal, Canada, currently majoring in

music performance and political science. She has been active in Model UN for five years and

served as Secretary-General for Gunn’s Model UN club during the 2020-21 academic year. She

has acted as a delegate, co-chair, head chair, and administrator for GMUNC in past years, and is

thrilled to be back to chair the European Union from her dorm in Montreal. Outside of Model

UN, Brooklyn spends her time playing oboe, flute, and piano, and writing fiction and poetry.

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Brooklyn also loves to travel, especially when it allows her to expand her collection of vinyl, rare

books, and antique maps. Feel free to reach out at brooklyntory@gmail.com.

The Spirit of Dwayne “the Rock” Johnson (he/him)

Dwayne, heartfully dubbed “the Rock” by friends and family for his unwavering love

and determination to crush you in the ring, wishes he could attend GMUNC VII. Unfortunately,

due to a prior commitment, he will be unable to join us this year. Instead, Dwayne generously

offers his spirit to guide us through these difficult negotiations in his place. In his carefully

worded MySpace message, Dwayne hopes to “be the rock upon which all great peace can be

formed, regardless of what happened in Get Smart (2008).”

Position Paper Requirements (READ THIS!)

● Position papers should be written in 12pt Times New Roman (or similar) font, double

spaced, with one-inch margins on all sides. Please include a header with your name,

country, and the committee (EU).

● A maximum page-limit of 2 pages of text or 3 pages with illustrations (images, charts,

graphs, etc) will be enforced, not including citations. Position papers should be detailed

summaries of only your most important research and thoughts.

● You may include watermarks, illustrations, and other visual aids to support your points,

but please be conscious of their pixel quality and how much space they consume.

● Please include at minimum these sections:

○ Introduction: a short paragraph stating the key issue from your country’s

perspective.

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○ Country Policy: context of the issue and how it has affected your country, and

what (if any) solutions have already been proposed or implemented by your local

communities or governments.

○ Proposed Solutions: a comprehensive delineation of how your delegation aims to

solve the issue(s) at hand. This should include a basic and well integrated rebuttal

to potential counter-points and other (less viable) options.

○ Works Cited: an alphabetized list of sources used in either MLA 9th Edition or

Chicago 17th Edition. Please also use parentheticals or footnotes throughout your

position paper to source information that is not your own.

Key Definitions

● Radicalisation vs Polarisation

○ polarisation: a growing divide between two or more ideologies.

○ radicalisation: the process of adopting ideas on the utter destruction of the status

quo and the subsequent reforms, often achieved through violent means.

● Fascism vs Neo-Nazism vs Alt-Right

○ Fascism: a political ideology developed in Italy (based on the latin word fascis),

which supports nationalism, social class/order, and a strong central government

(often a totalitarian regime) that controls all commerce.

○ Neo-Nazism (neo- prefix: new): a political movement that aims specifically to

revive Nazism and Hitlerism, with an emphasis on white supremacy,

Islamophobia, and anti-Semitism.

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○ Alternative Right (Alt-Right): a radical movement, which, although a branch of

modern conservatism, is almost entirely independent, often rejecting core

conservative economic, political, and foreign policy. The Alt-Right’s defining

characteristic is their support for white nationalism and broad xenophobia.

● White Nationalism vs White Supremacy

○ As opposed to patriotism (which bases pride based on a country’s actions),

nationalism is support for a country no matter their actions. White Nationalism

specifically supports a homogenous white nation.

○ White Supremacy is the belief that the “white race” is in some way superior to

other races.

Introduction

Fascism was once only infamous for its devastating effects in the early 20th century, as

the names of far-right authoritarian leaders such as Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Philipe

Petain, and Francesco Franco smear history textbooks with blood, gore, and crimes on humanity.

However, this is no longer the case. From Marine Le Pen, to Matteo Salvini, to Viktor Orban,

White Nationalism is more prevalent than ever, tracing its insidious roots across the continent

and beyond. As such, there is no doubt that political radicalisation and resulting xenophobia has

spread in Europe. As many proponents of alt-right and fascist movements degrade the

democratic values the European Union holds dear by turning to violence and hate, and member

states themselves become conflicted over religious and political rights in their territory, it is no

longer a question of when the European Union will respond, but how it will respond.

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The European Union (EU), was formed in 1992 by the Maastricht Treaty and currently

comprises 27 member states, the headquarters being in Brussels, Belgium. While the EU itself

was only created in 1992, its beginnings date back to 1949 with the founding of the Council of

Europe and the European Coal and Steel Community, as well as the European Economic

Community which was formed in 1957.1 Today, the EU acts as a central body for its constituents

and oversees many laws regarding economics, trade, politics, environment, and justice. While it

has supremacy of law, member states must adopt regulations into their own charters and have the

right of veto.2

Historical Context

Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Protestantism

The political tensions in Europe have a long and tumultuous history, and their roots can

be clearly defined throughout the eras. As much of the individual cultures and regional

tendencies come directly from those of the colloquial religions, religious and political

polarisation are intrinsically linked. Before the widespread introduction of Christianity to

Europe, Pagan groups scattered the continent and later coexisted with the Jewish populations

who began to migrate north. With the occasional dispute between Gentile and Pagan, the two

cohabitated relatively peacefully until the Roman Empire’s adoption of Catholicism. According

to the Anti-Defamation League, “with the conversion of the Roman emperors, Christianity

became the sole established religion of the Roman Empire, and the early church fathers sought to

establish Christianity as the successor to Judaism. The refusal of Jews to accept Jesus as the

2 Wyatt, Derrick. "How the EU Works: The EU's Powers." Full Fact, Bytemark, 14 Apr. 2016,fullfact.org/europe/eus-powers/.

1 Hunt, Michael H. The World Transformed: 1945 to the Present. 2nd ed., New York, Oxford UP, 2015. ISBN978-0-19-937103-7.

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Messiah was viewed as a threat to the Roman rulers and to Christianity. Since both religions

came from the Old Testament, Christians sought to establish the validity of their new religion by

claiming that it superseded Judaism.”3 It should be mentioned that Pagans as well as the

occasional atheist were also persecuted during this time. While this did cause some tension

within Europe, the Roman Empire as a whole remained largely Christian (whether by choice or

force), and it was not until the split of the East and West in 285 CE that a true separation of

religion and identity occured. With the arrival of Eastern Orthodoxy as well as the

pre-established Roman Catholicism by pressure from barbarian tribes,4 Europe became polarised

into two distinct sections. While the Western Roman Empire fell in 495 CE, Catholicism had

already rooted itself in the West, and Eastern Orthodoxy continued to thrive for centuries within

Byzantium. In fact, it took over a millennium for Western Christianity to make its final split amid

the Renaissance. As Robb Harvey reports for the University of Tennessee:

[Protestantism] began in 1517, when Martin Luther (1483–1546), a German monkand university professor, posted his ninety-five theses on the door of the castle church inWittenberg. Luther argued that the church had to be reformed. He believed thatindividuals could be saved only by personal faith in Jesus Christ and the grace of God.He thought the Catholic Church’s practices focusing on works (such as pilgrimages, thesale of indulgences to obtain forgiveness, and prayers addressed to saints) were immoral.He also advocated the printing of the Bible in the language of the reader, rather than inLatin.5

While the initial basis of a new ideology had thus emerged, it took another twenty years for it to

be adopted by King Henry VIII, who famously declared England a Protestant state after the

Pope’s refusal to annul his first marriage. Then, “over the next 20 years, there was religious

5 Harvey, Robb. "Protestant Reformation." The First Amendment Encyclopedia, Middle Tennessee State University,2009, www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/1064/protestant-reformation.

4 Windley, Brian, et al. "Religions of Europe." Encyclopaedia Britannica,www.britannica.com/place/Europe/Religions.

3 "A Brief History of Anti-Semitism." Anti-Defamation League, 2013,www.adl.org/sites/default/files/documents/assets/pdf/education-outreach/Brief-History-on-Anti-Semitism-A.pdf.

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turbulence in England as Queen Mary (1553–1558) reinstated Catholicism in England while

persecuting and exiling Protestants, only to have Queen Elizabeth I and her Parliament attempt to

lead the country back toward Protestantism during her reign (1558–1603).”6

Judaism and Islam

It should also be noted that while the three branches of Christianity have remained

dominant in Europe since Constantine the Great, Judaism and Islam have been an integral part of

European heritage have consistently been persecuted. During medieval times, Gentiles were

kept out of Christian Guilds, unable to marry Christians, and banned from owning land. In

fact, many Jews were even required to wear identification badges, as declared by the

Fourth Lateran Council in 1215.7 Then, through increasingly violent crimes, “by the 17th

century, the majority of Jewish people lived in areas of Poland and Eastern Europe, in poor,

isolated communities known as shtetls.”8 With the continued migration, the split between

Ashkenazi (German) and Sephardic (Mediterranean) Jews became especially pronounced.

Meanwhile, Muslims, displaced from the continuous violence in the Middle East,

migrated towards eastern Europe. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica:

Islamic incursions into the Iberian and Balkan peninsulas during the Middle Ageswere influential in the cultures of those regions. Muslim communities still exist in severalparts of the Balkans, including Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and northeasternBulgaria. In European Russia, Muslims are more numerous; among them are the KazanTatars and the Bashkirs in the Volga-Ural region.9

9 Windley, Brian, et al. "Religions of Europe."

8 "Antisemitism from the Enlightenment to World War I." Facing History and Ourselves,www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/video/antisemitism-enlightenment-world-war-i.

7 "Medieval Anti-Semitism." The Holocaust Explained, Wiener Holocaust Library,www.theholocaustexplained.org/anti-semitism/medieval-antisemitism/.

6 Wilkinson, Freddie. "The Protestand Reformation." National Geographic, 7 Apr. 2021,www.nationalgeographic.org/article/protestant-reformation/.

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Within the growing tensions of the Arab-Byzantine wars, Muslims were forced to decide

between violence in their home country or face the inherent racism and xenophobia in the

Byzantine Empire. For the most part, European Muslims remained in Eastern Europe until the

dissolution of Yugoslavia forced them to immigrate westward.

Current Situation

Today, the violence that Muslims, Jews, and other minorities face in Europe is at its

highest since the Holocoast. According to one study funded by the European Union, when

“comparing the first two months of 2020 with the first two of 2021, show a seven-fold

increase in antisemitic content on Twitter, Facebook and Telegram in French, and over a

thirteen-fold increase in antisemitic content in German.”10 Because of this recent uptake of

anti-Semitism, the study further found that this led one in every three Jews to avoid visiting

Jewish events due to safety concerns. What’s more, the safety concerns are not just felt, but can

be seen in strings of religious attacks on minorities across the continent. One such attack

motivated by xenophobia was that of German politician Walter Lubcke, who was murdered

outside his home in 2019. According to Politico, “Lübcke was an outspoken supporter of

Merkel’s decision to welcome nearly one million refugees in 2015 and received numerous death

threats. His murder is considered the first political assassination by far-right extremists in

Germany since the end of World War II.”11 In the illustration below, note the rise of extremist

nationalism across Europe, especially in the central regions.12

12 Hedgecoe, Guy. "Spanish Elections: How the Far-Right Vox Party Found Its Footing." BBC News, 11 Nov. 2019,www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-46422036.

11 Sugue, Merlin. "Neo-Nazi Sentenced to Life in Prison for Murder of German Politician." Politico, 28 Jan. 2021,www.politico.eu/article/neo-nazi-murdered-german-politician-prison-life-sentence/.

10 "Monitoring Anti-Semitism." European Comission, European Union, 2021,ec.europa.eu/info/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/combatting-discrimination/racism-and-xenophobia/combating-antisemitism/monitoring-antisemitism_en.

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To better visualize the extent of this violence and comprehend its roots, France will be used as a

case study.

Case Study: Radicalisation in France

Over the last couple decades, the French government has favored a nearly radical form of

Secularism through a collection of anti-religious legislation. According to one Time article, In

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2004, Muslim headscarves were among the array of religious symbols banned from being worn

in French public schools. And in 2010, the country prohibited full-face veils like niqabs in public

spaces like streets, parks and public transportation, becoming the first European country to

enforce a nation-wide ban and even launching a government campaign that proudly stated, ‘the

Republic is lived with an uncovered face.’”13 Such laws have caused controversy in France and

abroad on the extent to which a government must separate Church and government. More

importantly, skeptics of such laws claim that they disproportionately affect Muslim populations

compared to other religious affiliations. Islamophobic tensions peaked in 2015, with the initial

publication of a cartoon by Charlie Hebdo.

The cartoon references a then-recently published novel by Michel Houllebecq, who depicts a

nearly dystopian world of an Islamist political party winning the 2022 presidential election and

taking control of France. The same day, “offices of French satirical magazine Charlie Hebdo

were attacked by gunmen, leaving a dozen people dead, including the editor in chief and

13 Lang, Cady. "Who Gets to Wear a Headscarf? The Complicated History behind France's Latest HijabControversy." Time, 19 May 2021, time.com/6049226/france-hijab-ban/.

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well-known cartoonists. Authorities said the gunmen shouted ‘God is great’ in Arabic during the

assault.”14

A similar attack happened last year after the same magazine republished the cartoon,

killing three people with a knife in Nice. According to the New York Times, “In the past year,

all seven Islamist extremist attacks in France, including the most recent three, have been

carried out by individuals unknown to the intelligence services, who used unsophisticated

weapons and had no clear links to terrorist groups.”15 President Macron’s response to the

attack prompted even more controversy, with “angry protests and calls for boycotts of French

products this past week from South Asia to the Mideast. He is accused of spreading anti-Muslim

sentiment, notably while eulogizing the teacher who was decapitated near Paris, by defending the

French right to caricaturize Islam’s Prophet Muhammad.”16 The article emphasizes that the

general French-Muslim community fears racism due to the independent actions of these

extremists, with many considering leaving the country.

Political Confrontation

With the rise in extremist attacks on government officials and civilians, tensions within

the political community are inevitably high. Specifically regarding the Islamophobia in France,

President Emmanuel Macron and Marine Le Pen, leader of the far-right political party, National

Rally, have both made Islamophobic and anti-immigrant remarks. Considering Macron and Le

Pen are the two main contenders for the 2022 election, it appears as though France will continue

16 Ganley, Elaine. "French Muslims, Stigmatized by Attacks, Feel under Pressure." Associate Press News, 1 Nov.2020, apnews.com/article/paris-france-emmanuel-macron-islam-europe-ea5e15bb651bbe443b27bc19948cae6b.

15 Onishi, Norimitsu. "Attacks in France Point to a Threat beyond Extremist Networks." New York Times, 6 Nov.2020, www.nytimes.com/2020/11/06/world/europe/france-attacks-beheading-terrorism.html.

14 Kellogg, Carolyn. "On the Cover of Charlie Hebdo: Michel Houllebecq's 'Islamophobic' Book." Los AngelesTimes, 7 Jan. 2015,www.latimes.com/books/jacketcopy/la-et-jc-charlie-hebdo-michel-houellebecq-20150107-story.html.

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in its protectionist and xenophobic path. Le Pen, in particular, is a strong opposer to the

European Union as a whole.

While Marine Le Pen is considered to be an extremist by many French voters, Macron’s

Minister of the Interior, Gerald Darmanin, shocked the media when he claimed she was not firm

enough. ““You are acting with softness, Mrs. Le Pen, you have gone so far that you say that

Islam is not a problem,” he said—an astonishing and sinister statement about a religion practiced

by an estimated 3.5 million people in France. He later added: “Mrs. Le Pen, as she attempts to

de-demonize her party, has come to act with softness. You should take vitamins, I find that you

are not tough enough!”17 Macron also faced harsh criticism in 2017, when he claimed that

“Europe isn’t a supermarket. Europe is a common destiny. It is weakened when it accepts its

principles being rejected. The countries in Europe that don’t respect the rules should have to face

the political consequences.”18 This comment was in response to the political shift in Eastern

Europe towards more conservative policies, and was interpreted by many politicians in such

governments as Macron telling the East to respect “European values” as established by Western

standards. Considering the already tense split between Eastern and Western Europe since the

split of the Roman Empire, it has left the two regions more polarised than ever. As Christopher

Coker, professor of International Relations at LSE, concisely summarizes, “The obligation for

former communist countries to imitate the West once they joined the EU was destined to

excite not only liberal resentment, but aggravate the reassertion of nationalism.”19

19 Coker, Christopher. Is Europe Splitting in Two? Publication no. pp. 176-191, Horizons: Journal of InternationalRelations and Sustainable Development, 2020. JSTOR,www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/48573646.pdf?casa_token=jwWJOCfRZgEAAAAA:s5TT5a98HNkPOMRO-UBmxLCuSSexb3JP_tdTzmUxaOimF-qrH2CIPq2_LV8Jxela3YG57E-EyXkU2txUW5zhWL68-yhbBovKSzMzlaMhxlfc6zuqcws.

18 King, Esther. "Emmanuel Macron: 'Europe is not a Supermarket.'" Politico, 22 June 2017,www.politico.eu/article/emmanuel-macron-europe-is-not-a-supermarket/.

17 Lantier, Alex. "French Neo-Fascist Le Pen, Interior Minister Debate Anti-Muslim Policies." World Socialist WebSite, International Committee of the Fourth International, 13 Feb. 2021,www.wsws.org/en/articles/2021/02/13/fran-f13.html.

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It should not be misunderstood that this is a French problem, however. Such far-right

extremism is abundant in all regions of Europe. In Italy, “The right-wing populist Lega party, led

by Matteo Salvini, is currently the most popular in Italy, followed by the Democratic Party.

However, support for the far-right Brothers of Italy party has increased since the start of the year

and it’s now nearly as popular as one of the ruling parties, the leftist Five Star Movement.”20

Salvini echoes the many anti-immigrant policies once attributed to Silvio Berlusconi. Similarly,

“Denmark’s ruling coalition has taken an increasingly hard line on migration, threatening

to return refugees to Syria on the dubious grounds that the country [Syria] is now ‘safe’.”21

Past EU Actions

The most up-to-date information on all EU actions regarding radicalisation and the

subsequent threats of terrorism and other crime is published in the “Counter Terrorism Agenda

for the EU,” published on 12 September 2020.22 This Agenda incorporates all past action under

four pillars: Anticipate, Prevent, Protect, and Respond. As opposed to directly addressing the

issue of radical terrorism, it acts as an organizational tool to strengthen past work and support

future work. Prior to this, a few important milestones were founded within the EU:

In 2016, the EU formally launched their “Internet Forum,” which allows member states

to share data between each other, and also addresses their goal of identifying radical content

22 A Counter-Terrorism Agenda for the EU: Anticipate, Prevent, Protect, Respond. Brussels, European Commission,12 Sept. 2020. European Commission,ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/default/files/pdf/09122020_communication_commission_european_parliament_the_council_eu_agenda_counter_terrorism_po-2020-9031_com-2020_795_en.pdf.

21 Rachman, Gideon. "Democracy in Europe Adjusts to the Far Right." Financial Times, 28 June 2021,www.ft.com/content/8dded432-2d6d-4ee7-ad5f-1f8e7b6448f1.

20 Amaro, Silvia. "Coronavirus Deepens Political Fragmentation in Italy as Anti-EU Sentiment Rises." CNBC, 21Apr. 2020, www.cnbc.com/2020/04/21/italys-political-fragmentation-rises-amid-coronavirus-pandemic.html.

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online and removing it promptly. The European Commission (EC) details the full extent of the

program:

EU Member States have put a number of measures in place, including riskassessment tools, special detention regimes, rehabilitation and reintegration programmes,trainings for prison and probation staff and structures for information exchange andmultidisciplinary cooperation for management of ex-offenders after release. This work issupported by the Commission through project based collaboration between MemberStates, to address challenges related to radicalisation in prison, such as adapting preventwork to gender, addressing mental health issues and the religious dimension inrehabilitation programmes.23

Probably one of the most impactful policies implemented was the Radicalisation

Awareness Network (RAN), founded in 2011. According to the EC, RAN comprises of “social

and health workers, teachers, exit workers, prison staff, civil society organisations, including

victims' groups, as well as representatives from local authorities, law enforcement, counter

terrorism specialists and academics. They exchange ideas, experiences, identify good practices

and issue recommendations on how to best tackle all forms of radicalisation.”24 By organizing

and funding these “Working Groups,” the EU is able to publish the most current

information on dealing with radicalisation and effectively train and support frontline

workers in the field.

Committee Agenda

Congratulations! You have been briefed on religious and political radicalisation, along

with its history and the most recent EU response. It is now up to this committee to determine the

next steps in this constantly evolving issue. In keeping with this, there may be crisis updates

24 "Prevention of Radicalisation."

23 "Prevention of Radicalisation." European Commission, European Union,ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/what-we-do/policies/counter-terrorism/radicalisation_en.

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throughout the conference, and this committee should be prepared to deal with these current

events accordingly. There are numerous directions the EU could take, and in the short time we

have, it is unlikely you will have the time to address everything. However, some possible issues

to address are as follows:

Agenda Questions

● What role does social media play in hate speech and hate crime?

● How can more moderate individuals in a minority be separated from the actions of

extremists?

● How can radicalisation be spotted in individuals un-affiliated to known terrorist

organizations? What preventative actions can be taken by the EU and member states to

address such actions?

● How should the EU respond to radical secular policies such as the French headscarf ban?

To what degree does the committee have jurisdiction over such a law?

Guiding Questions

In addition to the committee specific questions above, consider these more generic questions

throughout the research process.

● How does religious history affect modern politics?

● Why has Europe experienced such an upturn in far-right radicalism especially during the

COVID pandemic?

● In what ways does radicalisation differ from polarisation? Are there any benefits to

political polarisation?

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Reference Materials

1. About the European Union

https://europa.eu/european-union/about-eu/eu-in-brief_en

2. Opinion Article on Radical Right Politics in Europe

https://newrepublic.com/article/153964/will-radical-right-break-eu

3. Journal Article: “Is Europe Splitting in Two?” (Christopher Coker, 2020)

https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/48573646.pdf?casa_token=AWfVRg5T6L4AAAAA:Re

P4icHfcoG4fkzHoyMW4Q_jpGil9hjRSY6MpFHvuETUs7BHZY-ldQbS-9rkPAdSicKby

6xMd7LB42Qzqp-XUGElEV2231SNSCzH6JK8f7ACml2qJTo

4. EU Report on anti-Semitic Incidents

https://fra.europa.eu/sites/default/files/fra_uploads/fra-2020-antisemitism-overview-2009

-2019_en.pdf

5. EU Counter Terrorism Agenda (2020)

https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/default/files/pdf/09122020_communication_comm

ission_european_parliament_the_council_eu_agenda_counter_terrorism_po-2020-9031_c

om-2020_795_en.pdf

Works Cited

Works Cited

Amaro, Silvia. "Coronavirus Deepens Political Fragmentation in Italy as Anti-EU Sentiment

Rises." CNBC, 21 Apr. 2020,

www.cnbc.com/2020/04/21/italys-political-fragmentation-rises-amid-coronavirus-pande

mic.html.

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"Anti Semitism from the Enlightenment to World War I." Facing History and Ourselves,

www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/video/antisemitism-enlightenment-world-war-i.

"A Brief History of Anti-Semitism." Anti-Defamation League, 2013,

www.adl.org/sites/default/files/documents/assets/pdf/education-outreach/Brief-History-o

n-Anti-Semitism-A.pdf.

Coker, Christopher. Is Europe Splitting in Two? Publication no. pp. 176-191, Horizons: Journal of

International Relations and Sustainable Development, 2020. JSTOR,

www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/48573646.pdf?casa_token=jwWJOCfRZgEAAAAA:s5TT5a98

HNkPOMRO-UBmxLCuSSexb3JP_tdTzmUxaOimF-qrH2CIPq2_LV8Jxela3YG57E-Ey

XkU2txUW5zhWL68-yhbBovKSzMzlaMhxlfc6zuqcws.

A Counter-Terrorism Agenda for the EU: Anticipate, Prevent, Protect, Respond. Brussels,

European Commission, 12 Sept. 2020. European Commission,

ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/default/files/pdf/09122020_communication_commission_

european_parliament_the_council_eu_agenda_counter_terrorism_po-2020-9031_com-20

20_795_en.pdf.

Ganley, Elaine. "French Muslims, Stigmatized by Attacks, Feel under Pressure." Associate Press

News, 1 Nov. 2020,

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