globalizations, ideological democracy and islamophobia 30 th july 2003 30 th july 2003 islamic human...
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Globalizations, Ideological Globalizations, Ideological Democracy and IslamophobiaDemocracy and Islamophobia
• 3030thth July 2003 July 2003
• Islamic Human Islamic Human Rights CommissionRights Commission
• Saied Reza AmeliSaied Reza Ameli
• [email protected]@ut.ac.ir
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• There are three There are three interlinked interlinked structural structural changes :changes :
• 1. Emergence of 1. Emergence of Instantaneous Instantaneous Communication, Communication, which is major which is major source for source for globalization globalization areaarea
Introduction: What are the Introduction: What are the major changes in the Socio-major changes in the Socio-Political structure of today’s Political structure of today’s world society? world society?
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Globalization era is more Globalization era is more complicated worldcomplicated world
• We are the first We are the first generation of generation of globalization era, globalization era, therefore we are therefore we are experiencing non-experiencing non-institutional world, institutional world, and it is indeed and it is indeed transitional world transitional world with constant with constant changes.changes.
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2. Emergence of virtual world, 2. Emergence of virtual world, virtual realityvirtual reality
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3. Collapse of Soviet Union 3. Collapse of Soviet Union Turned Bilateral Power into Turned Bilateral Power into Unilateral Power Unilateral Power
• the 1990s were a time of insecurity,
continuous change, and a quest for new
structures for an incipient post-Cold War international
system.
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On the other On the other hand hand
politicization of politicization of Art and Cinema Art and Cinema
has corrupted has corrupted whole public whole public
sphere.sphere.
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• Ian Scott Ian Scott has has discussed discussed the role of the role of Hollywood Hollywood on foreign on foreign policy of the policy of the United United States and States and its effect on its effect on Public Public OpinionOpinionG
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Why democracy and Why Why democracy and Why Islamophobia?Islamophobia?• why is it that America or Western governments why is it that America or Western governments
are continually insulting Muslims for not having are continually insulting Muslims for not having democracy in Muslim lands? Why always are they democracy in Muslim lands? Why always are they encouraging us to establish liberal democracy in encouraging us to establish liberal democracy in our lands because to do otherwise would mean our lands because to do otherwise would mean that we are an uncivilised people with a barbaric that we are an uncivilised people with a barbaric culture.culture.
• I feel that there is a connection between the I feel that there is a connection between the democracy they want us to practice and the democracy they want us to practice and the imprisonment of faith i.e. the terms of democracy imprisonment of faith i.e. the terms of democracy that they put forward for us to follow and the that they put forward for us to follow and the isolation of faith, of religion from society. isolation of faith, of religion from society.
• Islamophobia Policy is also part marginalization of Islamophobia Policy is also part marginalization of faith.faith.
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Concept of DemocracyConcept of Democracy
• Democracy should Democracy should reflect the idea and reflect the idea and interest of the interest of the people.people.
• Democracy is about Democracy is about participation of the participation of the people in political people in political structure and structure and accountability of the accountability of the rulers to the voters. rulers to the voters.
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Challenges of DemocracyChallenges of Democracy
• 1. Place of non-state actors is very significant.1. Place of non-state actors is very significant.• 2. Equality and Democracy: ‘how much equality is 2. Equality and Democracy: ‘how much equality is
required for a fully developed democratic system is required for a fully developed democratic system is a fundamental issue for democracy. Dahl a fundamental issue for democracy. Dahl (2001)notes the spread of democracy and equality (2001)notes the spread of democracy and equality during the twentieth century. He believes while the during the twentieth century. He believes while the advanced welfare democracies of the late advanced welfare democracies of the late twentieth century started to bring about greater twentieth century started to bring about greater equality, these advances have been reversed in equality, these advances have been reversed in the last twenty years. the last twenty years.
• 3. National democracy in price of trans-national 3. National democracy in price of trans-national dictatorship and war is another challenge of dictatorship and war is another challenge of democracy. democracy.
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Typology of democracyTypology of democracy
• In philosophical theory, there are two major In philosophical theory, there are two major democracies today:democracies today:
• Liberal democracy: Liberal democracy justifies Liberal democracy: Liberal democracy justifies the vote of majority; its major concern is to get the vote of majority; its major concern is to get more participation of the people. more participation of the people.
• Democratic Liberalism: democratic liberalism Democratic Liberalism: democratic liberalism do not care for Majority to be involve in do not care for Majority to be involve in politics, but it respect the vote and politics, but it respect the vote and participation of elites and experts of the participation of elites and experts of the society for the benefits of people (Bellamy, society for the benefits of people (Bellamy, 1999). 1999).
• In reality, democracy is very ideological.In reality, democracy is very ideological.
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Ideology and DemocracyIdeology and Democracy
• James F. Bohman (1991: 93) identified James F. Bohman (1991: 93) identified four necessary but not sufficient four necessary but not sufficient conditions of communication for conditions of communication for democratic decision making: such democratic decision making: such agreements must (1) be formally and agreements must (1) be formally and procedurally correct, (2) be cognitively procedurally correct, (2) be cognitively adequate, (3) concern issues on which adequate, (3) concern issues on which consensus or compromise can be consensus or compromise can be reached, and (4) be free of ideology.reached, and (4) be free of ideology.
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Ideological DemocracyIdeological Democracy
• Ideological Ideological democracy refers to democracy refers to ruling the society ruling the society overtly by overtly by democracy and democracy and covertly by an covertly by an economical ideology.economical ideology.
• Here democracy Here democracy considered as a considered as a good language for good language for domination policy.domination policy.
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Democracy, Ideology and Democracy, Ideology and Patriotism Patriotism
• Democracy depends on vote of Democracy depends on vote of people of the state.people of the state.
• Democracy was an innovation of Democracy was an innovation of nation-state and it is therefore very nation-state and it is therefore very patriotic. While democracy may suit patriotic. While democracy may suit national community, it can be threat national community, it can be threat for trans-national of millions of for trans-national of millions of masses out of the territory. masses out of the territory.
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The dominant ideology The dominant ideology thesisthesis
• This thesis suggests that there is an This thesis suggests that there is an orientation in local and global extend orientation in local and global extend a set of beliefs which dominates all a set of beliefs which dominates all subordinate classes tends to inhibit subordinate classes tends to inhibit the development of radical political the development of radical political dissent (Abercrombie and Turner, dissent (Abercrombie and Turner, 1978:149)1978:149)
• Abercrombie, N. and Turner, B. S. (1978)The Dominant Ideology Abercrombie, N. and Turner, B. S. (1978)The Dominant Ideology Thesis, in The British Jounnal of Sociology, Vol. 29 (2), pp. 149-170).Thesis, in The British Jounnal of Sociology, Vol. 29 (2), pp. 149-170).
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Forcing them to be freeForcing them to be free
• Mark Peceny (1999:549) examined the Mark Peceny (1999:549) examined the historical relationship between U.S. historical relationship between U.S. military intervention and the military intervention and the democratization of target states from democratization of target states from 1898-1992 using the Policy III data set 1898-1992 using the Policy III data set to measure democracy. He argues that to measure democracy. He argues that U.S. military intervention in and of itself U.S. military intervention in and of itself does not have a positive impact on does not have a positive impact on democracy.democracy.
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Ideological democracyIdeological democracy
• When democracy is used as a tool for When democracy is used as a tool for implementation of an agenda for social, implementation of an agenda for social, cultural and political domination, then we cultural and political domination, then we are facing ideological democracy.are facing ideological democracy.
• Here overt democracy creates legitimated Here overt democracy creates legitimated ground for covert illegitimating agenda. ground for covert illegitimating agenda.
• In contrast to democracy supposedly In contrast to democracy supposedly respecting people no matter minority or respecting people no matter minority or majority, Ideological democracy excludes majority, Ideological democracy excludes all those not considered as ‘We’; either all those not considered as ‘We’; either you are with us or against us.you are with us or against us.
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Ideological democracy and Ideological democracy and ViolenceViolence
• To understand Ideological To understand Ideological Democracy in relation to global Democracy in relation to global violence one needs to explore this violence one needs to explore this relationship in a global sphere.relationship in a global sphere.
• Global and Ideological violence Global and Ideological violence should also be examined in relation should also be examined in relation to to hardhard and and softsoft power. power.
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Hard Globalization from above Hard Globalization from above and Hard Violence from and Hard Violence from belowbelow
• Hard globalization can be defined as an Hard globalization can be defined as an orientation for global domination backed and orientation for global domination backed and equipped by war industry. equipped by war industry.
• According to domination theory, hard According to domination theory, hard globalization can be seen as power for reinforcing globalization can be seen as power for reinforcing the global domination of the superpower of the the global domination of the superpower of the World. Hear hard refers to the global militant World. Hear hard refers to the global militant enactment of power and political policy in a enactment of power and political policy in a transnational extend. Mass destruction energy is transnational extend. Mass destruction energy is not equipment for supporting human equality but not equipment for supporting human equality but indeed it is a hard dictation of domination policy. indeed it is a hard dictation of domination policy.
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Domination WarDomination War
• The idea of hegemonic war has long been The idea of hegemonic war has long been viewed as a distinctive kind of conflict (Levy, viewed as a distinctive kind of conflict (Levy, 1985:344) which considered as a great 1985:344) which considered as a great turning point in world political history; that turning point in world political history; that reordered the international system and reordered the international system and propelled history in new and uncharted propelled history in new and uncharted directions. Idea of extensive war, systemic directions. Idea of extensive war, systemic war, hyper war or global war explain the war, hyper war or global war explain the question on which state will govern the question on which state will govern the system, as well as what ideas and values will system, as well as what ideas and values will predominate, thereby determining the ethos predominate, thereby determining the ethos of succeeding ages (Gilpin, 1981). of succeeding ages (Gilpin, 1981).
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Theories of global warTheories of global war
• There are many theories which attempted There are many theories which attempted to formulate global war such as Toynbee’s to formulate global war such as Toynbee’s (1954) balance of power theory, Gilpin’s (1954) balance of power theory, Gilpin’s (1981) theory of war and change which (1981) theory of war and change which explain the integral role of war in the explain the integral role of war in the evolution of a global system governed by a evolution of a global system governed by a dominant power by virtue of its military and dominant power by virtue of its military and economic strength, place of world war in economic strength, place of world war in the capitalist world economy of Wallerstein the capitalist world economy of Wallerstein (1984), Doran’s (1983) Cycle of Relative (1984), Doran’s (1983) Cycle of Relative Power.Power.
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Long Cycle TheoryLong Cycle Theory• Among global war’s theory, ‘long cycle’ of Among global war’s theory, ‘long cycle’ of
Modelski (1978) is highly structured and more Modelski (1978) is highly structured and more influential theory. This theory sees global political influential theory. This theory sees global political system originating around 1500. This system has system originating around 1500. This system has been characterized by regular cycles of world been characterized by regular cycles of world leadership and system management over the last leadership and system management over the last five centuries. A world power emerges from a five centuries. A world power emerges from a global war with monopoly control over military global war with monopoly control over military capabilities of global reach and control over world capabilities of global reach and control over world trade, and hence with the ability to help structure trade, and hence with the ability to help structure the new global political and economic systems and the new global political and economic systems and to maintain order.to maintain order.
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The Mysterious TheoryThe Mysterious Theory
• All of these theories mainly formulate All of these theories mainly formulate totality of relationship between war, totality of relationship between war, society, economic, power, evolution society, economic, power, evolution and peace. and peace.
• Non of these theories tackled Non of these theories tackled relationship between powerful and relationship between powerful and powerless; violated reaction from below powerless; violated reaction from below to the war maker via dominant power to the war maker via dominant power from above. from above.
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Global WarGlobal War
• Global war can not Global war can not explain war sphere explain war sphere properly unless properly unless one formulates one formulates war in relation to war in relation to Domination policyDomination policy—hard power is —hard power is routed in soft routed in soft power. power.
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War, economy, power and the War, economy, power and the WestWest
• All major wars in 20All major wars in 20thth century and century and beginning of 21beginning of 21stst century either century either started by the West or promoted and started by the West or promoted and motivated by the West.motivated by the West.
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Arm Market Dominated by the Arm Market Dominated by the WestWest
• Since the end of the Since the end of the Cold War, the United Cold War, the United States has dominated States has dominated the global arms market. the global arms market. In 1996, the value of In 1996, the value of world arms agreements world arms agreements was $31.8 billion. The was $31.8 billion. The US had the largest US had the largest share, with agreements share, with agreements worth nearly $11.3 worth nearly $11.3 billion, or 35.5 percent billion, or 35.5 percent of the total. of the total.
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Developing countries are the Developing countries are the victim of arms market of the victim of arms market of the WestWest• Developing world nations continue to Developing world nations continue to
provide the largest customer base for provide the largest customer base for arms transfer agreements and arms arms transfer agreements and arms deliveries. In 1996, 61 percent of all deliveries. In 1996, 61 percent of all arms sales were to developing arms sales were to developing nations.nations.
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Symbolic Violence: Soft Symbolic Violence: Soft power-Globalization from power-Globalization from above and Muted Group above and Muted Group ReactionReaction
• Symbolic violence Symbolic violence is about violence is about violence without violence or without violence or one might describe one might describe it as a projective it as a projective process of a war process of a war without war. without war.
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Structural and Symbolic Structural and Symbolic ViolenceViolence
• Bourdiew includes the symbolic “censored” and Bourdiew includes the symbolic “censored” and euphemized but socially recognized violence euphemized but socially recognized violence embedded in everyday, hegemonic practice in embedded in everyday, hegemonic practice in ‘disguised and transfigured form a totalizing ‘disguised and transfigured form a totalizing vision partially challenged by Comaroff (1985) vision partially challenged by Comaroff (1985) insists that symbolic violence is important in the insists that symbolic violence is important in the structuring and ordering of relations of structuring and ordering of relations of domination and subordination, though critics domination and subordination, though critics caution that state regimes everywhere justify caution that state regimes everywhere justify their own violence as a reaction to the their own violence as a reaction to the (symbolic) violence implicit in opposition itself. (symbolic) violence implicit in opposition itself.
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International Relations and International Relations and IslamophobiaIslamophobia
• One can discuss Islamophobic policy One can discuss Islamophobic policy as an International Relations System as an International Relations System which demonizes Muslims all over which demonizes Muslims all over the world alongside Muslim Countries the world alongside Muslim Countries as a whole. as a whole.
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6. Concept of Islamophobia6. Concept of Islamophobia
• Islamophobia defined as ‘unfounded Islamophobia defined as ‘unfounded hostility towards Islam. It refers also to hostility towards Islam. It refers also to the practical consequences of such the practical consequences of such hostility in unfair discrimination against hostility in unfair discrimination against Muslim individuals and communities Muslim individuals and communities and to the exclusion of Muslims from and to the exclusion of Muslims from mainstream political and social mainstream political and social affairs…’ (The Runnymede Trust, 1997: affairs…’ (The Runnymede Trust, 1997: 4). 4).
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Islamophobia Islamophobia is about is about
encoding the encoding the community of community of
faith—Muslims faith—Muslims and Islam by and Islam by violence and violence and
images of images of hate, which hate, which
will encoded will encoded by hatred and by hatred and marginalizatiomarginalizatio
nn
•Islamophbia is a Islamophbia is a resocialization processresocialization process
•Islamophobia is to be Islamophobia is to be desocialized away desocialized away from one’s own from one’s own culture and to be culture and to be resocialized into resocialized into another culture. another culture.
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Dimensions of IslamophobiaDimensions of Islamophobia
• Islamophobia can be discussed in the arena Islamophobia can be discussed in the arena of politics, culture and economic power in of politics, culture and economic power in relation to a particular agenda, which relies relation to a particular agenda, which relies on an ‘ideological worldview’. This phobic on an ‘ideological worldview’. This phobic picture of faith can be given to all religions picture of faith can be given to all religions and faiths—today Islam, tomorrow and faiths—today Islam, tomorrow Christianity, Judaism and Buddhism. Christianity, Judaism and Buddhism. Religio-phobic policy potentially can be a Religio-phobic policy potentially can be a political force for clash of civilizations, political force for clash of civilizations, marginalization of ‘other’ civilizations and marginalization of ‘other’ civilizations and domination of a mono-centric culture and domination of a mono-centric culture and civilization overwhelming ‘others’. civilization overwhelming ‘others’.
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Islamophobia and Islamophobia and GlobalizationGlobalization• One can cultivate the concept of Islamophobia One can cultivate the concept of Islamophobia
and globalization in two different environments and globalization in two different environments namely ‘namely ‘monocentrism’monocentrism’ which is based on which is based on ‘‘hegemonic ideologyhegemonic ideology’ and ‘’ and ‘polycentrism’polycentrism’ which which respect all ‘cultural boundaries’ and historical respect all ‘cultural boundaries’ and historical heritage of different civilization based on heritage of different civilization based on ‘toleration of all ideologies’. Polycentrism as a ‘toleration of all ideologies’. Polycentrism as a political policy or as an ‘ideological world view’ is political policy or as an ‘ideological world view’ is a ‘a ‘pluralistic discoursepluralistic discourse’ which believe on the ’ which believe on the ‘‘balance of the earthbalance of the earth’ not based on domination of ’ not based on domination of ‘‘mono-powermono-power’ (Albrow, 1996), but, by giving a ’ (Albrow, 1996), but, by giving a position and opportunity to all cultures and position and opportunity to all cultures and civilization according to their indigenous potential civilization according to their indigenous potential and cultural capacity. and cultural capacity.
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China links China links Islamic Islamic separatists to separatists to terrorismterrorism
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Islamic terrorists slaughter Algerian villagersGovernment vows fierce reprisal
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• COMPLETE COVERAGE | FRONT COMPLETE COVERAGE | FRONT LINES | AMERICA AT HOME | LINES | AMERICA AT HOME | INTERACTIVES INTERACTIVES
• Philippines seeking Philippines seeking U.S. aid against U.S. aid against Islamic fightersIslamic fighters
• November 20, 2001 Posted: 12:57 PM November 20, 2001 Posted: 12:57 PM EST (1757 GMT)EST (1757 GMT)
• U.S. Defense Secretary Donald U.S. Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld escorts Philippine President Rumsfeld escorts Philippine President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo into the Gloria Macapagal Arroyo into the Pentagon on Tuesday. Pentagon on Tuesday.
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Australia outlaws Islamic groupsAustralia tightened its anti-terrorism laws after the Bali bombing
Australia has added six overseas Islamic groups to its list of banned terrorist organisations.
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Violent Violent image image of of IslamIslam
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Symbolic Symbolic presentation of presentation of Muslim WomenMuslim Women
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Islamophobic Islamophobic picture of Muslim picture of Muslim WomenWomen
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Old Old FashioFashion and n and violateviolated d OrientOriental Manal Man
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Face of Hate: Even in Face of Hate: Even in PrayerPrayer
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Associating Associating 9/11 with 9/11 with IslamIslam
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Agenda for Islamophobia Agenda for Islamophobia projectproject
• Domination of Americanism or Mono-Domination of Americanism or Mono-centrismcentrism
• Demonization of self-confidence among Demonization of self-confidence among Muslim to merge in American global Muslim to merge in American global camp camp
• Legitimization of war if it became Legitimization of war if it became necessary, which explain as class of necessary, which explain as class of Civilizations Civilizations
• Fundamental segregation between Fundamental segregation between Westerners and Muslims all over the Westerners and Muslims all over the WorldWorld
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Global Ideology and World Global Ideology and World DominationDomination
• Globally speaking, American Globally speaking, American Exceptionalism can be seen as serious Exceptionalism can be seen as serious ideological challenge for empowerment ideological challenge for empowerment of religion in social, political and even of religion in social, political and even individual values.individual values.
• American Exceptionalism has effect American Exceptionalism has effect whole political system, and cultural whole political system, and cultural society of the United States as well as society of the United States as well as world society.world society.
• American Exceptionalism taking place American Exceptionalism taking place in two different orientations: Exclusion in two different orientations: Exclusion and Inclusion.and Inclusion.
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American Exceptionalism American Exceptionalism ended by hegemony and dominationended by hegemony and domination
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American ExceptionalityAmerican Exceptionality
• The Myth of Uniqueness of American The Myth of Uniqueness of American Ideology: Articulation upon liberal Ideology: Articulation upon liberal democracydemocracy
• Exceptionality of American Political Exceptionality of American Political SystemSystem
• The Vitality of American CultureThe Vitality of American Culture
• This is an ideology which believes power This is an ideology which believes power is might and right, the more power you is might and right, the more power you have the more right you get.have the more right you get.
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World domination relies World domination relies more on soft and micro more on soft and micro
powerpower
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Exclusion: in the form of soft Exclusion: in the form of soft and hard power and hard power
• 1) Recognitional Exclusion: Exclude believers 1) Recognitional Exclusion: Exclude believers from all serious political and social positions from all serious political and social positions or deny legitimacy to a particular religion.or deny legitimacy to a particular religion.
• 2) Life exclusion: believers excluded from 2) Life exclusion: believers excluded from access to social and economic life. Results in access to social and economic life. Results in a low standard of life. Here people a low standard of life. Here people experience experience scarcityscarcity rather than rather than povertypoverty. .
• 3)Communicational Exclusion: 3)Communicational Exclusion: Needs of co-Needs of co-existence through local and global existence through local and global interactionsinteractions
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Inclusion: through soft power Inclusion: through soft power
• To understand mono-centric imposition of To understand mono-centric imposition of a one way flow of culture, civilization, a one way flow of culture, civilization, religion, value and information, one needs religion, value and information, one needs to understand ‘to understand ‘Dominated symbolic Dominated symbolic cultural dialoguecultural dialogue’ in which, ’ in which, while while individuals subjectively feel they are individuals subjectively feel they are involved in a ‘democracy circle’, they involved in a ‘democracy circle’, they are dominated objectively by a mono-are dominated objectively by a mono-centric discourse which actively centric discourse which actively misleads themmisleads them, and transfers , and transfers determinative elements of cultural determinative elements of cultural autonomy from the home culture to the autonomy from the home culture to the dominant culture.dominant culture.
• Americanization through cultural industry Americanization through cultural industry is most articulated way of implementation is most articulated way of implementation of secular culture to the world society. of secular culture to the world society.
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Americanization and secular Americanization and secular cultureculture• Americanization working as a soft Americanization working as a soft
power to penetrate public and power to penetrate public and masses for turning world society in to masses for turning world society in to American secular culture.American secular culture.
• This type of culture accepts religion This type of culture accepts religion as a superficial orientation to unit as a superficial orientation to unit national society but systematically national society but systematically and institutionally reject religion from and institutionally reject religion from all social institution. all social institution.
• Such a culture detaches religion form Such a culture detaches religion form everyday life, culture, politics, science everyday life, culture, politics, science and even language. and even language.
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Islamophobia and American Islamophobia and American Exceptionalism Exceptionalism
• Based on what we have said so far, Based on what we have said so far, Islamophobia is a means for expansion of Islamophobia is a means for expansion of mono-cultural orientation and rejection for mono-cultural orientation and rejection for legitimization of plurality of cultures, legitimization of plurality of cultures, religions and political orientations.religions and political orientations.
• Monoc-entrism encoded in Islamophbia and Monoc-entrism encoded in Islamophbia and might become latter on ‘Korea-Phobia’, might become latter on ‘Korea-Phobia’, ‘France-phobia’ or even ‘German-phobia’. ‘France-phobia’ or even ‘German-phobia’.
• Few Examples of Media Islamophobia Few Examples of Media Islamophobia
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Conclusion: New Conclusion: New EnlightenmentEnlightenment
• A ‘New Enlightenment’ seems to be taking, turning A ‘New Enlightenment’ seems to be taking, turning human history into a mono-centric production. This human history into a mono-centric production. This enlightenment characterization is based on the enlightenment characterization is based on the glorification of American civilization and American glorification of American civilization and American liberal democratic system as a role model for future liberal democratic system as a role model for future history. History, effectively started by first history. History, effectively started by first enlightenment, ends and from now on being enlightenment, ends and from now on being civilized requires a second enlightenment based on civilized requires a second enlightenment based on American progressive civility. American progressive civility.
• American Domination is behind ‘New American Domination is behind ‘New Enlightenment’ policy.Enlightenment’ policy.
• New Enlightenment portrayed as a democratic New Enlightenment portrayed as a democratic civilization which belongs to those who look for civilization which belongs to those who look for creativity, newness, happiness and American style creativity, newness, happiness and American style of politics, culture ad economy. of politics, culture ad economy.
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