glogovac interviews report corrected

7/28/2019 Glogovac Interviews Report Corrected

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Tatjana Glogovac, MA 1st

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Interviews. Validity and Reliability in Interviews

The aim of this paper is to look into the use of interviews as a research tool. The author of this

paper will discuss several definitions of interviews provided by different authors, present the

stages in conducting interviews and comment on different types of interviews. The issue of

validity and reliability of this research tool will also be discussed. Also, the discussion of two

sample papers illustrating the use of interviews in research in applied linguistic are presented.

1. The concept and organization of interviews

Interviews are used in research whenever one wants to look for more than factual information,

when participants experiences, opinions and beliefs are in the focus (Denscombe: 2007, 174).

The use of the interview in research sheds a new light on how the relationship between human

beings and knowledge is observed; knowledge is not something that happens outside of

individuals but within and most frequently between them, in conversations. (Kvale, 2006 in

Cohen et al., 2007: 349). He stresses human interaction as the focal point of an interview; it is an

exchange of views from people who share interest in the topic. An interview cannot be defined

as strictly subjective or objective; it is intersubjective (Laing, 1967 in Cohen et al., 2007: 345).

Interview is a conversation between interviewer and respondent with the purpose of elicitingcertain information from the respondent (Moser and Kalton, 1971: 271). There are three

conceptions of the interview: (1) a potential means of transfer of information, (2) a transaction

that inevitably has bias that needs to be monitored and controlled, and (3) a social encounter that

is similar to one from everyday life that takes into account relevant aspects of interviews

(Kitwood 1977, cited in Cohen et al., 2007: 350).

However, organizing interviews should not be underestimated. Although they might

resemble a casual conversation, they are far from it. They require a significant amount of

preparation and it can take a massive amount of time to analyze the data (Denscombe, 2007:

173). Namely, conducting an interview-based research needs to bear in mind the following

stages: thematizing, designing, interviewing, transcribing, analysing, verifying and reporting

(Cohen et al., 2007: 356).


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Thus, a researcher needs to decide on the objectives of the research, and design questions

reflecting the topic of interest; It involves translating the research objectives into the questions

that will make up the main body of the schedule. (ibid.). Next comes interviewing. It is

necessary that participants be fully aware of the purpose of the research and how the information

they provide will be used. Their consent needs to be obtained (Bell, 2005: 156). Sometimes the

participants do not want their identity to be revealed or that their interview is recorded. An

interviewer needs to respect his participants choices in accordance with research ethics. Next

step, transcribing, is very delicate and complex as it can lead to loss and distortion of the

accuracy of data. Transcription is highly subjective as it depends on the researchers memory.

Moreover, a great amount of data is not written down until after the interview, when a researcher

can inadvertently remember only thoseparticipants comments that prove his hypothesis.

Recording can facilitate the process; however, it loses the non-verbal cues that often reveal much

more than the verbal information (Mishler, 1986 quoted in Cohen et al., 2007: 366). Analyzing

the data is done on some kind of coding or scoring which can be either previously or

subsequently arranged, depending on the type of interview. Verifying will be discussed further

in the paper, in the context of reliability and validity. As for reporting, it will depend on the type

of interview. Some data can be presented in tables and graphs, while the results of a qualitative

interview will need to be presented in words, which will take up more space. (Cohen et al., 2007:

272)

2. Types of research interviews

The most frequent classification of interviews is into structured, semi-structured and unstructured

(Denscombe, 2007: 175 and Bell, 2005: 159). Structured interviews involve tight control over

the format of questions and answers. The results are easily recorded, analyzed and reported.

They are reminiscent of face-to-face questionnaires. Semi-structured are more lenient when it

comes to the order of topics to be discussed. The interviewee is allowed to talk freely and

develop ideas on the topics discussed. Unstructured interviews give the most freedom to the

interviewee. The interviewer is supposed to initiate the topic and let the participants lead it as

they find fit.


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Another types of interviews mentioned are one-to-one, group interviews and focus groups.

Group interviews are similar to one-to-one interviews only with several participants present in

the same place and at the same time. Other than that participants have no connections

(Denscombe: 2007, 177). With focus groups, on the other hand, the stress is on the participants

interaction, exchange of opinion and reaching a mutual conclusion (ibid.: 178).

3. Validity and reliability in interviews

Validity and reliability of interviews is estimated on the basis of their face validity, i.e. if the

questions really measure what they claim to measure (Cannell and Kahn, 1968 quoted in Cohen

et al., 2007: 150). One reason for invalidity in interviews is bias. The researcher might see only

what he wants to see and disregard everything else. Moreover, in reporting the data, the

researcher might use inappropriate language which might support his strength of feeling in one

direction and permitting value judgements to influence the way research findings are interpreted

(Bell, 2005: 166). One way of controlling reliability is to have more than one interviewer so that

they can control each others subjectivity.

Another issue that might tamper with validity and reliability is the interviewer effect. The

research has demonstrated that people respond differently depending on how they perceive the

person asking the questions (Denscombe, 2007: 184). Interviewees impression of the

interviewer can affect the validity of his responses. This is why an interviewer needs to generate

a friendly and stimulating atmosphere so as to entice any interviewee to be more open. In this

respect, good interview skills are crucial. They include both verbal and non-verbal skills. A good

interviewer needs to be as neutral as possible, but friendly and warm at the same time. He should

know when to let the participant speak, when to probe further and when to respect the silence.

Moreover, he needs to know how to ask for clarifications. It is preferable to start with general

questions and delicately move to more sensitive questions. He should refrain from offering his

own opinions, interrupting or provoking the interlocutor (ibid.: 192). All of this will have a direct

impact on the reliability and validity of interviewees statements.

To conclude, conducting interviews is not as easy as it might seem at first sight. It is

demanding both in terms of planning and analyzing the data. Moreover, the issue of their


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reliability and validity is very complex as it depends on the delicate human nature of the

interviewee.

Analysis of the Sample Research Papers

Appendix 1 contains 2 sample research papers that use interviews as a research tool. In the

sample research paper 1, both qualitative and quantitative data were collected. Three tools (here

called instruments) were used: a questionnaire, a modified version of the Foreign Language

Classroom Anxiety Scale and interviews. A detailed description is given for the procedure of

administering interviews as a qualitative tool. The interviewees were chosen by random

sampling. The participants permission was obtained for recording the interviews. It is also

explained that the procedure was repeated when some of the interviewees refused to participate.

The interviewees were organized on mother tongue of the participants. Then they were

transcribed with the presence of a Chinese researcher, who listened to all the interviews and

checked their transcriptions. Any discrepancies were solved before moving on to the next steps.

The Chinese researcher was also present when the interviews were analyzed for themes and then

coded accordingly. This was done in order to ensure validity and reliability

Sample research paper 2 (Appendix 2) uses also three sources of data: test based on Second

Language Anxiety Speaking Scale for quantitative data, oral assessment based on the

International English Language Testing Service (IELTS) test and finally interviews for

qualitative data. The author explains that interviewees were chosen on the basis of their ethnicity,

class groupings, gender and perceived anxiety level so that representative sample would be

obtained. The author explained in general terms what the questions were about and how the data

were further processed. The data obtained from the interviews were further mentioned in thediscussion section of the paper and parts of some interviews were quoted to illustrate the

conclusions that were made.

It can be concluded that for a research paper, it is beneficial to use as many research tools

as possible. Interviews are a very important part of those tools as they provide the researcher

with a direct insight into the participants feelings and opinions about the topic under discussion.


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References

1.

Bell, J. (2005)Doing Your Research Project. Berkshire: Open University Press2. Brown, James Dean and Rodgers, Theodore S. (2002)Doing Second Language Research.

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

3. Cohen L., Manion, L. and Morrison, K. (2007) Research Methods in Education. London:Routledge.

4. Denscombe, M. (1998) The Good Research Guide for Small-scale Social Research Projects.Buckingham: Open University Press.

5. Denscombe, M. (1995) Explorations in group interviews: an evaluation of a reflexive andpartisan approach.British Educational Research Journal, 21 (2): 13148.

6. Hayes, N. (2000) Doing Psychological Research: Gathering and Analysing Data.Maidenhead: Open University Press.

7. Moser, C.A. and Kalton, G. (1971) Survey Methods in Social Investigation, 2nd edn. London:Heinemann.

Papers analyzed

1. Cheng, R. and Erben, A. (2011) Language anxiety: experiences of Chinese graduate students

at U.S. higher institutions.Journal of Studies in International Education 2012, 16: 477.

2. Woodrow, L. (2006) Anxiety and Speaking English as a Second Language.RELC Journal

2006, 37:308.


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Appendix 1

Sample paper 1


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(Cheng, R. and Erben, A., 2011: 481-485)

Appendix 2

Sample paper 2


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(Woodrow, L., 2006: 313-314)


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Appendix 3

Test


1. Interview as a research tool is used when the focus is on

o factual informationo participants personal opinions and experiences

2. Interview is said to be

o subjectiveo objectiveo

intersubjectivebecause ___________________________________________________________________

3. Organizing interviews

o is fairly easy and does not require much planning as interviews resembleconversations

o is time-consuming as it involves careful pre-planning and complex process ofinterpreting of data

4. Name the stages involved in conducting an interview-based research?

_________________________________________________________________________

5. If an interviewee does not want his/her identity to be disclosed and the interview to be

recorded, the interviewer

o has to respect the interviewees wishes in accordance with research ethicso can ignore the interviewers demands provided that he/she does not find out

6. Name some of the impediments that might arise when an interviewer transcribes the data

after the interview?

_________________________________________________________________________

7. Which type of interview is the most similar to a questionnaire?

o Structuredo Semi-structuredo Unstructured


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8. Which type of interview gives the interviewee the most freedom to speak about what

he/she wants?

o Structuredo Semi-structuredo Unstructured

9. In which type of interview the stress is on the interviewees interaction and reaching a

mutual conclusion?

o Group interviewso Focus groups

10. Explain the term interviewer effect.

________________________________________________________________________

11. A good way of detecting bias is

o To have more than one interviewero To have only one interviewer conduct the whole interview


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Appendix 4

Key of the Test


1. Interview as a research tool is used when the focus is on

o participants personal opinions and experiences2. Interview is said to be

o intersubjectivebecause the human interaction as the focal point of an interview; it is an exchange of views

from people who share interest in the topic.

3. Organizing interviewso is time-consuming as it involves careful pre-planning and complex process of

interpreting of data

4. Name the stages involved in conducting an interview-based research?

Thematizing, designing, interviewing, transcribing, analysing, verifying and reporting

5. If an interviewee does not want his/her identity to be disclosed and the interview to be

recorded, the interviewer

o has to respect the interviewees wishes in accordance with research ethics6. Name some of the impediments that might arise when an interviewer transcribes the data

after the interview?

The interviewer might forget most of the things said. Also, he might remember things

selectively, i.e. only those things that support his opinions.

7. Which type of interview is the most similar to a questionnaire?

o Structured8. Which type of interview gives the interviewee the most freedom to speak about what

he/she wants?

o Unstructured9. In which type of interview the stress is on the interviewees interaction and reaching a

mutual conclusion?

o Focus groups


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10. Explain the term interviewer effect.

The interviewees impression of the interviewer might affect his answers.

11. A good way of detecting bias is

o To have more than one interviewer

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