Golden Gate Bridge Changes Engineers' ReasoningConstruction Bridged a Frontier in HistoryBy Kathleen Elliott

Kathleen received the CCHS award for best paper on a California subject in the 2001 History Day state competition.

For some wonderful photos of the bridge -- old and new -- visit their website at http://goldengatebridge.org/photos/

The Golden Gate Bridge-the unmistakable symbol of a city and a region is known as the most spectacular bridge in the world. One of man's most powerful creations, the bridge is located in one of nature's most beautiful settings, spanning the mile-wide bay from Fort Point in San Francisco to the Marin County shore.

Opened in 1937, the bridge has remained undamaged. It has been able to withstand ferocious winds, mammoth loads, temperatures that expand and contract every piece of steel in it and enormous earthquakes (Gronquist 27). The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake caused no damage.

The construction of this bridge is a frontier in history which changed the lives of millions living in San Francisco ... and the thinking of civil engineers and architects throughout the world. The way architects think and contractors work was revolutionized and the bridge continues to make designers think differently (Bilings 47-52). All involved with the enormous construction of this single project crossed multiple frontiers that others before had never even considered crossing.

The idea of spanning the Golden Gate Strait was thought to be impossible by virtually everyone when the notion was brought up in the 19th century.

The concept of bridging the strait was "commanded" as early as 1869 by an ex-millionaire, Joshua Abraham Norton, who believed he was Norton I, Emperor of the United States (Cassady 261-264). Norton was a man from the Gold Rush era who lost his money in a bad investment in the rice market and coped with his loss through insanity.(1)  So his idea of constructing a bridge across the mile-wide gap was written off as ludicrous. Norton may have been seen as crazy but he saw the future in linking the growing city of San Francisco on the south and the wide open lands of Marin County to the north (Van der Zee 117-18) and the Redwood Empire.

In the late 1800s and the early 1900s residents of San Francisco saw the ferry system as the only way to get from one side of the strait to the other.(2)  Many problems arose from the ferry system in the early 1910s due to a growing population and society's need to cross the Golden Gate Strait-ferries could not keep up with the accelerating demand for transportation (Saunders 21). As the necessity for a more efficient way to travel increased, building a bridge seemed to be the only answer.

Because of the ferry congestion, James Wilkins, an editor for the San Francisco Call Bulletin, revived the idea of building a bridge in 1916. Wilkins began an editorial campaign for a

bridge which caught the attention of San Francisco City Engineer Michael M. O'Shaughnessy (Brandt 2). O' Shaughnessy began a national inquiry among engineers regarding the feasibility and the cost of such a project.

The majority of engineers said a bridge of such great magnitude could not be built (Horton 78). Even if it was possible, some speculated it would cost over 100 million dollars to construct.(3)  However, one man defied all the laws of engineering and crossed an architectural frontier with his almost miraculous vision of spanning the Strait.

Joseph Baermann Strauss, Ohio-born engineer specializing in bridge building, designer of nearly 400 spanning bridges, argued that a bridge across the Golden Gate Strait was not only feasible but could be built for only 20 to 30 million dollars.

Strauss submitted preliminary sketches to O'Shaughnessy with a cost estimate of 27 million dollars on June 28, 1921. Then he took on his biggest task yet... convincing civic leaders and residents that the span was not only feasible but affordable as well because... it would pay for itself over time through tolls (Chester 49-53).

Luckily besides being a skilled engineer, Strauss was also a great salesman (Chester 50). He dedicated himself to becoming the chief promoter, organizing the political, financial and marketing efforts to build the bridge that would span the strait and THE TIME WAS RIGHT. In 1921 the population centers around the bay were at an all-time high and rising and traffic congestion at the ferry docks was becoming intolerable.(4)

Strauss ran into a critical funding problem when he asked for federal and state moneys to build the bridge. The limited funds available at the time had already been given to the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge project, which was being promoted during the same time period (Brown 63). So, due to lack of funding, the Golden Gate Bridge project was brought to a standstill ... until a unique idea was proposed.

The idea of forming a special district to construct the Golden Gate bridge was proposed in 1922 by O'Shaughnessy, Strauss and Edward Rainey, secretary to Mayor James Rolph of San Francisco (Strauss 20). This was the first idea of its kind. Surmounting one enormous frontier is like climbing a staircase made up of many steps ... it's done one at a time. The trio who originated the idea believed a district was necessary to oversee the financing, designing and construction. In this way all counties affected would have a voice in the proceedings which could, in turn, result in more community support (Cassady 47).

Consequently, less than a year after the first proposal was made, a historic mass meeting took place at Santa Rosa in Sonoma County, north of San Francisco. On January 13, 1923 Mayor Rolph ran the mass meeting of representatives from 21 counties to consider ways and means of carrying the project forward (Chester 71).

At this meeting the "Association of Bridging the Gate" was formed.

With the help of Assemblyman Frank Coombs, Napa, and Marin County Attorney George H. Harlan, legislation was drafted creating the district. The "Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District Act" was passed by the State Legislature on May 25, 1923. This gave counties the right to organize as a bridge district and borrow money, issue bonds, construct a bridge and collect tolls. (Knapp 26).

However, progress on the bridge had already been delayed for a year from the time the

preliminary sketches had been submitted and Strauss still had many battles to fight to achieve his ultimate goal (Strauss 92).

The future of the bridge was now in the hands of the U.S. War Department. Only it could authorize construction as it had jurisdiction over all harbor construction that might affect shipping traffic or military logistics, and it owned the land on either side of the strait (Brown 72).

In the spring of 1924, San Francisco and Marin counties made joint application for a permit to build the bridge.(5)  At the War Department hearing on May 16, 1924, two issues were discussed ... would the bridge hinder navigation and was adequate financing available (Brown 79-83). Overwhelming testimony in favor of the bridge caused Secretary of War John W. Weeks to issue a provisional permit on December 20, 1924.

Of course, not everyone was in favor of the bridge. Strong opposition to spanning the strait emerged from well-financed special interest groups, especially ferry companies (van der Zee 147). An aggressive and extremely negative campaign was launched to stop the construction and the formation of the district. Main argument was that the 30-minute ferry ride across the strait was a time for people to mingle and receive a break in their day. The campaign swayed the opinion of an enormous group of people and was quite successful for a short period of time. However, as congestion worsened, the ferry ride no longer was a relaxing trip across the water but simply an over-stuffed journey that left riders annoyed and frustrated (van der Zee 85).

So, the proponents of the bridge prevailed and on December 4, 1928, the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District was formed to design, construct and finance the Golden Gate Bridge. The district consisted of San Francisco, Marin, Sonoma, Del Norte and parts of Mendocino and Napa counties. The boards of supervisors of member counties appointed directors to the Bridge Board and they held their first meeting on January 23, 1929.

Building the Bridge: A Triumph in Engineering Design

Eleven of the nation's leading bridge engineering firms submitted proposals for construction of the historic span (Horton 31-33). Joseph B. Strauss was selected on August 15, 1929 as chief engineer.

Leon S. Moisseiff, A. H. Amman and Charles Derleth, Jr., were named consulting engineers. These three men studied Strauss' original plans from 1921 ... calling for a hybrid cantilever and suspension structure across the strait. This plan was regarded as unsightly ... a far cry from the elegant, understated lines that define the great bridge today (Horton 37). Moisseiff theorized that a long-span suspension bridge could cross the strait.

Not only was it popularly believed that it would be impossible to construct any bridge linking San Francisco and Marin but a suspension span would be even more difficult. However, if it could be done, its construction would stand as a greater achievement in history. A suspension bridge relies on the force of gravity to stand (Horton 31). Even after Moisseiff and Strauss began to refine the design, it wasn't until consulting architects Irving F. Morrow and his wife, Gertrude C. Morrow, were brought on to the designing team, that the artistic design which is today known and admired the world over began to take shape.(6)  On August 11, 1930, the War Department issued its final permit for the construction of a 4,200-foot main span. On August 27, 1930, Strauss submitted final plans for the Golden Gate Bridge to the District Board of Directors (van der Zee 109). All that was needed now was to get his

historically monumental project financed.

On November 4, 1930 voters within the district went to the polls and put their homes, farms, and business properties up for collateral to support a 35 million dollar bond issue to finance the bridge (Golden Gate Bridge: History of the World and People).

For some, the timing of the bond election was considered economically reckless as this would create bonded indebtedness during the Great Depression.(7)

Others saw that the bridge construction could represent the economic relief needed from the Great Depression (Cassady 131). This concept was a significant factor in pulling several counties out of economic depression; another frontier the great Golden Gate Bridge crossed. After the vote, it was clear the people believed in Strauss', vision. Voting for the bond issue were 145,697 people, while only 47,005 were opposed. (8)

This bridge was the first of such magnitude and controversy to be completely financed by private citizens (Gronquist 128-129). All who did contribute money were promised restitution at four and three-fourths percent interest rate within a maximum of 40 years.

It is amazing how successful this way of financing was, considering the effects of the Great Depression. The people who lived in the counties which were involved in the district displayed an unprecedented sense of community pride by trusting in the bridge bonds. In November 1932, contracts totaling $23,843,905 were awarded for the construction of the bridge which commenced on January 5, 1933 ... after nearly 13 years of negotiations.

During construction, Strauss insisted on the use of the most rigorous safety precautions in the history of bridge building (Knapp 18). Edward W. Bullard, a local manufacturer of safety equipment, designed protective headgear that Strauss insisted be worn on the job. This was the prototype of the hard hat, worn for the first time in history, along with glare-free goggles. Special hand and face cream protected the workers against the wind and sun, while special diets helped fight dizziness due primarily to alcohol abuse (Thoma).

The most conspicuous precaution was the safety net, suspended under the bridge from end to end. During construction, the net saved the lives of 19 men who became known as the "HalfWay-to-Hell Club." Until February 17, 1937 there had been only one fatality, setting a new all-time record in a field where "one life lost for every million dollars spent..." was the norm (Brown 153-161). Tragically, on the 17th of February, 10 men lost their lives when a section of a scaffold, used to spin wire into cable, carrying 12 men fell through the safety net.(9)  The safety standards put into effect by Strauss on the Golden Gate Bridge project are now an accepted part of the nation's construction regulations (Schock 46).

The Golden Gate Bridge was completed a little more than four years after its commencement at a final cost of $35,500,000. On May 27, 1937 the Golden Gate Bridge Fiesta was held on the bridge making the first time pedestrians were allowed on the monumental span (Schock 47). The following day the bridge opened to vehicular traffic at noon, when President Franklin D. Roosevelt pressed a telegraph key in the White House to announce the event to the world (Cassady 192).

The already famous bridge had opened ahead of schedule and under budget (van der Zee 107). The last of the construction bonds were retired in 1971, 34 years after its completion, with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest being paid ... entirely from bridge tolls.

Chief Engineer Joseph B. Strauss, Consulting Engineers A. H. Amman, Charles Derleth, Jr., and Leon S. Moisseiff, Consulting Architects Irving F. Morrow and Gertrude C. Morrow, along with hundreds of dedicated workers, oversaw creation of a structure which can truly be referred to as a "FRONTIER IN HISTORY INVOLVING PEOPLE, PLACES AND IDEAS." This great structure has become world-renowned as the world's most spectacular and recognizable bridge and one of the most visited sites in the world.

Construction of the Golden Gate bridge was the most eminent structural feat in history that man has ever made,(10) because of its innovative triumph of civil engineering and technology. The bridge builders defied the known laws of physics. Many new standards were set which aided in other Bibliography engineering breakthroughs. In 1964, the Golden Gate bridge ceded its mid-span length record to the Verrazano-Narrows bridge in New York Harbor between Brooklyn and Staten Island, an example of a feat accomplished because the Golden Gate had shown the way into that specific frontier.

Although Golden Gate is no longer the longest bridge in the world, it still remains the tallest suspension bridge erected to date. Hanging from its two 746-foot-high towers, its cables each a yard thick, are the highest ever to support a bridge (Owens 52).

The magnificent bridge subdues its harsh setting. The waters rock from Pacific swells, 70-mile-per-hour gale force winds howl, temperatures swing drastically and fog blankets the site in minutes. The ocean harbor gap of 8,981 feet was historically leaped in a tremendous achievement in a little more than four years. The bridge's effortless grace belies its strength. It survived the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake undamaged. The erratic weather has shut it to traffic only three time in the past 60 years (Schock 59).

Today the span is undergoing a seismic retrofit to withstand a 90-second earthquake that could measure 8.3 on the Richter scale (Current Projects). However, these reinforcements will not mar the beauty of its architecture. After all, it is a bridge that draws millions of people yearly, not to cross, but just to visit. Countless critics said such a momentous bridge could never be built. Think of the many other frontiers that would not have been crossed if the few had listened.

NOTES

1. Norton created his own currency and military-like uniform for clothing and thus was deemed insane (Knapp 52).2. Residents of Marin County were able to find better work in San Francisco so commuters relied on the 30-minute ferry ride for transportation (Thoma 3).3. One hundred million dollars is equivalent to approximately one billion dollars today (Laird 5).4. The unemployed population was also rising and the construction of a bridge would employ thousands of unskilled laborers (Strauss 214).5. Both Marin and San Francisco had to apply for the permit because the bridge would affect both counties (Brandt).6. Although Strauss received credit for the Golden Gate Bridge's artistic marvels, the Morrows deserve recognition for it was their ingenious vision which is today world renowned.7. Bonds of any kind were thought to be worthless and fraudulent due to the impact of the Great Depression (Schock 129).8. To show support of the bond issue, a citizen voted not only for the approval of the bridge but also promised money for the project (Brown 63).9. Two of the 12 men were fortunate enough to grab on to a section of the safety net that did not tear (Saunders).

10. The Golden Gate bridge was ranked as the second most important feat of the 20th century by Time Magazine ("The Golden Gate Bridge" video).

Concept for GGB

In 1916, more than four decades after railroad entrepreneur Charles Crocker’s call for a bridge across the Golden Gate Strait* (Strait) in 1872, James H. Wilkins, a structural engineer and newspaper editor for the San Francisco Call Bulletin, captured the attention of San Francisco City Engineer Michael M. O’Shaughnessy. O’Shaughnessy began to consult a number of engineers across the Country about feasibility and cost of building a bridge across the strait. Most speculated that a bridge would cost over $100 million and that one could not be built. But it was Joseph Baermann Strauss that came forward and said such a bridge was not only feasible, but could be built for $25 to $30 million.

On June 28, 1921, Strauss submitted his preliminary sketches to O’Shaughnessy and Edward Rainey, Secretary to the Mayor of San Francisco, the Honorable James Rolph. The cost estimate for his original design, a symmetrical cantilever-suspension hybrid span was $17 million.

It took O’Shaughnessy a year and one-half to release the cantilever-suspension hybrid bridge design to the public. During this time, Strauss went about promoting the idea of a bridge, using his original design, in communities throughout northern California. Strauss dedicated himself to convincing civic leaders that the span was not only feasible but it could be paid with toll revenues alone. His energies paid off, as once his design was made public by O’Shaughnessy in December 1922, the public voiced little opposition, even though it was described as “ugly” by the local press.

Strauss was the steadfast believer who organized the political, financial, and promotional efforts to build the Bridge. The time was right to span the Strait as population centers were growing and traffic congestion at the ferry docks was becoming intolerable. By 1929, motor vehicle travel via ferry had exploded, with demand exceeding available capacity. But there were no federal or state funds available to build a bridge because the construction of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge had already received the limited federal funds available.

The time was right to span the Strait and link linking the city of San Francisco and the County of Marin. Population centers were growing, and traffic congestion at the ferry docks was becoming intolerable. There was no federal or state funding to build the Golden Gate Bridge because the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, which was being promoted during the same time period, had already received the limited funds available.

*The Golden Gate Strait is the entrance to the San Francisco Bay from the Pacific Ocean. The strait is approximately three-miles long by one-mile wide with currents ranging from 4.5 to 7.5 knots. It is generally accepted that the Strait was named “Chrysopylae” or Golden Gate by John C. Frémont, Captain, Topographical Engineers of the U.S. Army circa 1846. It reminded him of the harbor Byzantium in Istanbul named Chrysoceras or Golden Horn.

Bridge Structures Spanning 1.7 miles, the Golden Gate Bridge consists of six main structures:

1. San Francisco (south) approach viaduct2. San Francisco (south) anchorage housing and pylons S1 and S23. Fort Point arch4. Suspension bridge5. Marin (north) approach viaduct6. Marin (north) anchorage housing and pylons N1 and N2

 

Bond Measure Passes On November 4, 1930, voters within the District’s six member counties went to the polls on the question of whether to put up their homes, their farms and their business properties as collateral for a $35 million bond issue to finance bridge construction. For some, the timing of the bond election was considered economically reckless as it would create bonded indebtedness during the Great Depression. Others said bridge construction represented the economic relief needed from the Great Depression. After the vote, it was clear the people believed in Strauss’ vision – 145,057 voted in favor and 46,954 against it.

The last of the construction bonds was retired in 1971, with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest being paid entirely from Bridge tolls. With the exception of the Sausalito Lateral approach road (Alexander Avenue today) which was built as a federal WPA project, there was no state or federal funds involved in building the Golden Gate Bridge.

Construction Contracts and CostEleven of the nation’s leading bridge engineering firms submitted construction proposals. On August 11, 1930, the War Department issued its final permit for the construction of a 4,200-foot main span with a vertical clearance of 220 feet at mid-span. On August 27, 1930, Joseph Strauss submitted final plans to the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District Board of Directors. In November 1932, contracts totaling $23,843,905 were awarded for the construction of the Golden Gate Bridge. The authorized bond issue was for $35 million and the total construction cost came in at $35 million which included $27,125,000 for the construction of the structure, $2,050,000 for Engineering and Inspection, $423,000 for Administrative and Preliminary Expenses, $4,068,000 for Financing, and $1,334,000 in surplus. The $27 million for final construction of the span is higher than the $23 million for the initial construction bids as other items were included in the final cost such as the toll plaza ($450,000), toll collection equipment ($72,000), tower elevators ($60,000), miscellaneous equipment ($45,000), and Military replacements and improvements ($575,000).

On October 14, 1932, bids were received for the following:

1. Contract I-A: Steel Superstructure to McClintic-Marshall Corporation, a subsidiary of Bethlehem Steel Corporation, San Francisco, CA, in the amount of $10,494,000.

2. Contract I-B: Steel Cables, Suspenders & Accessories to John A. Roebling's Sons Company, Trenton, NJ, in the amount of $5,855,000

3. Contract II: San Francisco Tower Pier and Fender, Marin Tower Pier to Pacific Bridge Company in the amount of $2,935,000.

4. Contract III: Anchorages and Piers of Approach Spans to Barrett & Hilp, San Francisco, CA, for $1,859,855.

5. Contract IV: Steel Superstructure for San Francisco and Marin Approaches to J.H. Pomeroy & Company, Inc. and Raymond Concrete Pile Co. in the amount of $934,800.

6. Contract V: Presidio Approach Road (later renamed Doyle Drive) to Eaton & Smith Construction Company, San Francisco, CA, in the amount of $996,000.

7. Contract VI: Sausalito Approach Road in the amount of $59,780.8. Contract VII: Paving of Main Spans to Barrett & Hilp and Pacific Bridge Company in

the amount of $555,000.9. Contract VIII: Electrical Work to Alta Electric& Mechanical Company, Inc. in the

amount of $154,470.

The nine contracts totaled $23,843,905. In November 1932, contracts were awarded for contracts I-B, II, III, IV, V, and VIII. Contract VI, the Sausalito Lateral (Alexander Avenue today), was not awarded and was later built as a WPA project.

Primary Contractors for the construction of the Golden Gate Bridge were:

1. Main Piers: Pacific Bridge Company2. Anchorages and Approach Piers: Barrett & Hilp3. Structural Steel of Suspension Span: Bethlehem Steel Company4. Cables of the Suspension Span: John A. Roebling’s Sons Company5. Structural Steel of Approaches: J.H. Pomeroy & Company, and Raymond Concrete Pile

Company6. Presidio Approach Road (Doyle Drive): Eaton & Smith Construction Company7. Pavement for Suspension Spans and Approaches: Pacific Bridge Company and Barrett

& Hilp8. Electrical Work: Alta Electric & Mechanical Company

The last of the construction bonds was retired in 1971, with $35 million in principal and nearly $39 million in interest being paid entirely from Bridge tolls. With the exception of the Sausalito Lateral approach road (Alexander Avenue today) which was built as a federal WPA project, there was no state or federal funds involved in building the Golden Gate Bridge.

 

Golden Gate Bridge DesignIn 1921, Joseph B. Strauss hired Charles A. Ellis to head up his staff and soon advanced him to Vice President, Strauss Engineering Corporation, in charge of bridge design and construction supervision. In 1925, he had Ellis arrange for Prof. George F. Swain of Harvard University and designer of New York’s Manhattan Bridge Leon S. Moisseiff to serve on a Board of Consultants for the project.

Both men reviewed Strauss’s original plans for a symmetrical cantilever-suspension hybrid bridge and found them to be practical from an engineering standpoint and capable of being

built. In November 1925, Moisseiff expressed concern about the hybrid design and submitted to Strauss his Report on Comparative Design of a Stiffened Suspension Bridge over the Golden Gate Strait at San Francisco, CA, which describes a design contrasting from the cantilever-suspension hybrid bridge design—a suspension span design.

The suspension span concept did not immediately become the leading design for the bridge as Strauss continued to campaign for a bridge using his original symmetrical cantilever-suspension hybrid design as late as 1929.

On August 15, 1929, the Board appointed prominent engineers Moisseiff, O.H. Ammann, and University of California, Engineering School, Berkeley, CA, Professor Charles Derleth, Jr., to serve as the Advisory Board of Engineers, alongside Chief Engineer Strauss. Strauss also appointed Ellis to work with the Advisory Board of Engineers, serving as its Secretary.

The timing of the change from the original Strauss proposal to a suspension bridge design is not precisely known, but it was accomplished sometime between the release of Moisseiff’s November 1925 report and the first meeting of the Advisory Board of Engineers on August 27, 1929. Further, The Golden Gate Bridge, Report of the Chief Engineer, September 1937, by Strauss, provides no details on the transition from his originally proposed symmetrical cantilever-suspension hybrid bridge to the Moisseiff-inspired suspension span design that was eventually built, and simply states, “... In the interval which had elapsed any advantages possessed by the cantilever-suspension type bridge had practically disappeared and on recommendation of the Chief Engineer, the cantilever-suspension type was abandoned in favor of the simple suspension type.”

On March 1, 1930, with final design underway and after overseeing test borings at the construction site, Ellis returned to Chicago to work on refining the design and estimates, while continuing to consult with Advisory Board of Engineers members Moisseiff and Ammann.

Ellis was responsible for directing the thousands of calculations required, for the computation of stresses, the preparation of stress sheets, as well as the development of the specifications, contracts and proposal forms. He worked tirelessly until December 5, 1931, when Strauss insisted he take a vacation. Three days before his vacation was over, Ellis received a letter from Strauss instructing him to turn all his work over to his assistant Clarahan, and to take an indefinite unpaid vacation.

For reasons still not clear today, Strauss fired Ellis. Ellis had lost his place in the history receiving no credit for his critical role in the design of the landmark Bridge. He went on to join the engineering faculty at Purdue University in 1934, from where he retired as Professor Emeritus of the Division of Structural Engineering in 1947. He passed away on August 29, 1949. 

Special District Formed - Golden Gate Bridge and

Highway DistrictThe idea of forming a special district of the State of California to construct the bridge was proposed by O’Shaughnessy, Rainey, and Strauss. They believed a special district was

necessary to oversee the financing, design and construction of the Bridge so that all counties affected would have a voice in the proceedings.

On January 13, 1923, an historic meeting was called by Franklin P. Doyle, a local Sonoma County banker and president of the Santa Rosa Chamber of Commerce. Out of this meeting, the Bridging the Golden Gate Association was formed and devoted its efforts to the promotion of a span across the Strait. The Association was dedicated to promoting the idea, through its “Bridge-the-Gate” campaign, throughout the northern California counties. The Association was also committed to obtaining legislation for carrying out the project.

Working with California State Assemblyman Frank L. Coombs of Napa and Marin County attorney George H. Harlan, a specialist in the organization of tax districts, the Coombs Bill, enabling the creation of a special district—Bridge and Highway District—for the purpose of planning, designing, building and financing a bridge across the Strait, was signed into law on May 25, 1923.

The fate of the bridge idea was now in the hands of the War Department as only it could authorize construction as the owner of the land on either side of the Strait. Additionally, the War Department had jurisdiction over all harbor construction potentially affecting shipping traffic or military logistics. In May 1924, San Francisco and Marin counties made a joint application to the War Department for a permit to build a bridge. The War Department held a hearing on May 16, 1924, to discuss two issues: would the bridge hinder navigation and was adequate financing available. Because of overwhelming testimony in favor of the bridge project, Secretary of War John W. Weeks issued a provisional permit on December 20, 1924.

Strong opposition emerged from well-financed special interests, particularly ferry companies. An aggressive campaign was launched to stop construction of a bridge and the formation of the special district.

Under the Coombs Bill, all 21 northern California counties had the option to join or not join the Bridge and Highway District. When 10 percent of a county’s population agreed, by signing a petition, the petition was then submitted to the county board of supervisors who would then decide to join or not join the District. While many counties opted out, San Francisco, Marin, Sonoma, Del Norte and parts of Napa and Mendocino counties ultimately voted to form the Bridge and Highway District.

Subsequently, a vigorous campaign was launched against the formation of the District, and for nearly six years the formation of the District was dragged through the courts of the counties involved. Bridge supporters prevailed, and on December 4, 1928, the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District (District), comprised of its six member counties, was incorporated by the California State Legislature as the sole entity responsible for the final design, construction, and financing of a bridge.

Following the formal creation of the District, the Boards of Supervisors of the District’s six member counties appointed directors to the District’s Board of Directors (Board). The first meeting of the Board was held on January 23, 1929. William P. Filmer was the first Board President, with Alan MacDonald appointed as General Manager, John R. Ruckstell as Auditor, and William W. Felt, Jr. as Secretary, George H. Harlan as Attorney, and Joseph B. Strauss as Chief Engineer.

* All Photos copyright © Golden Gate

Bridge, Highway and Transportation District. All Rights

Reserved.

The Chief Engineer of the Golden Gate Bridge, Joseph B. Strauss, with the assistance of Strauss Engineering (later to become Strauss and Paine, Inc.) Vice Presidents Charles A. Ellis and Clifford E. Paine, Consultant Engineers O.H. Ammann, Charles Derleth, Jr. and Leon S. Moisseiff, Consulting Architects Irving F. Morrow, along with many dedicated workers and professionals, oversaw the creation of a structure which has become world-renowned, earning the reputation as the world's most spectacular Bridge and one of the most visited sites in the world.

Construction Timeline Golden Gate BridgeJanuary 1933 to April 1937

January1933

April1937

Marin AnchorageJanuary 1933 through February

1936

San Francisco AnchorageJanuary 1933 through February 1936

Marin PierJanuary 1933 through June 1933

San Francisco TrestleMarch 1933 through February 1934

San Francisco PierMarch 1934 through December 1934

San Francisco Trestle RepairNovember 1933 through March 1934

Marin TowerNovember 1933 through October 1934

San Francisco TowerJanuary 1935 through June 28, 1935

Catwalk CablesJuly 1935

Suspension CablesOctober 1935 through March 1936

Cable CompressionMay 1936

Roadway SteelJune 1936 through November 1936

Deck SurfaceJanuary 1937 through April 1937

January1933

April1937

Bridge LightingConsulting Architect, Irving F. Morrow, wrote Report on Color and Lighting to Chief Engineer, Joseph B. Strauss, on April 6, 1935.  In his report, he indicated that the two most important factors in lighting the Golden Gate Bridge are:  1) the enormous size of the project; and, 2) the tremendous scale and dignity of the project.  Morrow carefully weighed these considerations as he designed his lighting scheme, one which would even further accent the uniqueness of the Golden Gate Bridge.

Because of the Bridge's great size, Morrow did not want the same intensity of light on all of its parts.  The effect would seem too artificial.  The towers, for example, were to have less light at the top, so they would seem to soar beyond the range of illumination.  further, because of the scale and dignity of the Bridge, Morrow believed tricky, flashy or spectacular lighting would be unworthy of the structure's magnificence.  Thus, he selected low pressure sodium vapor lamps with a subtle amber glow for the roadway, providing warm, non-glare lighting for passing motorists.  The lamps were the most modern available in 1937.

Forty-five years later in 1972, the original low pressure sodium roadway lights were replaced with high-pressure sodium vapor lamps.  These modern lamps provide improved lighting at a lower cost.  To preserve the original warm glow, the new lampheads have a plastic amber lens  One of the original lamps is still burning at the Bridge behind the Roundhouse Gift Center just east of the Toll Plaza.

The tower lighting, as originally envisioned by Morrow, was not installed during the construction of the Bridge due to budgetary constraints.  However, in 1987, shortly after the 50th Anniversary, the Bridge towers came to life with light on June 22, 1987.  Just as Morrow had envisioned, the new lighting made the towers seem to disappear into the evening darkness, further accenting their great height.  The tower lighting was installed at a cost of nearly $1.2 million, funded in part, through a generous grant from Pacific Gas & Electric Company.  The lighting was installed by Abbett Electric Company, who under-bid the original construction estimates by nearly $1 million.

Roadway Lights: 128 from abutment to abutment.  These are high pressure sodium (HPS), 227 volt and 250 watt each. These lights were installed in 1972, 35 years after the completion of the Bridge. The original roadway lights were low pressure sodium, 90 watts each. (see photo of original light below)

Tower Sidewalk Lights:24 total for the sidewalks around both towers.  These are low pressure sodium, 35 watts each.

Tower Decorative Lighting:12 above the roadway for each tower.  These are HPS, 400 watts each. There are also 12 below the roadway for each tower; four are 150 watts, four are 250 watts, and four are 400 watts. All are HPS.

Tower Lights:Each tower has an airway beacon at the very top of the tower. Each beacon has two 750 watt lamps.

Pier Navigation Lights:South pier has one 1000 watt beacon facing north, and four 116 watt lights on the fender, one on each side.North pier has three 116 watt lights on three sides facing the water.

Main Cable Lights:There are eight 116 watt lights on each cable.

Midspan:Eight lights mark the center of the Bridge below the deck at midspan; four on each side in a vertical column.  The top three lights are white, the bottom light green.

Roadway Light

Photo courtesy of Josh.This original roadway light is on display at:Buckeye Appliance714 W. FremontStockton CA.

Painting The Golden Gate BridgeThe Golden Gate Bridge has always been painted orange vermilion, deemed "International Orange."  Rejecting carbon black and steel gray, Morrow selected the color because it blends well with the span's natural setting.  If the U.S. Navy had its way, the Bridge might have been painted black with yellow stripes to assure greater visibility for passing ships.

Painting the Bridge is an ongoing task and the primary maintenance job.  The Bridge paint protects it from the high salt content in the air, which rusts and corrodes the steel components.  Many misconceptions exist about how often the Bridge is painted.  Some say once every seven years, others say from end to end each year.  Actually, the Bridge was painted when it was originally built with a red lead primer and a lead-based topcoat.  For the

next 27 years, only touch up was required.  By 1968, advancing corrosion sparked a program to remove the original paint and replace it with an inorganic zinc silicate primer and vinyl topcoats.  The topcoat was changed to acrylic emulsion in 1990 to meet air quality requirements.  The original program was completed in 1995 with continuous touch up on areas with the most severe erosion.  

Many people ask how to obtain International Orange Paint - it easy-your paint store can mix it with the following information:The PMS code is 173 or the CMYK colors are: C= Cyan: 0%, M =Magenta:69%, Y =Yellow:100%, K = Black:6%

 

Fog and the Golden Gate Bridge

The Golden Gate Bridge has an influence in directing fog as it pushes up and pours down around the Bridge. "Advection fog" forms when humid air from the Pacific Ocean swoops over the chilly California current flowing parallel to the coast. The fog hugs the ground and then the warm, moist air condenses as it moves across the bay or land. This is common near any coastline. Sometimes, high pressure squashes it close to the ground. By the way, the color of the Bridge is International Orange and was chosen in part because of its visibility in the fog.

To aid in the safe travel of vessels as they pass under the Golden Gate Bridge, foghorns have been mounted on the Golden Gate Bridge since its opening in 1937. The foghorns are located in two distinct locations: at the middle of the Bridge (mid-span) and at the south (San Francisco) tower pier.

The Golden Gate Bridge foghorns have guided hundreds of thousands of vessels safely through the Golden Gate Strait, and forewarned San Franciscans when fog was rolling in to envelop the City. The foghorns operate, on average over a year, about two and a half hours a day. During March, you'll hear them for less than half an hour a day. However, during the Bay Area's foggy season, which typically occurs during the summer months, they can sound for over five hours a day or for days at a time.

United States Coast Guard, Waterways Management Branch sets the tones and timing pattern of the foghorns. Each foghorn has a different pitch and marine navigational charts give ships the frequency, or signature, of each foghorn.

When the fog rolls in under the Bridge roadway limiting visibility for passing ships, the foghorns are manually turned on (and off) by Bridge workers.

Ship operators heading into the San Francisco Bay steer left of the south (San Francisco) tower pier foghorn and right of the mid-span horn. Outbound vessels stay to the right of the mid-span horn. To read about the setting of foghorns, visit www.uscg.mil/d11/dp/dpw/BRIDGE/NavSignals.htm.

 Fog Horns at Mid-Span

At mid-span on the Golden Gate Bridge, there are three foghorns mounted below the roadway level. At mid-span on the Golden Gate Bridge, there are three foghorns mounted below the roadway level. One is on the east side of the Bridge, facing east and is 24-1/2

inches long and the horn bell is 11-inches in diameter. Two are on the west side of the Bridge that face west and are each 36-inches long with a horn bell that is 18-inches in diameter.

The three horns at mid-span sound as two blasts. The sequence of the two blasts is: 9 second pause starts the sequence, followed by a 1 second foghorn blast, then 2 seconds foghorns are off, then 1 second foghorns blast, then 36 seconds foghorns are off, then 1 second foghorns blast, then 2 seconds horns are off, then 1 second horns blast, then 36 seconds horns are off.

This pattern continues as long as the foghorns are turned on. The mid-span horns have a two-toned sound and have a higher sound than the south tower pier foghorns. The higher of the two tones blasts to the east and the lower of the two tones blasts to the west.

In the late 1970's, the two-tone foghorn at mid-span stopped working. One of the horn's two air valves gave way and the two-tone horn became a one-tone horn. Since the mechanism was so old, replacement parts were impossible to find. The hobbled horn continued to sound with just one-tone until 1985, when the original fog horns were replaced by new horns manufactured by the Leslie Air Horn Company. The new single-tone horns (or fog diaphones) differ in frequency or tone from each other, but operate with compressed air, just like the originals.

 Foghorns at the South Tower Pier

There are two foghorns mounted on the south tower pier, about 20 feet above the waterline. One is on the east side and faces east, and one is on the west side and faces west. Each horn is 48-inches long with a horn bell that is 23-1/2 inches in diameter.

The two foghorns sound at the same time as a single blast, in this sequence: 2 seconds horns blast, 18 seconds horns are off, 2 seconds horns blast, 18 seconds horns are off. This pattern continues as long as the horns are turned on.

The foghorns on the south tower pier are one-tone and have a lower sound than the mid-span horns.

 

Navigational BeaconsThe Bridge is also equipped with navigational and warning lights for travelers by sea and by air.  Originally, a red rotating aircraft beacon shown on the top of each tower.  In 1980, they were replaced with 360 degree flashing red beacons.  The Bridge main cables are also marked with red cable outline lights.  In 1982, they were replaced with new and more efficient lights.  For seafaring vessels, there are red navigation lights on the south pier fender and white and green lights below the deck at mid-span.

 

The Mighty Task is Done

By Joseph P. Strauss, Chief EngineerGolden Gate Bridge and Highway District

Written upon completion of the building of the Golden Gate Bridge in May 1937

At last the mighty task is done;Resplendent in the western sunThe Bridge looms mountain high;Its titan piers grip ocean floor,Its great steel arms link shore with shore,Its towers pierce the sky.

On its broad decks in rightful pride,The world in swift parade shall ride,Throughout all time to be;Beneath, fleet ships from every port,Vast landlocked bay, historic fort,And dwarfing all--the sea.

To north, the Redwood Empire's gates;'To south, a happy playground waits,in Rapturous appeal;Here nature, free since time began,Yields to the restless moods of man,Accepts his bonds of steel.

Launched midst a thousand hopes and fears,Damned by a thousand hostile sneers,Yet ne'er its course was stayed,But ask of those who met the foeWho stood alone when faith was low,Ask them the price they paid.

Ask of the steel, each strut and wire,Ask of the searching, purging fire,That marked their natal hour;Ask of the mind, the hand, the heart,Ask of each single, stalwart part,What gave it force and power.

An Honored cause and nobly foughtAnd that which they so bravely wrought,Now glorifies their deed,No selfish urge shall stain its life,Nor envy, greed, intrigue, nor strife,Nor false, ignoble creed.

High overhead its lights shall gleam,Far, far below life's restless stream,Unceasingly shall flow;For this was spun its lithe fine form,To fear not war, nor time, nor storm, For Fate had meant it so.

Bridge Design and Construction StatisticsBridge Length, Width, Height, WeightBridge Deflection, Load CapacityMain Tower StatsMain Cable StatsSuspender Rope (vertical ones) StatsConcrete QuantitiesStructural Steel Quantities

Length, Width, Height, WeightTotal length of Bridge including approaches from abutment to abutment: 1.7 miles = 8,981 ft = 2,737 mTotal length of Bridge including approaches from abutment to abutment, plus the distance to the Toll Plaza: 9,150 ft = 2,788 mLength of suspension span including main span and side spans: 1.2 miles = 6,450 ft = 1,966 mLength of main span portion of suspended structure (distance between towers): 4,200 ft = 1,280 mLength of one side span: 1,125 ft = 343 mWidth of Bridge: 90 ft = 27 mWidth of roadway between curbs: 62 ft = 19 mWidth of sidewalk: 10 ft = 3 mClearance above mean higher high water: 220 ft = 67 mTotal weight of each anchorage: 60,000 tons = 54,400,000 kgOriginal combined weight of Bridge, anchorages, and approaches: 894,500 tons = 811,500,000 kgTotal weight of Bridge, anchorages, and approaches (1937): 894,500 tons = 811,500,000 kgTotal weight of Bridge, anchorages, and approaches (1986)*: 887,000 tons = 804,700,00 kg*Weight of Bridge, excluding anchorages and approaches, and including the suspended structure, main towers, piers and fenders, bottom lateral system and orthotropic redecking (1986): 419,800 tons = 380,800,000 kg** The total bridge weight listed for 1986 includes the reduction in weight due to the redecking in 1986. The weight of the original reinforced concrete deck and its supporting stringers was 166,397 tons (150,952,000 kg).  The weight of the new orthotropic steel plate deck, its two inches of epoxy asphalt surfacing, and its supporting pedestals is now 154,093 tons (139,790,700 kg). This is a total reduction in weight of the deck of 12,300 tons (11,158,400 kg), or 1.37 tons (1133 kg) per lineal foot of deck.

Bridge Deflection, Load CapacityWatch this video to see how the Golden Gate Bridge can move up and down by as much as 16 feet depending on the temperature.Maximum transverse deflection, at center span: 27.7 ft = 8.4 m

Maximum downward deflection, at center span: 10.8 ft = 3.3 mMaximum upward deflection, at center span: 5.8 ft = 1.77 mLive load capacity per lineal foot: 4,000 lbs. = 1,814.4 kgAs an example of how the Bridge is built to move, during the winter storms in 1982, the main span bowed approximately 6 to 7 feetThe three maximum deflections noted above at the center of the suspension bridge are due to the following loading conditions:

1. The transverse deflection is due to a sustained transverse wind load. The maximum transverse movement of 27.7 ft is based on the maximum allowable longitudinal movement of the wind locks at the support towers;

2. The maximum downward deflection is due to a condition with maximum live load on the center span, no live load on the side spans and maximum design temperature to elongate the main cables; and

3. The maximum upward deflection is due to a condition opposite to condition 2 above, with maximum live load on side spans, no live load on center span and minimum design temperature to shorten the cable length.

Main Tower StatsThe Golden Gate Bridge has two main towers that support the two main cables.Height of tower above water: 746 ft = 227 mHeight of tower above roadway: 500 ft = 152 mTower base dimension (each leg): 33 x 54 ft = 10 x 16 mLoad on each tower from main cables: 61,500 tons = 56,000,000 kgWeight of both main towers: 44,000 tons = 40,200,000 kgTransverse deflection of towers: 12.5 inches = 0.32 mLongitudinal deflection of towers: shoreward: 22 in = 0.56 m and channelward: 18 in = 0.46 mThe south tower foundation depth below mean low water is: 110 ft = 34mTo build south tower pier to support the south tower, construction workers pumped 9.41 million gallons or 35.6 million liters of water out of the fender that was constructed first.

Main Cable StatsThe Golden Gate Bridge has two main cables which pass over the tops of the two main towers and are secured at either end in giant anchorages.The main cables rest on top of the 746-foot main towers in huge steel castings called saddles.Diameter of one main cable including the exterior wrapping: 36 3/8 in. = .92 mLength of one main cable: 7,650 ft = 2,332 mTotal length of galvanized steel wire used in both main cables: 80,000 mi = 129,000 kmNumber of galvanized steel wires in one main cable that are 0.192 inches in diameter:

27,572Number of bundles or strands of galvanized steel wire in one main cable: 61Weight of both main cables, suspender cables and accessories: 24,500 tons = 22,200,000 kgThe galvanized steel wire comprising each main cable was laid by spinning the wire using  a loom-type shuttle that moved back and forth as it laid the wire in place to form the cables. The spinning of the main cable wires was completed in 6 months and 9 days.The galvanized steel wire used for the main cables is carbon steel with the following average chemical composition and physical properties:

Ladle test results (specified)

C: 0.81% (0.85)

Mn: 0.66% (---)

P: 0.026% (0.04)

S: 0.028% (0.04)

Si: 0.24% (---)

Tested properties (specified)

Tensile Str, Fu = 235,600 psi (220,000 psi min)

Yield Str, Fy = 182,600 psi (160,000 psi min)

Elongation in 10" at rupture = 6.3% (4.0% min)

Suspender Rope (vertical ones) StatsThe Golden Gate Bridge has 250 pairs of vertical suspender ropes that are spaced 50 feet apart across both sides of the Bridge. Each suspender rope is 2-11/16 inches in diameter. All of the ropes were replaced between 1972 and 1976, with the last rope replacement completed on May 4, 1976.

Concrete QuantitiesCu. yd. Cu. m.

San Francisco Pier and Fender 130,000 99,400

Marin Pier 23,500 18,000

Anchorages, Pylons, and Cable Housing 182,000 139,160

Approaches 28,500 21,800

Paving 25,000 19,115

Structural Steel QuantitiesTons Kg.

Main Towers 44,400 40,280,000

Suspended Structure 24,000 21,772,000

Anchorages 4,400 3,991,000

Approaches 10,200 9,250,000

Golden Gate Bridge Historic Construction Photos

 All photographs are from the archives of the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District, San Francisco, CA. Permission is required for use. We are not currently set up to sell our archival images for personal use, but we do license them for use in publications and other commercial formats. Until we establish an archival image sales program, please visit one of the following websites where you may purchase images for your personal use: San Francisco Library Collection and San Francisco Museum.

Golden Gate Bridge Chief Engineer Joseph B. Strauss The Marin Tower (north side) was built from November 1933 to October 1934 and was followed by the San Francisco Tower (south side) from

January 1935 to June 1935.

For worker safety, a footbridge was built before the massive main cables were spun.

Bridge main span, which supports the roadway, was assembled in sections that were constructed concurrently from the south side and the north side. On November 18, 1936, the two sections were joined in the

middle.

Ironworkers bolt down the suspender cable band to main cable.

Painting of the arch over historic Fort Point by Chesley Bonestell.

Pedestrian Day Ticket from May 27, 1937. On Pedestrian Day, May 27, 1937, it is estimated that 200,000 people walked the span.

The Golden Gate Bridge opened to traffic on May 28, 1937.

May 28, 1937, President Franklin Delano Roosevelt pressed a telegraph key in the White House declaring the span open to the entire world.

                             William Alexander, A.I.A., during a visit to the top of the San Francisco Tower. Alexander designed and built the Hangover House (also known as Halliburton House) on a Laguna Beach hilltop for his friend, the travel writer Richard Halliburton, in 1938. Photos used with

permission from Josh Frey.

Maintenance and OperationsDuring Design and Construction  |  Current Operations  |  Major Bridge Improvements 

|  Current Projects  |  Painting the Bridge

During Design and Construction

The caretakers of the Golden Gate Bridge include the engineers and architects that had the vision to create such an incredible landmark, the rugged individuals who built this one-of-a kind masterpiece, and the skilled crafts people and engineers that have taken care of it since opening day in 1937.

Joseph B. Strauss led the way as Chief Engineer of the Golden Gate Bridge.  Strauss was assisted by a talented team that included:  Strauss Engineering (later to become Strauss and Paine, Inc.) Vice Presidents Charles A. Ellis and Clifford E. Paine; Consulting Engineers

O.H. Ammann, Charles Derleth, Jr. and Leon S. Moisseiff; and, Consulting Architect Irving F. Morrow.  These individuals, along with many dedicated workers and professionals, oversaw the creation of a structure which has become world-renowned.  The Golden Gate Bridge has earned the reputation as the world's most spectacular Bridge and is one of the most visited sites in the world.

The most famous of the original construction workers became known as the Half-Way-to-Hell Club when the safety net suspended beneath the floor of the Bridge saved the lives of nineteen men.  Until February 17, 1937, there had been only one fatality during the construction of the Bridge.  This was a new record in a field where the norm had been that one man was killed for every million dollars spent.  On that sad day in February, ten men lost their lives when a section of scaffold carrying twelve men fell through the safety net.

For more information about the original construction and the workers that built the Bridge, there are several great books and videos available through this website at our Gift Center.

Current Operations at the Golden Gate Bridge

The Golden Gate Bridge (Bridge) is one of three operating divisions of the Golden Gate Bridge, Highway and Transportation District (District). The operating divisions include: Golden Gate Bridge, Golden Gate Transit and Golden Gate Ferry. The Bridge Division employs about 200 employees that operate and maintain the Bridge under the direction of the Deputy General Manager, Bridge Division. The Bridge Division captures the true meaning of the words "team effort", with all of the skilled crafts and trades working together to accomplish the job at hand.  

A revered and rugged group of ironworkers and painters battle wind, sea air and fog, often suspended high above the Golden Gate Strait, to repair corroding steel.  Ironworkers replace corroding steel and rivets, make small fabrications for use on the Bridge, and assist painters with their rigging.  Ironworkers also remove plates and bars to provide access for painters to the interiors of the columns and chords that make up the Bridge.  Painters prepare all Bridge surfaces and repaint corroded areas.

Operating engineers and mechanics ensure that all equipment and vehicles are in good repair.  Electricians maintain toll equipment and all electrical components of the Bridge.  They also operate the fog horns.  Communications technicians ensure that radio communications are always operational.  A streets and grounds team keep the surrounding areas of the Bridge in proper repair and attractive for the over ten million visitors each year.

The Bridge captain oversees the activities of the toll office and roadway operations, coordinating an around-the-clock workforce to ensure the smooth flow of traffic.  There have been nine Bridge captains since the Bridge opened in 1937:

Mr. Logan Ed Moore, retired in 1971. Moore also worked on the Bridge during original

construction. Edward Ashoff Russell Gordier John Lufrano Jackson Fung Ronald Garcia

Michael Locati Lisa Locati

Bridge sergeants and lieutenants respond to inquiries, accidents and emergencies - in fact, to date, two babies have been born at the Toll Plaza! A team of Bridge patrol officers, who also report to the Bridge captain, are responsible for Bridge security.

Bridge officers (toll collectors) accept and record all cash toll transactions. They are well known for both their friendliness and accuracy.  With the addition of the Electronic Toll Collection (ETC), known as FasTrak, in July 2000, Bridge officers are necessary as tolls are also collected manually as not all toll lanes are designated as "FasTrak Only."

Laneworkers ensure the reversible lanes are in the proper configuration before each morning and afternoon commute period begins.  They also respond to any emergency lane change requirements that may arise. Service operators assist disabled vehicles on the Bridge and its approaches.  Tow service trucks are on site 24-hours a day, ready to respond to any emergency.

 

ConstructionMajor Bridge Improvements, 1953 to present

Since its completion in 1937, a number of rehabilitation and improvement projects have been undertaken to preserve, protect and extend the life of this world-famous structure. The most significant of these improvements are noted below.

Major current projects underway at the Golden Gate Bridge are listed in the Current Projects page.

1953 -1954On December 1, 1951, a great windstorm threatened the integrity of the Bridge. A lower lateral bracing system was added to the span to significantly increase the torsional stability of the stiffening truss of the roadway at a cost of $3.5 million.

1967-1969Consulting Engineers from Amman & Whitney, NY, NY conducted a major inspection of the Bridge.

1973-1976During the 1967-1969 Bridge inspection conducted by Amman & Whitney, advancing corrosion was discovered at the suspension rope connection point at the roadway. The District worked with Amman& Whitney to develop plans and specifications to replace the suspender ropes. All 250 pairs of vertical suspender ropes, which are spaced 50 feet apart across both sides of the Bridge, were replaced at a cost of $9 million in District funds.

1980-1982Following the 1971 San Fernando Earthquake, the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) issued new retrofit design standards for existing structures. Both the San Francisco and Marin approaches to the Bridge were retrofitted to increase earthquake

resistance. The project was completed in 1982 with 80 percent of the $2.8 million cost borne by the federal government.

1980-1989Over the nine-year period, all 11 toll collection booths were renovated to more safely accommodate the flow of traffic at a cost of  $1.7 million in District funds.

1982-1986Over the years, salt and moisture from fog and the ocean have penetrated and deteriorated the Bridge's roadway deck. In response, the greatest engineering project since the building of the Bridge occurred when the original concrete deck and its supporting steel stringers were replaced with a lighter, stronger orthotropic deck. The District worked with Ammann & Whitney to develop this new deck design. Approximately 80 percent of the total cost of $68.1 million was borne by the Federal Highway Administration as a result of Congressional legislation recognizing the importance of this project in the protection of interstate commerce. The District paid the balance.

Over 401 nights the original concrete, consisting of 747 sections, roadway deck was replaced with a lighter, stronger, orthotropic steel deck. The roadway was widened also by two feet resulting in outside curb lane widths of 11 feet, up from 10 feet. The four inside lanes remained at 10 feet wide. Daytime peak traffic was not affected. The final phase was completed in the summer of 1986 when two inches of epoxy asphalt were laid over the surface of the steel deck roadway.

1986-1987The lighting design developed by consulting architect Irving F. Morrow during the original design was included in original construction. The decorative tower lighting cost $1.2 million, with funding provided in part through a donation from Pacific Gas & Electric Company. Abbett Electric Company installed the lighting at cost.

1993-1994By 1992, after 55 years of constant weather exposure, approximately 6,557 lineal feet of west side pedestrian railing had deteriorated. The District replaced the railing with an exact replica, preserving the historical and architectural character of the Bridge, at a cost of $1.3 million.

1996-1997In August 1996, pavement and drainage rehabilitation of 1,600 feet of roadway in the Golden Gate Bridge Toll Plaza area commenced. To maintain the smooth flow of traffic during peak periods, work was performed at night. In early 1997, the project was completed. 

1997-2008Phase 1 and Phase 2 of the Golden Gate Bridge Seismic Retrofit Design and Construction Project were completed. Phase 1 retrofitted the Marin approach structures from 1997 to 2002. From 2002 to 2008, Phase 2 retrofitted the San Francisco approach structures and Fort Point arch.

2001 to 2003A 4-foot, 6-inch high railing was added between the Bridge roadway and each of the two sidewalks.

2008

In April 2008, Phase 3A of the Seismic Design and Construction Project began. The north anchorage housing and pylons will be retrofit during this phase.

2010Phase 3B of the Seismic Design and Construction Project is anticipated to begin and will retrofit the main span and towers.

Ground Breaking Celebration Construction began on January 5, 1933. This was followed by the official ground breaking ceremony held on February 26, 1933, at nearby Crissy Field (now part of the Golden Gate National Recreation Area). The start of construction was met with great delight. A celebration at nearby Crissy Field went on for hours with at least 100,000 people in attendance. The San Francisco newspaper wrote the next day, “Two hundred and fifty carrier pigeons, provided by the San Francisco Racing Pigeon Club to carry the message of groundbreaking to every corner of California, were so frightened by the surging human mass that small boys had to crawl into their compartments in the bridge replica to shoo them out with sticks.”

A festive parade through the Marina District began at 12:45 pm. Navy planes flew in formation and engineering students carried an 80-foot-long replica of the Bridge. Governor James Rolph, San Francisco Mayor Angelo Rossi, and Board President William P. Filmer made speeches, and a congratulatory telegram from President Herbert Hoover was read. At 4 pm, Major General Craig gave the right-of-way grants to Filmer, and Rossi and Filmer then turned a golden spade. 

History of Golden Gate Bridge

Before the Golden Gate Bridge was constructed, ferries were the only means to go across the San Francisco Bay. Being less time consuming and financially viable, ferry services became an important mode of transport in this region. But when the water body began to get crowded with vessels, an idea to build a bridge across the strait, connecting San Francisco to Marin County, cropped up.

Initially experts were of the opinion that it was impossible to build a bridge across the 6,700 ft strait. The strong currents, swirling tides, depth of the water, strong winds and dense fog made the construction of this bridge nearly impossible. The engineers from San Francisco City estimated that the total cost of bridging the strait would be around a $100 million, a large sum of money at that time.

Joseph Strauss, a German - American engineer, came up with a design, wherein 2 massive cantilevers built on either side of the strait, were connected by a central suspension segment. The cost was estimated to be approximately $17 million. Though the local authorities accepted the proposal, Strauss had a hard time garnering support from departments, like, the Department of War and simultaneously fighting public interest litigations from organizations such as the Southern Pacific Railroad, which was more concerned about the damage to its flourishing ferry business. Finally, he was successful in convincing the authorities and the land required for constructing the structure was allotted to the "Bridging the Golden Gate Association" in May 1924.

Back in 1917, when the project was initially discussed between Strauss and M.H. O'Shaughnessy, an engineer from San Francisco, the name 'Golden Gate Bridge' was used for the first time, which went on to become its official name. The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District Act was introduced in 1923.

The Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District, formed in 1928, was the official body assigned with the responsibility of designing, constructing and financing the Golden Gate Bridge. Strauss was appointed Chief Engineer of the project and given the responsibility of overall design and construction. Irving Morrow, an American architect, was assigned the responsibility of designing the shape of the bridge, its lighting scheme and Art Deco style elements, like walkways and railings. Charles Elton Ellis was appointed as the principal engineer and Leon Moisseiff created the basic structural design. Though Ellis did much of the technical and theoretical work on this project, he was always sidelined by Strauss. He finally received the credit due to him in May 2007, when a formal report on '70 years of stewardship of the Golden Gate Bridge' issued by the Golden Gate Bridge district gave major credit for the design of the bridge to him.

When the time for construction of the bridge came, the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District faced problems raising funds for the bridge because of the depression and Wall Streetcrash. Fortunately, bonds worth USD 35 million, issued by the district, were bought by Amadeo Giannini, the founder of the Bank of America, thus clearing the financial obstacles faced by the project.

The construction of the bridge began on 5th January, 1933 and went on for four years till its completion in April 1937. The cost of the project came upto $35 million. The week-long opening celebrations were kicked off on 27th May, 1937. Approximately, 200,000 people crossed the bridge, either walking or on roller skates, a day before the bridge was opened for vehicles. The Mayor, Angelo Rossi, and other officials crossed over to San Francisco in a motorcade on the day of the opening. The official start of vehicular traffic was signaled by President Roosevelt, from Washington D.C.

The Golden Gate Bridge was ranked 5th on the 'List of America's Favorite Architecture' compiled by the American Institute of Architects, in 2007. A poem written by Joseph Strauss "The Mighty Task is Done", is encrypted on the Golden Gate Bridge, as remembrance of the task done.

Golden Gate Bridge Opening Fiesta Week, May 27 to June 2, 1937

The Golden Gate Bridge Fiesta was a weeklong celebration that included a nightly pageant at Crissy Field, fireworks, parades, and entertainment. Schools were closed and businesses were either closed or reduced to minimum staff to join the festivities.

The Official Program of the Golden Gate Bridge Fiesta outlined the week-long schedule of events and included the toll rates, general rules and traffic rules for the new bridge. It also included a letter from San Francisco Mayor Angelo Rossi, photographs of the bridge engineers, and various facts about the span.

On May 27, 1937, the Fiesta began at 6 am with Pedestrians Day – the entire roadway was opened exclusively to pedestrians from dawn to dusk. By 6 am, thousands of people were waiting to cross. A number of “firsts” took place that day with people competing to be the first to run, roller skate, tap dance, ride a unicycle or cross on stilts. This proved to be a memorable event, with news reports estimating up to as many as 200,000 pedestrians participated.

At nearby Crissy Field, marching bands and floats that had traveled the flag-decorated parade route passed before a formal “Span of Gold” reviewing stand. Strauss arrived at about 10 am and simply shared his poem, “At last, the mighty task is done.” That night, the

city celebrated the bridge with an enormous display of fireworks.

The Fiesta’s second day would be for automobiles. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt pressed a telegraph key in the White House declaring the span open to the entire world. Here are a few of the special celebrations that took place on May 28, 1937:

9:30 am:

Marin approach dedication ceremony sponsored by the Redwood Empire Association with speeches by Governor Merriam, San Francisco Mayor Rossi and others.

10:15 am:

International California Redwood Log-Barrier Sawing Contest.

10:30 am:

Chain-cutting ceremony on Golden Gate Bridge at the Marin tower, the San Francisco-Marin County line. In attendance were San Francisco Mayor Rossi, Board President Filmer, and Board member and treasurer of Redwood Empire Association Frank P. Doyle.

10:50 am:

Floral Gate Ceremony on toll plaza, with Fiesta Queens garlanded with flowers forming a living gate, which opened to official dignitaries following presentation of the completed Golden Gate Bridge to the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District by chief engineer Strauss, and acceptance by Board President Filmer.

11:00 am:

Flight over the Bridge by 500 planes from Navy aircraft carriers Ranger, Lexington and Saratoga and battleships 60 miles out at sea.

12:00 noon:

President Franklin Delano Roosevelt pressed a telegraph key in the White House declaring the span open to the entire world. Autos traveled over the Bridge

simultaneously from the San Francisco and Marin sides.

3:00 pm:

The arrival of the United States Fleet.

10:00 pm:

A grand fireworks display.

Dedication Address Closing Remarks by Franis K. Keesling

We dedicate the Bridge to local, national and international service. It commands faith and integrity. Daniel Webster in delivering the first Bunker Hill Monument oration said, “We wish that this column rising toward Heaven among the pointed spires of so many temples dedicated to God, may contribute also to produce, in all minds, a pious feeling of dependence and gratitude. We wish, finally, that the last object to the sight of him who leaves his native shore, and the first to gladden him who revisits it, may be something which shall remind him of the liberty and the glory of his country.”

We wish that this Golden Gate Bridge may remind the traveler as he leaves or approaches his native shore and also everyone who views it of the liberty and glory of his country where life, liberty, and happiness have so long persisted, so that he may be re-consecrated and, as a result of his “high resolve,” actively devote himself, as he should, to his country’s problems so that the continuity of life, liberty and happiness may be assured.

Fiesta Queens

When the opening of the Golden Gate Bridge was drawing near, a competition was announced to select a Queen for the Golden Gate Bridge Fiesta. There was to be one queen for each of the 19 counties in northern California, and the county queen who received the most popular votes would become the Fiesta Queen. The Fiesta Queen would reign over the week-long activities of the Golden Gate Bridge opening, receive gifts, and be given a screen test in Hollywood!

Model Pauline Constance Ferrelly, with the agency Gantner & Mattern in San Francisco, was one of the candidates for San Francisco. There were 200 candidates competing and Pauline was the odds-on favorite early on. Ballots for voting were not free; they cost 25-cents with the funds going to augment the Fiesta budget. When the standings were announced, Pauline led by a 2,000 vote margin; she was in the lead with 26,400 votes and she became the Fiesta Queen. Everywhere she went she was an instant celebrity.

Once the formal Fiesta activities started, Pauline and the other 18 county queens moved into the Fairmont Hotel as guests of the management. She kept a schedule that had her running from sunrise to sunset. Pauline attended all Fiesta functions, from Pedestrian Day on the Bridge, to the Great Golden Gate Parade, to the Native Sons and Daughters Ceremonial at the Bridge toll plaza, to “The Span of Gold” pageant at Crissy Field, to the dedication of the Marin Approach, to the Golden Gate Bridge with Governor Frank Merriam, and many more.

Pauline’s greatest dream came true when she married Charles Brady in 1940; they had 8 children. She passed away in 1985 of a heart attack.

Safety First

During construction, Strauss insisted on the use of the most rigorous safety precautions in the history of bridge building. The industry norm at that time was that one man would die during construction for every million dollars spent.

Edward W. Bullard, a local manufacturer of safety equipment, modified the mining helmet he had developed into an industrial hard hat that Strauss insisted be worn on the job. Bullard also designed a simple sand-blast respirator helmet for use during construction. Safety measures also included glare-free goggles, special hand and face cream to protect against the wind, and special diets to help fight dizziness.

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The most conspicuous precaution was the safety net, suspended under the floor of the Bridge from end to end. While the net did save the lives of 19 men who became known as the “Half-Way-to-Hell Club”, eleven men did die during construction. The first fatality was Kermit Moore on October 21, 1936. Then, on February 17, sadly ten men – O.A. Anderson, Chris Anderson, William Bass, Orrill Desper, Fred Dümmatzen, Terence Hallinan, Eldridge Hillen, Charles Lindros, Jack Norman, and Louis Russell – lost their lives when a section of scaffold fell through the safety net. The men are honored on a plaque located at the south side entrance to the west sidewalk.

The Strauss Team

Today, we still celebrate the collective efforts of the many engineers and other professionals who created the final design of the iconic Golden Gate Bridge. The contribution of each, as individuals and as a team, led to the development of one of the premier suspension spans of our time. Strauss coordinated and managed the preliminary and final design, as well as the construction of the Bridge, working with a team of engineers, architects, geologists, other

professionals, and the many dedicated contractors and workers involved in the project.

Most notably was the participation by the following individuals, all of whom, with the exception of Ellis, who served as Design Engineer under Strauss from 1922 to 1931, are named on a dedication plaque that remains mounted on the San Francisco tower of the Bridge to this day:

Clifford E. Paine, Strauss Engineering Corporation Vice President, served as Principal Assistant Engineer during final design and construction

Russell G. Cone was Resident Engineer during construction Charles Clarahan, Jr. and Dwight N. Wetherell served as Assistant Engineers O.H. Ammann, Prof. Charles Derleth, Jr., and Leon S. Moisseiff served on the Advisory

Board of Engineers Sydney W. Taylor, Jr. was Consulting Traffic Engineer Irving F. Morrow, Morrow and Morrow Architects, was Consulting Architect Andrew C. Lawson and Allan E. Sedgwick were Consulting Geologists

Although Strauss never officially recognized Ellis for his leadership efforts in the design of the Bridge, the record clearly demonstrates that he deserves significant credit for the suspension bridge design, which we see and cherish today.

Golden Gate Bridge Facts - Size

The Golden Gate Bridge was the longest span in the world from its completion in 1937 until the Verrazano Narrows Bridge was built in New York in 1964. Today, it still has the ninth-longest suspension span in the world. A few Golden Gate Bridge facts to illustrate its size:

Total length: Including approaches, 1.7 miles (8,981 feet or 2,737 m) Middle span: 4,200 feet (1,966 m). Width: 90 feet (27 m) Clearance above the high water (average): 220 feet (67 m) Total weight when built: 894,500 tons (811,500,000 kg) Total weight today: 887,000 tons (804,700,000 kg). Weight reduced because of new decking

material Towers:

746 feet (227 m) above the water 500 feet (152 m) above the roadway Each leg is 33 x 54 feet (10 x 16 m) Towers weigh 44,000 tons each (40,200,000 kg). There are about 600,000 rivets in EACH tower.

Golden Gate Bridge Facts - Construction Details

One of the most interesting Golden Gate Bridge facts is that only eleven workers died during construction, a new safety record for the time. In the 1930s, bridge builders expected 1 fatality per $1 million in construction costs, and builders expected 35 people to die while building the Golden Gate Bridge. One of the bridge's safety innovations was a net suspended under the floor. This net saved the lives of 19 men during construction, and they are often called the members of the "Half Way to Hell Club."

Steel Facts: Made in New Jersey, Maryland and Pennsylvania and shipped through the Panama Canal

Total weight of steel: 83,000 tons (75,293,000 kg) Cable Facts:

Two main cables pass over the tops of the main towers and are secured in concrete anchorages at each end. Each cable is made of 27,572 strands of wire. There are 80,000 miles (129,000 km) of wire in the two main cables, and it took over six months to spin them

Cable diameter (including wrapping): 36 3/8 inches (0.92 m) Cable length: 7,260 feet (2,332 m)

Lights: 128 lights are installed on the bridge roadway. They are 250-watt high pressure sodium lamps

installed in 1972 The 24 tower sidewalk lights are 35-watt low pressure sodium lamps 12 light illuminate each tower, 400 watts each, and an airway beacon tops each tower

Golden Gate Bridge Facts - Traffic

Average crossings: About 41 million per year, counting both north- and southbound crossings, compared to 33 million crossing the first year it was open

Fewest crossings: January, 1982, during a storm which closed U. S. 101 north of the bridge. On January 6, only 3,921 southbound vehicles passed the toll gates

Most crossings: October 27, 1989, a few days after the Loma Prieta earthquake, when the Bay Bridge was closed. 162,414 vehicles (counting those going both directions) crossed the bridge that day

Total crossings: Through October 30, 2002, the Golden Gate Bridge Highway District reported 1,754,094,967 vehicles had crossed the bridge

Closures: The bridge has been closed three times for weather, for gusting winds over 70 mph. It closed briefly for visits by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and French President Charles DeGaulle. It was also closed on its fiftieth birthday

Golden Gate Bridge Facts - Important Dates

May 25, 1923: The California state legislature passes a law creating the Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District

August 27, 1930: Joseph B. Strauss submits final plans November 4, 1930: $35 million bond issue approved by the six counties in the District, by a vote

of 145,667 to 46.954 January 5, 1933: Construction begins May 27, 1937: Bridge opens to pedestrians May 28, 1937: Bridge open to automobiles. The toll was 50 cents one way, $1 round trip and 5

cents surcharge if there were more than 3 passengers February 22, 1985: The one-billionth car crosses the bridge. Toll is $2 southbound on Friday and

Saturday, $1 otherdays. No northbound toll May 28, 1987: Bridge closed to vehicles for its fiftieth birthday. An estimated 300,000 pedestrians

jammed the bridge September 2 2008: Toll increased to $6 southbound. No northbound toll.

Golden Gate Bridge Facts - Paint

The Golden Gate Bridge's paint color is orange vermillion, also called international orange. Architect Irving Morrow selected the color because it blends with the bridge's setting

The bridge was fully painted when it was first built and then touched up for the next 27 years. In 1965, the original paint was removed because of corrosion and replaced with a inorganic zinc silicate primer and an acrylic emulsion top coat, a project that took 30 years. Today, painters touch up the paint continuously

38 painters work on the bridge, along with 17 ironworkers who replace corroding steel and rivets

The Golden Gate Bridge links San   Francisco  with Marin County in absolute splendor. The bridge is one of the architectural marvels of the Twentieth Century and a testament to human strife, as it was constructed during the years of the Great Depression. For years, the Golden Gate Bridge held the title as the longest suspension bridge in the world.

Before its completion in 1937, the bridge was considered impossible to build, due to persistently foggy weather, 60-mile-per-hour winds, and strong ocean currents, which whipped through a deep canyon below. In fact, the bridge is commonly known as the "Bridge that couldn't be built." Despite these unforgiving natural elements, the bridge was constructed in a little more than four years. The total cost was $35 million. The total length of the bridge spans 1.2 miles. Eleven men lost their lives during the construction of the bridge.

Even today, the massive spans of the bridge are often shrouded in fog. The bridge sways 27 feet to withstand winds of up to 100 miles per hour. International Orange was the color chosen for the bridge because it blended well with the bridge's natural surroundings. The two great cables extending from the bridge contain 80,000 miles of steel wire, which is enough to circle the equator three times. The concrete poured to cement the bridge into the stormy waters below could have also been used to pave a five-foot sidewalk from New   York  to San Francisco.

Because of the Golden Gate Bridge, San   Francisco  is one of the premier skyline cities in the nation. It was a triumphant day in the history of the city when the bridge was completed on May 27, 1937. Over 200,000 people celebrated the grand opening of the Golden Gate Bridge by walking its length. The following day, a dedication ceremony was held to officially christen what would become the architectural trademark of the city. The regular flow of vehicular traffic began the next day.Efforts to begin the construction on the bridge began as early as 1928. The process would entail the efforts of six counties in Northern   California . In 1928, the counties formed a Golden Gate Bridge and Highway District. In 1930, the voters appropriated a $35 million bond issue to finance the building of the bridge. For many years following, Joseph Baerman Strauss, a distinguished engineer, dreamed of raising a span across the Golden Gate. It was in response to his vision that people first started saying that the bridge could not be built. But, amazingly enough, Strauss held fast to his vision, and a span was eventually raised across the Golden Gate Bridge. The actual work on the bridge began on January 5, 1933. It was completed four-and-one-half years later. The result astounded the fiercest of Strauss's critics. To this day, the bridge is admired for its magnitude and beauty.

The bridge is nothing short of a powerful force meant to combat nature. The

often mighty winds from the Pacific Ocean are sustained by a mid span swing of 27 feet. The two towers of the bridge rise an impressive 746 feet, which is 191 feet taller than the Washington Monument. The pier of the bridge is only 1,215 feet from the shore, the distance between the two towers that support the cables, which in turn, support the floor of the bridge is 4,200 feet. These two cables are the largest bridge cables ever made at a little over 361 feet in diameter.

Today, pedestrians and bicyclists are still allowed to cross the bridge on pathways with breathtaking views of the city, Alcatraz, and the Marin Headlands. The bridge toll for vehicles is $3 when entering San Francisco.

The first exit of the Marin side of the bridge is Visa Point, which provides a magnificent view of the San Francisco skyline. But, the best way to view the bridge is to walk across. This usually takes about an hour.