geomorphology and surface materials: lindsay …

GEOMORPHOLOGY AND SURFACE MATERIALS: LINDSAY-WALLPOLLA AND LAKE VICTORIA-

DARLING ANABRANCH

J.D.A. Clarke, V. Wong, C. F. Pain, H. Apps, D. Gibson, J. Luckman and K. Lawrie

CRC LEME Open File Report 237

December 2008

© CRC LEME 2008

CRC LEME is an unincorporated joint venture between the Australian National University, University of Canberra, Australian Geological Survey Organisation and CSIRO Exploration and Mining.

Headquarters:- CRC LEME C/o CSIRO Exploration and Mining, Private Bag 5, Wembley 6913, Western Australia.

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Address and affiliation of authors

J.D.A. Clarke, V. Wong, C. Pain, H. Apps, D. Gibson, J. Luckman and K. Lawrie Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Environments and Mineral Exploration c/- Geoscience Australia PO Box 378 Canberra ACT 2601

DISCLAIMER

The user accepts all risks and responsibility for losses, damages, costs and other consequences resulting directly or indirectly from using any information or material contained in this report. To the maximum permitted by law, CRC LEME excludes all liability to any person arising directly or indirectly from using any information or material contained in this report.

© Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Evolution and Mineral Exploration

2008

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

In early 2007, an airborne electromagnetic (AEM) survey was acquired along a 450 km reach of the River Murray Corridor (RMC) in SE Australia. This aim of this survey, carried out under the auspices of the Australian Government’s Community Stream Sampling and Salinity Mapping Project (CSSSMP), and managed by the Bureau of Rural Sciences (BRS), is to provide information vital for addressing salinity, land management and groundwater resource issues. The study area stretches from where the Murray River crosses the South Australian border eastwards and south along the Murray River to Torrumbarry Weir. A total of 24,000 line km of AEM data were acquired. The survey area encompasses iconic wetland areas, national and state forest parks, and areas of irrigation and dryland farming.

Within the Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch project area key land management questions include: 1) What is the potential for salt mobilisation during Living Murray inundation actions? 2) How is salt delivered to the river? 3) How are the drivers of floodplain health with respect to groundwater processes to be understood? 4) How are the high recharge areas in the floodplain to be indentified? 5) What is the extent and thickness of the Blanchetown Clay and the Coonambidgal Formation? 6) Where is salt stored in the unsaturated zone?

To address many of these questions, maps of the distribution of salt stores, saline and fresh groundwater and the hydraulic properties of soil and regolith materials in the shallow sub-surface are required. These are required to provide a 3-D understanding of how salt stores and saline groundwaters connect to the surface waterways and land surface. Sub-surface interpretations in the survey areas are hampered by a low density of useful borehole data in the floodplain in particular, and by a paucity of soil and landscape surface mapping at appropriate scales throughout the project area. New maps of surface materials, and a new geomorphic understanding of the RMC project area is required to constrain the interpretation of the AEM surveys, and address the land management questions.

This report documents the results of new surface materials mapping in the Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch survey area, the methodology used to produce the maps, and supporting analyses. These data inform interpretation of the surface layer of the AEM products and provide an understanding of the geomorphic evolution of the landscape.

The Murray River in the Lindsay-Wallpolla Islands reach runs though a valley incised through a Late Cainozoic succession consisting of the Blanchetown and Loxton-Parilla Formations. These are mantled by Pleistocene aeolian sands of the Woorinen Formation. The modern floodplain consists of three distinct generations of meander belt sediments with scroll bars and oxbow billabongs. A conventional fine-grained floodplain is absent because of the meander belt sediments extend across the full width of the floodplain within the confines of the incised valley. However, older meander deposits are draped by floodplain silty clays with the thicknesses increasing to more than a metre on the oldest deposits. The oldest floodplain deposits also show distinctively longer meander wavelengths and wide channels than the modern channel, indicating a diminished flow over time. The soils vary markedly in salinity and pH, with a general trend of increasing pH and salinity with increasing age.

An extensive terrace occurs along both sides of the incised valley of the Murray River. The terrace is mantled by aeolian silts and sands and have local outlying dunes of the Woorinen Formation. Ghosts of channels and billabongs are visible in satellite imagery suggesting an environment similar to from that which formed the modern floodplain. The soils are potassic, alkaline, and moderately saline.

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Lindsay and Wallpolla Creeks are sinuous fixed-channel anastomosing channels. While these channels may partly follow abandoned channels of the Murray River, they are incised into the floodplain and are inferred to be related to drainage during high water levels. These channels and the oxbow billabongs from abandoned meander loops of the Murray River are clay-lined, with water flow either non-existent or very slow. It is these channels that are flooded during the artificial watering process.

Distal to the river are several clay pans with associated lunettes. The largest of these is Lake Victoria, followed by Lake Wallawalla. These abut the rise forming the edge of the incised valley or against the terrace. In their natural state, they are several metres lower than the rest of the floodplain, forming evaporation basins for water draining off the proximal floodplains along the fixed channels. Engineering works have resulted in Lake Victoria being used for permanent water storage and Lake Wallawalla for temporary storage. Both lakes are interpreted as modified meander loops of the Murray River.

Ken Lawrie Project Leader

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ABBREVIATIONS

ACRES Australian Centre for Remote Sensing AEM Airborne Electromagnetics ASTER Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer BC Blanchetown Clay BRS Bureau of Rural Sciences CF Coonambidgal Formation CMA Catchment Management Authority CRC LEME Cooperative Research Centre for Landscape Environments and

Mineral Exploration DEM Digital elevation model GA Geoscience Australia GMW Goulbourn-Murray Water LIDAR Light Detection and Ranging MDBC Murray-Darling Basin Commission MS Monoman Sands PS Parilla Sands RGB Red, Green, Blue RMC River Murray Corridor SF Shepparton Formation SPOT Satellite Pour l'Observation de la Terre STRM Shuttle Radar Terrain Model VNIR Very near infrared radiation WF Woorinen Formation

XRD X Ray Diffraction

XRF X Ray Fluorescence

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 1 2 PREVIOUS STUDIES..................................................................................................... 2 3 KEY LAND MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS ................................................................ 3 4 METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................... 5

4.1 Basic method and rationale ...................................................................................... 5 4.2 Data Availability and Quality .................................................................................. 5

4.2.1 Satellite imagery .................................................................................................. 5 4.2.2 Digital Elevation Models ..................................................................................... 5 4.2.3 Gamma-ray data................................................................................................... 6

4.3 Satellite image Processing ....................................................................................... 6 4.4 Fieldwork ................................................................................................................. 7

5 RESULTS ........................................................................................................................ 7 5.1 Regolith Landform Units ......................................................................................... 7

5.1.1 Uplands................................................................................................................ 8 5.1.2 Alluvial terrace .................................................................................................... 8 5.1.3 Floodplain ............................................................................................................ 9

5.2 Vegetation .............................................................................................................. 11 5.2.1 Uplands.............................................................................................................. 12 5.2.2 Alluvial Terrace ................................................................................................. 12 5.2.3 Floodplain .......................................................................................................... 13

6 ANALYTICAL DATA.................................................................................................. 13 6.1 Granulometry ......................................................................................................... 16

6.1.1 Methodology...................................................................................................... 16 6.1.2 Results ............................................................................................................... 16

6.2 EC and pH.............................................................................................................. 17 6.2.1 Methodology...................................................................................................... 17 6.2.2 Results ............................................................................................................... 17

6.3 XRF geochemistry ................................................................................................. 19 6.3.1 Methodology...................................................................................................... 19 6.3.2 Results ............................................................................................................... 19

6.4 XRD mineralogy .................................................................................................... 20 6.4.1 Methods ............................................................................................................. 20 6.4.2 Results ............................................................................................................... 20

7 IMPLICATIONS............................................................................................................ 21 7.1 Hydrogeological issues .......................................................................................... 21

7.1.1 Flow ................................................................................................................... 21 7.1.2 Recharge ............................................................................................................ 21 7.1.3 Relevance to land management questions ......................................................... 22

REFERENCES........................................................................................................................ 24 APPENDIX 1. ASTER data and interpretation....................................................................... 26 APPENDIX 2. SPOT Data and interpretation........................................................................ 28 APPENDIX 3. DEM data and interpretation........................................................................... 30 APPENDIX 4. Gamma-ray data.............................................................................................. 32 APPENDIX 5. Surface materials ............................................................................................ 33 APPENDIX 6. Site Descriptions and Data.............................................................................. 34 APPENDIX 7: Analytical Results........................................................................................... 55

Appendix 7.1 Lindsay-Wallpolla soil EC and pH data ....................................................... 55 Appendix 7.2: Lindsay-Wallpolla Laser Grainsize............................................................. 57 Appendix 7.3: Lindsay-Wallpolla XRF results................................................................... 59 Appendix 7.4: Lindsay-Wallpolla XRD Mineralogy. ......................................................... 62

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List of Figures

Figure 1. The Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch study area ............... 1

Figure 2. Typical landscape close to Murray River on Wallpolla Island .................................. 1

Figure 3. Conceptual model (cross-section) and geophysical targets in the Lindsey – Walpolla area:................................................................................................................................... 4

Figure 4. Schematic hydrogeological cross-section representing the Lindsay Island reach of the Murray River Floodplain. ........................................................................................... 4

Figure 5. Coverage of digital elevation model types................................................................. 6

Figure 6. Compartmentalisation of the Murray River incised valley fill into terrace and floodplain deposits of different ages. .............................................................................. 8

Figure 7. Diagrammatic representation of relationships between geomorphic and stratigraphic units................................................................................................................................... 9

Figure 8. Oblique projection of part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements. ......... 10

Figure 9. Vertical view of part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements. .................. 11

Figure 10. Further vertical view of part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements...... 12

Figure 11. Terrace vegetation and materials. .......................................................................... 12

Figure 12. Modern floodplain (right) with well developed river red gum forest. Intermediate floodplain (left) with black box woodland,..................................................................... 13

Figure 13. Oldest floodplain (left) with black box and Lignum-saltbush savannah. Riparian vegetation (right) of bulrushes, lilies, and macroalgae, Horseshoe Lagoon, .................. 13

Figure 14. Location of soil sample sites western end of Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch.......................................................................................................... 15

Figure 15. Location of soil sample sites eastern end of Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch.......................................................................................................... 15

Figure 16. Sand and clay percentage from each geomorphic unit........................................... 16

Figure 17. Mean pH profiles from each geomorphic unit. ...................................................... 18

Figure 18. Mean EC profiles from each geomorphic unit. ...................................................... 18

Figure 19. SPOT image of Wallpolla Creek (containing water at time imaged) and clay-lined nature of dried up channel of Wallpolla Creek as seen at ground level.......................... 22

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List of Tables

Table 1. Associations between regolith landform units, vegetation and surface materials ..... 14

Table 2. Range of EC and pH values for different geomorphic units in the Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch study area .......................................................... 19

Table 3. Mean values of selected XRF analyses ..................................................................... 20

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1 INTRODUCTION

This study covers the River Murray Corridor (RMC) between Merbein and the South Australian Border (Figure 1).

Figure 1. The Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch study area. Green boxes from left to right are for Figures 10, 9, 19, and 8, respectively.

The two main areas of interest are Lindsay and Wallpolla “islands”, areas of the floodplain largely isolated by secondary anastomosing channels branching off from the Murray River, and the matching floodplain on the New South Wales side of the River. The area was visited by the authors between the 17th and 26th of January (Figure 2). The aim of this visit was to validate landforms units mapped on the DEM and satellite imagery and to collect soil samples for ground truthing of the physical and chemical properties of the surface materials..

Figure 2. Typical landscape close to Murray River on Wallpolla Island

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The main objective of the studies reported here is to provide information for constrained inversion of AEM data as a first step in interpreting those data to provide answers to land use questions posed by the Malee and Lower Murray-Darling Catchment Management Authorities (CMAs) for the area. The studies also provide a materials framework within which to assess the utility of the airborne electromagnetic (AEM) data to help answer the land management questions.

2 PREVIOUS STUDIES

There has been a paucity of geomorphic studies undertaken on the Murray Floodplain downstream Swan Hill. Those which have been undertaken relate largely to the geology and its evolution in the region, and soils and pedogenesis (Brown and Stephenson 1991; Gill 1973; Macumber 1977; Hills 1975). However, a number of studies have been undertaken in the Riverine Plain of Victoria and NSW, and extrapolated to the Murray floodplain region due to similarities in their evolutionary histories (Bowler and Harford 1966; Butler et al. 1973; Pels 1966). More recently, studies have focused on the ecological or vegetation health (Jolly et al. 1993; Thoms et al. 1999) of the native vegetation. There have been few highly integrated studies in which geology, geophysics, soils, and geomorphology have been used to address questions of land management, with perhaps the study by Rowan and Downes (1963) being a notable exception. This is particularly important given that the floodplain of the Murray River in this region acts as an interface between the river and the regional groundwater systems, with the potential to mobilise large stores of salt under altered hydrological regimes.

The soils of the Murray Basin are closely related to the Quaternary geology. Grey and brown soils of the Riverine Plain and solonised brown soils of the Mallee region predominate. The grey and brown soils overlie mainly the fluvial Shepparton and Coonambidgal Formations, while the solonised brown soils overlie a variety of aeolian units including the Woorinen Formation (Brown and Stephenson 1991).

Previous geomorphological studies in the region have identified a number of terraces (Kotsonis et al. 1999) in the Murray Floodplain. Thoms et al. (1999) recognise that the present day channels and rivers in this region are inset within intermediate channel systems, and are therefore associated with relict floodplain surfaces that contain numerous palaeo-channels and oxbow lakes. Gill (1973) named the oldest terrace the Rufus Formation.

While the Riverine Plain consists of thick lacustrine and fluvatile sediments deposited mainly in the late Tertiary and Quaternary, the Mallee is a semi-arid region with extensive aeolian deposits overlying Either the Pleistocene lacustrine Blanchetown Clay or intermediate Cainozoic marine sands of the Loxton-Parilla Formation. The aeolian deposits occur in the form of two types of dunes in the Mallee. The first is a regular series of linear dunes with an east-west trend stabilised by vegetation except for the very local active sand patches. The dunes generally have calcareous B horizons, with buried palaeosols. The material of which the east-west dunes are composed of a pale to dark reddish-brown calcareous sand with some clay fraction of the Woorinen Formation (Hills 1975). The second type of dune is a complex set of parabolic and transverse dunes which are found outside of the study area.

On the New South Wales side of the river Lake Victoria is a giant oxbow system lying on an anabranch formed by Frenchman’s Creek and the Rufus River, and has acted as sand trap to form a large lunette on its eastern bank which has been emplaced and remodelled over 20 000 years (Gill 1973) of deflation. The river banks and sides of Lake Victoria are subjected to erosion with extensive blowouts and sandfalls, while the lunette associated with the lake is unusually wide with horizontal bedding (Gill 1973). Several salt pans exist in the vicinity of Lake Victoria, which may be relicts of a former single large lake indicated by a shallow gypsiferous layer above the Blanchetown Formation, with groundwater occurring within a

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metre of the ground surface (Chen 1995). The Darling River and its Anabranch also enter the Murray River in this reach at Wentworth, and approximately 15 km west of Wentworth, respectively.

3 KEY LAND MANAGEMENT QUESTIONS

The main identified issue in this iconic reach of the Murray River is the downstream impact of salt mobilisation during flood recessions. Research to date indicates that the Lindsay and Wallpolla Islands accumulate large amounts of salt during low flow periods and that significant floods could act to liberate much of this salt, moving it downriver where it could severely affect agricultural areas in South Australia. Accordingly, the key identified requirements are the design of an environmental watering regime and planning of revegetation strategies to optimise floodplain health and limit the salinity impact on the Murray River. This will entail gaining a more detailed understanding of the floodplain characteristics, including flush zones and salt stores. Identification of major salt influxes to the river and possible interception zones is also desired. These concerns can be expressed in the following questions (from Lawrie 2006), with conceptual geophysical targets shown in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows a cross-section of the Murray River floodplain and Wallpolla Island.

1. What is the potential for salt mobilisation during Living Murray inundation actions? This requires identifying holes in the Coonambidgal Formation – target 1. Salt stored in the sub-surface (targets 2 and 5 in the model below) may be mobilised through connected pathways to the river and surface (through targets 1 and 3). This question addresses the act of mobilisation and is therefore concerned with the source or initial position of the salt and what is causing it to move. This requires identifying high salt stores that are at risk of being mobilised. Therefore, we need to identify high conductivity salt stores, particularly in the Coonambidgal Formation and upper Monoman Formation (target 5), and we need to identify low conductivity zones where water preferentially feeds into the floodplain sediments to potentially mobilise these salt stores, namely flush zones (target 3) and floodplain recharge areas (target 1). In the model below. Questions 2 and 3, below, deal with the destination of the mobilised salt. See Figure 3.

2. Delivery of salt to the river. How salt is being delivered to the river requires identification of high salinity zones (similar to previous question) and relatively permeable zones or pathways for groundwater movement back to the river or anabranches once the flood recedes – targets 5, 4 and 2 in Figure 3. Salt being delivered to the river now will be interpreted from mapping salt stores (eg targets 2 and 5) and their connection to the river either directly or indirectly through preferential flow paths. Additionally, salt being delivered to the river will also be mapped by identifying areas where Blanchetown Clay is thin or absent, giving rise to potential higher saline influxes to the river from saline groundwaters in the Loxton-Parilla Sands (target 4 in Figure 3).

3. Understanding of the drivers of floodplain health with respect to groundwater processes. This is matter of identifying elements of floodplain and groundwater processes – targets 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the model below. This is a matter of identifying elements of floodplain composition (including salt), groundwater levels and groundwater processes. AEM can provide important baseline data in resolving this question by defining the distribution of fine and coarse grain floodplain lithologies (target: whole of floodplain, particularly top 5 metres), high salinity zones (target 5), high recharge zones (target 1), flush zones (target 3), permeable pathways delivering salt to prone areas such as anabranches and other depressions (target 2) and exposure to saline fluxes from the Parilla Sand (target 4). Recharge zones (target 1), salt stores (2 and 5) and flush zones (target 3) are conceptualised in Figure 3.

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4. Identification of the high recharge areas in the floodplain? This relates to question 1, and means identifying areas of the floodplain where water can most easily enter from the surface i.e. high porosity permeability (sand) connected to subsurface – targets 1 and 2 in Figure 3.

5. What is the extent and thickness of the Blanchetown Clay and the Coonambidgal Formation? Extent and thickness of the Blanchetown Clay can be modelled in areas adjacent to the incised valley (targets 4 & 6a in Figure 3) and beneath the incised valley (targets 4 & 6b) where the conductivity contrasts between the Blanchetown Clay and the overlying Monoman Formation are high enough. Targets 1 and 2 (Figure 3) can assist in the determination of the thickness and extent of Coonambidgal Formation. Drill-hole and geomorphic information will be used in the interpretation of the extent and thickness of the Coonambidgal Formation.

6. Where is salt stored in the unsaturated zone? Target 7 in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Conceptual model (cross-section) and proposed geophysical targets in the Lindsey – Walpolla area: WF = Woorinen Formation, CF = Coonambidgal Formation, MS = Monoman Sands, BC = Blanchetown Clay, PS = Parilla Sand (Lawrie 2006).

Figure 4. Schematic hydrogeological cross-section representing the Lindsay Island reach of the Murray River Floodplain (from SKM 2004).

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4 METHODOLOGY

4.1 Basic method and rationale

Mapping was done on transparent overlays at 1:25,000 scale and digitally converted into electronic maps. The main presentation of the data was at 1:100,000 scale, mapping at 1:25,000 scale ensured that there was sufficient detail.

Landform mapping was carried out primarily by one of us (JC) using the LIDAR DEM where possible. This was supplemented by lower resolution DEM data when the LIDAR was not available, and compared against satellite imagery. DG carried out most of the mapping in the areas with lower resolution. The landforms provided information on the spatial and chronological relationships between different surface units.

Surface properties were mapped using ASTER by another one of us (VW), who also mapped vegetation patterns from SPOT images. Gamma ray ternary radiometric images were used by JC to differentiate surface material types where interpretation was difficult. Surface materials provide information in the hydrologic properties, in particular recharge and salt load.

The polygons were field checked by JC and V Wong by vehicular traverses along various tracks. Soil pits were dug and sampled, with field descriptions providing preliminary data on soil properties (Appendix 6). These were followed by quantitative analyses (Appendix 7).

The maps were entered into the GIS by HA and JL, and the work was scientifically reviewed by CP and KL.

4.2 Data Availability and Quality

4.2.1 Satellite imagery

The primary satellite images used to compile surface polygons were those from ASTER and SPOT. LANDSAT images were used for comparison and infill, but were not normally interpreted as SPOT and ASTER coverage was generally adequate for the project area. ASTER interpretation is shown in Appendix 1), while SPOT interpretation is shown in Appendix 2.

Three ASTER scenes (with 15m resolution) covered most of the Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch area. The scenes, the only ones available, were acquired from ACRES in GA. Two scenes were dated 14 Jan 2001 and one was dated 20 Nov 2000, with the last scene unfortunately having a large section of cloud cover. The ASTER is displayed as a composite RGB image using the visible and near infrared radiation (VNIR) bands 3, 2 and 1.

Four pan-sharpened pseudo natural colour SPOT scenes (with 2.5m resolution) dated 09 Jan 2005, 25 Feb 2005, 5 July 2005 and 24 Nov 2004 were also acquired from GA. Bands 3, 2 and 1 were displayed in a composite RGB image. Two Landsat-7 ETM ortho-corrected images (30m resolution) used in the project were acquired on the 15 Mar 2002 and 4 April 2001.

4.2.2 Digital Elevation Models

DEM coverages are shown in Figure 5. Three coverages were used:

• LIDAR

• Elevation models fro digitised topographic maps

• SRTM data

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The SRTM was used as to provide the base DEM where other data was not available. At a scale of 1:25,000 the vertical and spatial resolution is too low while the noise level is too high in the Shuttle Radar DEM for mapping purposes, and hence, has been used for infill only.

High resolution (2 and 5 m) LIDAR DEMs were used for the primary interpretation (Appendix 3). The Lindsay and Wallpolla LIDAR data were supplied by SunRISE 21 in xyz format (134 & 74 files respectively). These were imported and gridded in Intrepid and then exported to ERMapper format as 1m and 5m grids. The LIDAR data on the eastern part of the project area were supplied by MDBC. The tiles, at 2m resolution, were mosaiced together in Arc Info. There are two DEMs derived from digitised contour maps; one at 10 m resolution and the other at 20 m resolution (Figure ). The 20 m DEM data was provided by ACRES in ERMapper format. The 10m DEM data was supplied as 175 xyz ascii files by SunRISE 21 on behalf of the Mallee CMA. The ascii files were imported into Intrepid, saved in ERMapper format, and clipped to the project area. The 10m grid has a stated vertical accuracy of 2m AHD. These were used as infill when other data were not available.

Figure 5. Coverage of digital elevation model types.

4.2.3 Gamma-ray data

Airborne ternary gamma-ray images were used to supplement areas with poor coverage of high resolution DEM (Appendix 4). This is effective because the materials of the terrace formed by the Rufus Formation (Gill 1973) are distinct from those of the active floodplain on ternary gamma-ray images, as described in more detail below. The distribution of this material was used when absence of LIDAR coverage precluded mapping of the position of terraces by more accurate means.

4.3 Satellite image Processing

The ASTER level 1B scenes were supplied by ACRES in .hdf format. They were corrected for crosstalk (caused by signal leakage from band 4 into adjacent bands 5 and 9) and imported into ERMapper. Importing was carried out in three steps with bands of similar resolution. The VNIR bands 1-3 at 15m resolution, SWIR (shortwave infrared radiation) bands 5 – 9 at 30m resolution and TIR (thermal infrared radiation) bands 10 – 14 at 90m resolution. All bands were rotated, calibrated for radiance, by rescaling digital values to observed top of atmosphere radiance values, and had dark pixel corrections. Resultant ERMapper datasets were displayed as composite RGB images.

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SPOT 5 images were supplied by GA and had already been processed by Geoimage Pty Ltd for NSW Department of Infrastructure Planning and Natural Resources. LANDSAT 7 data have passed ACRES Quality Assessment and was supplied with all processing complete.

The ASTER, SPOT and LIDAR images were printed at 1:25,000 scale and interpreted by mapping unit boundaries onto a registered stable transparent overlay using mapping pens. The interpreted line work was then digitally scanned and the polygons attributed. The finished images were then printed for checking.

4.4 Fieldwork

The area was visited by two of the authors (JC and VW) between the 17th and 26th of January (Figure 1). The aim of this visit was to validate interpretations of the DEM and satellite imagery interpretation and to collect soil samples for ground truthing. Twenty sites for selected for sampling and 16 actually excavated, some of these lay outside the final study area as the field trip was done before these have been fully defined. These were all located on road reserves. Shallow pits 30 cm deep were dug adjacent to roads in the Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch region and sampled at 0-10, 10-20, 20-30 cm intervals. These pits provided information of the near-surface stratigraphy and characteristics of the regolith materials and also provided information on the soil structure of the site. The soils were described according to McDonald and Isbell (1998). Samples were analysed for mineralogy using X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), for grain size using laser granulometry, and for elemental chemistry using X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF). The site and the pits were photo-documented and the soil profiles and samples described in the field. The holes were filled in on completion. Results of the field tests and soil descriptions are contained in Appendix 6 and discussed in section 6.

5 RESULTS

5.1 Regolith Landform Units

The incised valley of the Murray River (the upstream equivalent of the Murray River Gorge of Twidale et al. 1978) contains several mappable geomorphic units and their accompanying sediments (Figure 6, Figure and Appendix 5). These are the alluvial terrcae, raised several metres above the modern floodplain, the modern scroll plain inundated by floods, composed of three mappable meander tracts, and a number of individual features such as dunes, lakes, and lunettes

Geomorphic differentiation of incised valley fill into terrace and floodplain deposits matches the distinct airborne gamma patterns which show that the terrace units (Rufus Formation) are comparatively richer in K than in Th or U, whereas the floodplains (Coonambidgal Formation) all show an equally strong signal in all three radioelements. The quartz sand dune-covered uplands showed a very low signature in all three radiogenic elements.

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Figure 6. Compartmentalisation of the Murray River incised valley fill into terrace and floodplain deposits of different ages. Upper terrace is composed of Rufus Formation.

5.1.1 Uplands

The uplands have sandy regolith, slightly more clayey in the swales, developed on the dunes of the Woorinen Formation (Figure , Figure 8). Soils are well-drained and sandy to sandy loams, with moderate amounts of carbonate in the intermediate dunes. Generally these areas are cleared for cropping (Figure 1, Figure 8).

5.1.2 Alluvial terrace

This unit consists of clay and fine sandy alluvium, and is composed of the Rufus Formation of Gill (1973). The terrace surface has a discontinuous cover of sand dunes (~Woorinen Formation). It is about 60,000 years old (Rogers and Gatehouse 1990). The terrace is very flat, with local orange sand dunes and sand sheets. Where there is no sand the surface of the terrace consists of olive-khaki silty clays. Most soils are slightly to moderately saline. Loamy sands of relict dunes locally overlay the floodplain clays (Figure ).

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Figure 7. Diagrammatic representation of relationships between geomorphic and stratigraphic units.

5.1.3 Floodplain

The floodplain is formed on sediments on the Coonambidgal Formation (Butler 1958), and consists of three discrete meander belts with well developed scroll bars (Appendix 3).

The oldest floodplain meander belt has a degraded scroll bar morphology. Amplitude of the scroll bars and the meander wavelength is greater for this unit that for the younger meander belts, indicating different hydraulic conditions during deposition. This unit is characterised by olive-khaki silty clay drapes over degraded scroll bars with a relief of about 2 m (Figure 8, Figure, 10). There are thin (>2 m) source bordering dunes of grey sand.

There is an intermediate floodplain meander belt that has rounded morphology, with scroll bars are not as distinct as on the modern floodplain in the LIDAR DEM. Olive-khaki silty clay drapes over lower relief (~1 m) scroll bars are found in this unit. Source bordering dunes also occur on this unit.

The modern floodplain consists of meander belts and high relief (2-3 m) scroll bars with crisp morphology and little or no clay draped over the surface. Scroll bars are distinct in the LIDAR DEM. Surface sediments consist largely of yellow sand.

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Figure 8. Oblique projection looking west from the Murray River at Merbein showing part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements. Width of image ~5 km.

The floodplain has a number of channels, which consist of several morphological types. The main Murray River channel sustains active flow and consists of a typical migrating meandering channel. Abandoned channels of the Murray River consist of broad oxbow billabongs and sustain semipermanent water. There are also anastomosing channels that are sinuous and have fixed banks. These channels have been superimposed on the intermediate floodplain deposits, sometimes exploiting previous abandoned channels, elsewhere cutting across scroll bar and floodplain deposits. Flow in these is determined by water level, and during the period of observation some were flowing, others were stagnant or dry, and lined with clay.

Most soils on the floodplain are slightly to moderately saline (see Section 6.2 and Appendix 7 for details). Loamy sands of relict dunes locally overlie the floodplain clays. Clays within the floodplain are typically smectitic and sodic. They are highly dispersive and make an impermeable seal after modest rain. Minor variations in floodplain elevation can significantly affect soil development. Scroll bars found on the oldest and intermediate floodplain units (Coonambidgal Formation) exhibit more profile development with heavier textures and are highly structured in swales compared to the corresponding crest than are those on the youngest scroll bar sets. Due to the formation of a surface seal, water infiltration is limited to the upper layer of the soil profile, leading to surface ponding after rainfall and then lost through evaporation. While in the field we experienced a 50-150 mm rainfall event and observed only 10-30 cm of moisture penetration below ground surface afterwards.

Dune on terrace

Oldest floodplain

Intermediate floodplain Uplands

Alluvial terrace

Youngest floodplain

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Figure 9. Vertical view of part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements. Width of image ~5 km. North to top.

The above geomorphic units correlate well with vegetation densities and soil types.

5.2 Vegetation

The distribution of different vegetation units and their relative health are critical for the identification of land management issues, soil types, and indications as to the effectiveness of management strategies. SPOT, LANDSAT and ASTER satellite imagery proved especially effective in mapping the distribution of these associations, which also corresponded well with vegetation structural units described in Specht (1981) and used to map units shown in Appendix 2. Within the Mallee region, the valleys of the Murray River, Darling River and Darling Anabranch are comparatively well vegetated with dense stands of trees and shrubs (Brown and Stephenson 1991).

In the Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch region, the following associations were observed on the equivalent geomorphic units. The regolith landform units correlate well with vegetation densities, and with soil types (for soil type relationship see Figure 7).

Alluvial terrace

Uplands

Oldest floodplain meander belt

Billabong

Murray River

12

Figure 10. Further vertical view of part of LIDAR DEM showing geomorphic elements. Width of image ~5 km. North to top.

5.2.1 Uplands

The vegetation of the uplands have largely been cleared for cropping. The remaining native vegetation is predominantly a saltbush (Atriplex sp.) shrubland with isolated Eucalyptus spp. trees.

5.2.2 Alluvial Terrace

On the terrace the vegetation is predominantly Saltbush (Atriplex sp.) shrubland (Figure 11).

Figure 5. Terrace vegetation and materials. Silty clay and saltbush (left), sand dunes and saltbush (right), Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch reach.

Dune on terrace

Oldest floodplain

Intermediate floodplain

Modern floodplain

13

5.2.3 Floodplain

Vegetation on the modern floodplain consists of River Red Gum (E. camaldulensis) open forest or woodland (Figure 5). The intermediate floodplain has Black Box (E. largiflorens) woodland or low open woodland (Figure 6), while the oldest floodplain has Saltbush-Lignum (Muehlenbeckia florulenta) shrubland and Black Box savannah (Figure 7).

River Red Gum low open woodland or woodland occurs along most water courses, with Black Box woodland along smaller, drier courses. Riparian vegetation consists of macro-algae, water lilies and bull rushes in slower flowing or stagnant water (Figure 7).

Figure 6. Modern floodplain (right) with well developed river red gum forest. Intermediate floodplain (left) with black box woodland, Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch reach.

Figure 7. Oldest floodplain (left) with black box and Lignum-saltbush savannah. Riparian vegetation (right) of bulrushes, lilies, and macroalgae, Horseshoe Lagoon, Lindsay – Wallpolla reach.

Correlations between vegetation, geomorphic unit, and surface materials are shown in Table 1.

6 ANALYTICAL DATA

16 soil pits were excavated to a depth of 30 cm and sampled at 10 cm intervals in the survey area. No samples were taken from the northern boundary to Wakool Junction section of this survey area as units were similar to those already described in the Robinvale-Liparoo, Lindsay-Walpolla, and Robinvale-Boundary Bend reaches (Clarke et al. 2007a, b. c). The new geomorphic units mapped south of Wakool Junction were extensively sampled, with a minimum of five sites from each unit. The soil pits provided qualitative data on the soil profiles in each unit, shown in Appendix 6. Analytical results are contained in Appendix 7.

14

Locations of sample sites are given in Figure 8 and Figure 9. Location of soil sample sites eastern end of Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch

Table 1. Associations between regolith landform units, vegetation and surface materials

Regolith Landform Unit Vegetation Surface Material

Uplands (U) Native vegetation primarily cleared for cropping

Sandy regolith, slightly more clayey in the swales, developed on dunes of the Woorinen Formation

Alluvial terrace (Ta, Td)) Saltbush (Atriplex sp.) shrubland

Olive-grey clay-rich silts, with local veneers and low dunes of orange-coloured aeolian sand

Oldest floodplain scroll bars (Fm3)

Saltbush-Lignum (Muehlenbeckia florulenta) shrubland and Black Box (E. largiflorens) savannah

Olive-khaki silty clay drapes ~3 m thick over degraded sandy scroll bars of the Coonambidgal Formation

Intermediate floodplain scroll bars (Fm2)

Black Box (E. largiflorens) woodland or low open woodland

Olive-khaki silty clay ~2 m thick drapes over degraded sandy scroll bars of the Coonambidgal Formation

Modern floodplain scroll bars (Fm1)

River Red Gum (E. camaldensis) open forest or woodland

Yellow sand with little or no clay draped over the sandy surface of the scroll bars. These comprise the Coonambidgal Formation

15

Figure 8. Location of soil sample sites western end of Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch.

Figure 9. Location of soil sample sites eastern end of Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch. Note that some lie outside the defined survey area, as they were collected prior to the southern limits being finally decided.

16

6.1 Granulometry

6.1.1 Methodology

Granulometrey provides a quantitative measurement of the particle size distribution in a soil or sediment. As a result much more accurate modelling of parameters such as porosity and permeability, recharge, and salt load can be made. It also provides a check on the accuracy of field estimates of soil texture.

The grainsize was determined using a Malvern Instruments Mastersizer 2000 instrument. The laser diffraction instrument consists of three parts, a laser source (He-Ne gas or diodes emitter), detectors, and sample chamber that allows suspended particles to recirculate in front of the laser beam. The Mie theory (Rawle, 2001) was used to solve the equations for interaction of light with matter and calculates the volume of the particle. This technique calculates the % volume of a range of particle sizes (0.05 – 2000 µm), and the results are grouped according to the Wentworth scale. To standardise with other analytical data, SI units (µm) were reported instead of Phi units.

6.1.2 Results

Samples from each site had fairly similar distributions, indicating that within the sampled depth range there were only minor differences in grainsize distribution. Some surface samples were less sandy than those at depth, indicating more abundant silt and clay at the surface. This is interpreted to be from the draping of older land surfaces by fine-grained material deposited by flood waters. Overall, however the samples were of silty clays to clayey silts, usually with minor sand. This is consistent with deposition by overbank flow during river floods for all geomorphic units including floodplains, levee banks, and channel plugs.

Particle size analysis showed a general trend of fining with distance from the main river channel within the Murray River Trench (Figure 10). Soils were generally sandier on the Fm1 unit and more clay-rich on the Terrace unit. The particle size distribution of the Uplands unit is most likely the result of mixing of sediments from a number of sources, including wind-blown sand from dunes.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Clay (%)

San

d (%

)

Fm1Fm2Fm3TU

Figure 10. Sand and clay percentage from each geomorphic unit.

17

6.2 EC and pH

6.2.1 Methodology

Soil electrical conductivities were measured to determine the conductivity, salt content and salt load of the surface materials within 30 cm of the surface. Conductivity also provided a measure of soil development in landform units of different ages. Measuring pH quantitatively provides a cross check on field determinations and another way of determining soil evolution in differently aged landform units.

Measuring salinity and pH in soil was carried out using the 1:5 method. With this method, 10ml of distilled water is placed in a measuring container and small soil particles added until the volume of the contents of the container increased by 5ml to bring the volume to 15ml. Additional water is then added to bring the total volume to 30ml. the sample is shaken intermittently for five minutes and allow it to settle for five minutes. EC and pH probes are dipped into the solution and readings taken.

6.2.2 Results

The measured EC values ranged between 0.036 and 4.4 dS/m, with the majority (all but seven) falling below 1.0 dS/m. There is no good trend between conductivity and geomorphic unit relatively high conductivities (>1.0) are found in units Fs, Fm1, Fm3, and T. However, the terrace (T) units are on average more saline than those of the floodplain and uplands.

Measured pH values range between 4.45 and 9.45, with the majority of the samples being acidic. There is a clear trend between increasing age of geomorphic unit and increasing pH. The youngest geomorphic units are almost entirely acidic, including almost all examples of unit Fm1. Soils from the terrace unit and uplands are near neutral to alkaline (

18

Table 2).

Mean pH and EC profiles are shown in Figure 11 and Figure , respectively. pH was lowest in the Fm1 unit at all depths, and increased with increasing age of floodplain units. This may be due to leaching of base cations as a result of the sandier textures of the Fm1 unit. The Uplands had the highest pH at all depths. EC was highly variable within each geomorphic unit and between geomorphic units (Figure 3). However, the Terrace unit showed the highest EC at all depths.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

pH1:5

Dep

th (m

)

Fm1Fm2Fm3TU

Figure 11. Mean pH profiles from each geomorphic unit. Note: horizontal bars indicate the standard error or the mean.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0

EC1:5 (dS/m)

Dep

th (m

)

Fm1Fm2Fm3TU

Figure 18. Mean EC profiles from each geomorphic unit. Note: horizontal bars indicate the standard error of the mean.

19

Table 2. Range of EC and pH values for different geomorphic units in the Lindsay-Wallpolla and Lake Victoria-Darling Anabranch study area

Geomorphic Unit pH (1:5) EC1:5 (dS/m)

Fm1 4.45-6.03 0.049-1.050

Fm2 4.7-6.54 0.036-0.897

Fm3 6.11-7.71 0.062-1.092

T 6.22-9.45 0.047-5.880

U 7.41-8.95 0.088-1.376

6.3 XRF geochemistry

6.3.1 Methodology

The primary purpose of the XRF analyses was to obtain measurements of the abundances of K, Th, and U, should detailed interpretation of the gamma-ray radiometric data be required. The radiometric data was essential in mapping the distribution of different classes of surface materials, in particular differentiating between floodplain, terrace, and uplands in areas of poor DEM control.

1. The samples were pulverized using a tungsten carbide mill and the elements were analyzed by XRF. For major element determination (SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5, and S), samples were prepared as fused discs following the method of Norrish & Hutton (1964), with the exception that the flux used consisted of 12 parts lithium tetraborate to 22 parts lithium metaborate. The glass discs were analyzed on a PW2400 wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer. The 35 trace elements were determined on pressed powder samples using a SPECTRO X-Lab energy dispersive XRF spectrometer. The powders were also measured on a PW1400 wavelength dispersive XRF spectrometer for Sc, V and Cr, using methods described in Chappell (1991) and Norrish & Chappell (1967). Tungsten and Co were probably added to the samples during the milling process, and hence these elements have not been reported. The major elements and minor element values are shown as % and ppm respectively.

2. The percentage of volatile materials in the samples was determined using a LECO RC-412 multiphase carbon and water analyzer. Nitrogen was used as the carrier gas for combustion and the furnace control system allows the temperature of the furnace to be stepped and subjected to ramping (from 90 to 1040 oC). Water and carbon dioxide released from the minerals during combustion are detected by means of infrared absorption cells (IR-cells) and the results are then calculated as CO2 and H2O respectively.

6.3.2 Results

Only a limited number of comparisons were made because of time limitations and the departure of the primary source of soil science expertise within the team (VW). Major elements correlated reasonably well with what can be predicted from the main minerals present.

The XRF results reflect the high quartz content of the soils with high SiO2 concentrations across all geomorphic units and depths. Higher concentrations of CaO found in the Terrace and Uplands units are most likely due to the presence of CaCO3 pisoliths, which were noted

20

when sampling. This is also reflected in the higher pH of the Terrace and Uplands units (Table 3).

The K, U, and Th concentrations generally reflect that seen in airborne gamma ray radiometric data illustrated in Appendix 4, with higher concentrations of the three radioelements in the units found within the Murray River Trench, and lower concentrations in the Uplands.

6.4 XRD mineralogy

6.4.1 Methods

X-Ray defraction is an effective way of accurately determining mineralogy. Mineralogy is important to the study the mineral suite can influence conductivity and clay types effect porosity and permeability and surface recharge behaviour.

Samples were analysed using both semi-quantitative XRD and qualitative PIMA methods. Samples for XRD were scanned on a Siemens D500 Diffractometer, from 2° to 70° 2θ, in 1° increments, 2 seconds per degree, using a Cu anode X-ray tube. Minerals were identified using Bruker Diffracplus and Siroquant V3 was used to quantify minerals. The samples are characterised by simple scans, containing predominant Quartz peaks with accessory mica (probably Muscovite), feldspar and clay (probably Kaolin). Specific feldspars have been identified according to best-fit of peaks. Further petrological work would be required to conclusively identify feldspars.

6.4.2 Results

XRD shows that the samples all contain quartz, muscovite, and microcline. Kaolinite and albite are present in almost all. These results are consistent with the samples being composed of two sediment types, a slightly feldspathic micaceous quartz sand and kaolinitic quartz silt with very fine-grained detrital muscovite.

The relationship between distribution of clay species and provenance would be worth further investigation (c.f. Ginegle and de Deckker 2004). However it is beyond the scope of this investigation as it would require clay-specific mineral separates to be prepared.

Table 3. Mean values of selected XRF analyses

Geomorphic Unit

Depth (m)

Al2O3 (%)

CaO (%)

Cl (%)

Fe2O3 (%)

K2O (%)

Na2O (%)

S (%) SiO2 (%)

Th (%) U (%)

0.0-0.1 10.75 0.44 0.548 3.24 2.07 0.46 0.460 72.26 0.01960 0.00722 0.1-0.2 10.13 0.38 0.367 2.83 2.09 0.49 0.281 76.99 0.01160 0.00410 Fm1 0.2-0.3 9.60 0.36 0.361 2.66 1.97 0.50 0.195 78.64 0.01320 0.00494 0.0-0.1 14.31 0.47 1.296 4.74 2.22 0.50 0.283 64.75 0.01400 0.00670 0.1-0.2 13.91 0.45 0.955 4.51 2.19 0.57 0.206 66.91 0.02050 0.00535 Fm2 0.2-0.3 14.10 0.45 0.822 4.59 2.18 0.58 0.199 66.44 0.02000 0.00540 0.0-0.1 10.36 0.49 0.172 2.93 2.20 0.58 0.160 75.47 0.01925 0.00708 0.1-0.2 11.02 0.50 0.371 3.23 2.21 0.58 0.151 74.62 0.01325 0.00565 Fm3 0.2-0.3 11.52 0.53 0.639 3.45 2.24 0.61 0.163 73.54 0.01750 0.00465 0.0-0.1 12.64 1.81 2.440 4.63 1.99 0.51 0.329 66.52 0.01460 0.00084 0.1-0.2 10.99 1.83 2.303 3.98 1.77 0.51 0.300 70.38 0.01720 0.00556 T 0.2-0.3 10.63 1.67 3.319 3.85 1.74 0.62 0.280 71.86 0.01140 0.00292 0.0-0.1 5.23 3.48 0.082 1.92 0.99 0.00 0.244 79.92 0.01025 0.00243 0.1-0.2 4.97 3.71 0.473 1.81 0.93 0.07 0.209 81.08 0.01375 0.00388 U 0.2-0.3 4.91 5.65 0.532 1.80 0.87 0.07 0.296 76.15 0.00650 0.00213

21

7 IMPLICATIONS

7.1 Hydrogeological issues

7.1.1 Flow

The geomorphological interpretation of the data suggests that shallow groundwater flow may be strongly compartmentalised along the Murray River between different aged floodplain units, and possibly between different sedimentary units within each of the three mapped floodplain units. At depth, where similar sandy units of different ages may be juxtaposed, cross flow between meander belts of different ages is possible.

It also appears that materials filling the incised valley of the River Murray are inset within intermediate Murray basin units (in this reach the Blanchetown Clay, which is covered by dunes and slope deposits). Similarly, the Coonambigdal Formation is inset within the Rufus Formation (as suggested by Gill (1973), and shown in cross sections by Rogers and Gatehouse 1990). Modern, intermediate and oldest floodplain units and deposits compartmentalise the Coonambigdal Formation, as suggested above. Different ages of the units mean that they have different properties, especially in the amount of clay at the surface, which in turn has important implications for recharge (see below). These differences occur across the axis of the floodplain, because of poor interconnections between morpho-sedimentary units, and possibly down axis, within morpho-sedimentary units.

7.1.2 Recharge

As a result of the points discussed in the last section, we predict the following recharge characteristics:

• All but the youngest floodplain sediments are sealed by dispersive clays; hence there will be little or no recharge on intermediate floodplain and terrace units.

• Active channels have sand bottoms, but once flow stops and they become inactive, they become clay-lined (Figure 12), with the result that there is no recharge via abandoned channels. Cracking clays are of limited extent, and only in abandoned channel. There is limited bypassing of surface clays by water in initial heavy rainfall events through these cracks.

• The presence of sand dunes on the terrace means there is localised high infiltration, which in turn results in local perching of water on underlying floodplain clays. For the source bordering dunes on the older floodplain meander belts there may be a direct connection between the dunes and the underlying scroll bars, bypassing the clay drapes. However, the spatial extent of the dunes is insignificant.

Width of vegetation zones also helps in the assessment of recharge:

• Zones of healthy vegetation (red in ASTER images – Appendix 1) are widest on modern floodplain units where the scroll bars consist of exposed sand, suggesting extensive flushing of saline water from runoff, infiltration, and through flowing river waters.

• These zones are much narrower in abandoned or inset channels (e.g. Wallpolla Creek), indicating less flushing, possibly due to isolation of water in channels from surrounding floodplain by the clay seal at the bottom.

22

Figure 12. SPOT image of Wallpolla Creek (containing water at time imaged) and clay-lined nature of dried up channel of Wallpolla Creek as seen at ground level. Width of image is ~10 km, north to top.

7.1.3 Relevance to land management questions

The results of the study to date can be compared back against the six land management questions raised by Lawrie (2006). We make the following conclusions with respect to each.

Question 1: What is the potential for salt mobilisation during Living Murray inundation actions?

To answer this question will require integration of the surface data (LIDAR DEM, soil pits, and satellite imagery) with the results of the AEM survey and bore hole data. Integrated products relating to salt mobilisation potential are found in the GIS and Atlas, in particular the Flush Zone Thickness, Flush Zone Conductivities, Extent of Flush Zones, Groundwater Recharge, Conductive Groundwater, Conductive Soils, Surface Salinity, Salinity Hazard, and Salt Store maps.

Question 2: Delivery of salt to the river

To answer this question will likewise require integration of the surface data (LIDAR DEM, soil pits, and satellite imagery) with the results of the AEM survey and bore hole data to identify various potential pathways, in particular the channels along which surface and groundwater is most likely to flow. Integrated products relating to salt mobilisation potential are found in the GIS and Atlas again include the Flush Zone Thickness, Flush Zone Conductivities, Extent of Flush Zones, Groundwater Recharge, Conductive Groundwater, Conductive Soils, Surface Salinity, Salinity Hazard, and Salt Store maps.

23

Question 3: Understanding of the drivers of floodplain health with respect to groundwater processes

The combined LIDAR and SPOT/ASTER interpretation assisted in mapping floodplain health and allowed prediction of the geomorphic, soil, and sedimentologic parameters influencing associated with salt stores and recharge, important to the health of floodplain vegetation. Integrated products relating to floodplain health are found in the GIS and Atlas and include the Conductive Groundwater, Conductive Soils, Surface Salinity, Salinity Hazard, and Salt Store maps.

Question 4: Identification of the high recharge areas in the floodplain?

ASTER and LIDAR interpretation we predict will identify potential areas on the basis of abandoned or stagnant river channels or scroll bars lacking an impermeable clay drape. These will need to be field verified, however, especially as stagnant or abandoned channels may well have their bottoms sealed by clay. This would leave only the youngest meander scroll bars which lack the pervasive clay drape, or where the clay drape is very thin, as areas of high potential recharge on the floodplain. Mapping surface recharge are found in the GIS and Atlas include the Flush Zone Thickness, Flush Zone Conductivities, Extent of Flush Zones, and Groundwater Recharge maps.

Question 5: What is the extent and thickness of the Blanchetown Clay and the Coonambidgal Formation?

We can’t answer this question in this area from surface exposures as imaged by satellites or scanned to form DEMS. Nor are they visible in preliminary field observations. We regard this question as answerable only through a combination of AEM and bore hole data, as showing the Thickness of Quaternary Alluvium, Extent of Quaternary Alluvium, and Depth to Top of Blanchetown Clay maps in the GIS and Atlas. Question 6: Where is salt stored in the unsaturated zone?

We predict that contextualised analysis of surface soil samples will help identify these areas of salt storage, backed up by analysis of shallow (above the water table) borehole samples. integrated products relating to salt stores Conductive Groundwater, Conductive Soils, Surface Salinity, Salinity Hazard, and Salt Store maps in the GIS and Atlas.

24

REFERENCES

Bowler, J.M. and Harford, L.B. 1966. Quaternary tectonics and the evolution of the riverine plain near Echuca, Victoria. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 13(2), 339-354.

Brown, C.M. and Stephenson, A.E. 1991. Geology of the Murray Basin, southeastern Australia. BMR Bulletin 235.

Butler, B.E. 1958. Depositional systems of the riverine plain of south-eastern Australia in relation to soils. Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Soil Publication 10, 35p.

Butler, B.E., Blackburn, G., Bowler, J.M., Lawrence, C.R., Newell, J.W., Pels, S. 1973. A Geomorphic Map of the Riverine Plain of South-eastern Australia. Australian National University Press, Canberra.

Chappell, B.W. 1991. Trace element analysis of rocks by X-ray spectrometry. Advances in X-Ray Analysis 34, 263-276.

Chen, X.Y. 1995. Geomorphology, stratigraphy and thermoluminescence dating of the lunette dune at Lake Victoria, western New South Wales. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 113, 69-86.

Gill, E.D. 1973. Geology and geomorphology of the Murray River region between Mildura and Renmark, Australia. Memoirs of the National Museum of Victoria 34, 1-97.

Gingele, F.X. and De Deckker, P. 2004. Fingerprinting Australia's rivers with clay minerals and the application for the marine record of climate change. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 51(3), 339-348.

Hills, E.S. 1975. Physiography of Victoria; an Introduction to Geomorphology. Whitcombe & Tombs Pty. Ltd., Australia, 373p.

Jolly, I.D., Walker, G.R., and Thorburn, P.J. 1993. Salt accumulation in semi-arid floodplain soils with implications for forest health. Journal of Hydrology, 150(2-4), 589-614.

Knighton, A.D. and Nanson, G.C. 2000. Waterhole form and process in the anastomosing channel system of Cooper Creek, Australia Geomorphology, 35(1-2), 101-117.

Kotsonis, A., Cameron, K.J., Bowler, J.M., and Joyce, E.B. 1999. Geomorphology of the Hattah Lakes region on the River Murray, southeastern Australia; a record of late Quaternary climate change. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 111(1), 27-42.

Lawrie. K. 2006 (comp.) Report by technical working group chair on proposed River Murray corridor (South Australian border to Gunbower) Victorian AEM mapping project. CRC LEME Restricted Report 265R.

McDonald RC and Isbell RF (1998) Soil Profile. In "Australian Soil and Land Survey" (Eds RC McDonald, RF Isbell, JG Speight, J Walker and MS Hopkins) pp. 103-152. (CSIRO: Australia).

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Macumber, P.G. 1977. The geology and palaeohydrology of the Kow Swamp fossil hominid site, Victoria, Australia. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia, 24(6), p.307-320.

Norrish, K. and Chappell, B. W. 1967. X-ray fluorescence spectrography. In Zussman, J. (ed.) Physical methods in determinative mineralogy. Academic Press, London.

Norrish and Hutton 1969. 1969. An accurate X-ray spectrographic method for the analysis of a wide range of geological samples. Geochimica et Ccosmochica. Acta 33 431-453.

Pels, S. 1966. Late Quaternary chronology of the riverine plain of southeastern Australia. Journal of the Geological Society of Australia 13(1), 27-40.

Rawle, A.F. 2003. Method development for particle size measurement by laser diffraction. Particulates Systems Analysis Conference (2003), Harrogate, UK

Reid, M. 2007. Hydrogeological Review of the Victorian Side of the Murray River Floodplain Site (Gunbower Island to Lindsay Wallpolla). CRC LEME Restricted Report 257R, 71pp.

Rogers, P.A. and Gatehouse, C.G. 1990. Late Quaternary stratigraphy of the Roonka archaeological sites. Quarterly Geological Notes - Geological Survey of South Australia, 113, 6-14.

Rowan, J.N. and Downes, R.G. 1963 A study of the land in North-Western Victoria. Soil Conservation Authority of Victoria Technical Communication No.2. (Government Printer, Melbourne).

SKM (2004). Lindsay River Groundwater Interception Investigation – summary report. Version: Final 1, August 2004. Project WC00817.

Specht, R.L. 1981. Foliage projective cover and standing biomass. In Vegetation classification in Australia. (Eds AN Gillison, DJ Anderson) pp. 10-21. (CSIRO & ANU: Canberra).

Thoms, M.C., Ogden, R.W., and Reid, M.A. (1999). Establishing the condition of lowland floodplain rivers: a palaeo-ecological approach. Freshwater Biology 41, 407-425.

Twidale, C.R., Lindsay, J.M., and Bourne, J.A. 1978. Age and origin of the Murray River and gorge in South Australia. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria, 90 (1), 27-42.

26

APPENDIX 1. ASTER data and interpretation

27

Surface properties map interpreted from ASTER data

28

APPENDIX 2. SPOT Data and interpretation

29

Vegetation map interpreted from SPOT data

30

APPENDIX 3. DEM data and interpretation

31

Landforms interpreted from DEM data

32

APPENDIX 4. Gamma-ray data

40

100(m)

500000

500000

520000

520000

540000

540000

560000

560000

580000

580000

600000

600000

62

00

00

0

62

00

00

0

62

20

00

0

62

20

00

0

624

00

00

624

00

00

Lindsay - WallpollaTernary - gamma ray 0 10 20 km

±

33

APPENDIX 5. Surface materials

34

APPENDIX 6. Site Descriptions and Data

Site 1

Corner of Keera and Old Mail roads

Coordinates

MGA94 54H 0559602E 6215494N

Location description

Upper terrace. Scattered saltbush (Atriplex spp) and grasses

Site description

Thin residual aeolian sand ~10 cm thick.

Soil Profile

Depth (cm) Munsell colour

Field Texture Structure Comments

0-10 7.5YR 3/4 Loamy sand Angular-blocky Extensive roots

10-20 7.5YR 4/6 Medium clay Massive Compacted red clay; roots present

20-30 7.5YR 5/6 Medium clay Massive Compacted red clay; roots present

35

Site 2

Along Keera Road

Coordinates

0559983E 6214068N


Terrace

Saltbush (Atriplex sp.) shrubland with minor pig face and microbiotic soil crust on surface; Black Box (Eucalyptus largiflorens) savannah in distance.

Site description

Soil Profile



0-10 7.5YR 5/2 Sandy loam Sub-angular blocky

Cryptogamic crust on surface; extensive fine roots; some charcoal present

10-20 10YR 5/2 Clay loam Sub-angular blocky

Fine roots present


Fine roots present

36

Site 3

South Settlement road, ~20 m S of main highway.

Coordinates

0508922E 6207161N


Uplands

Low, degraded dunes, grass, herbaceous ephemerals, saltbush shrubland, microbiotic crust

Site description

Sampled 1 day after ~150 mm rain, only top 25 mm is moist.

Soil Profile



0-10 5YR 3/4 Loamy sand Weak Extensive roots; calcrete throughout

10-20 5YR 3/4 Loamy sand Weak Extensive roots; calcrete throughout

20-30 5YR 4/6 Loamy sand Weak Some roots present; calcrete throughout

37

Site 4

Corner Irwin road and highway, ~3 km E of Meringur, ~30 m S of highway.

Coordinates

Not collected.


Uplands. Undulating red dunes, road reserve surrounded by cultivated wheat. Sample collected under mallee gum with scattered saltbush, microbiotic crust

Site description

Soil Profile



0-20 5YR 3/4 Loamy sand Weak Fine roots present; thick layer of leaf litter; minor occurrences of charcoal

10-20 10R 3/4 Loamy sand Weak Clear boundary at 16 cm to possible former soil topsoil horizon; minor occurrences of charcoal

20-30 2.5YR 5/1 Loamy sand Sub-angular blocky

Extensive charcoal

38

Site 5

Western end of Keera Road, south side.

Coordinates

0567539E 6209595N


Uplands, degraded sand dunes

Site description

Vegetated road reserve surrounded by cultivated wheat. Native vegetation largely cleared for wheat, remnants along road corridor of mallee with saltbush understorey and microbiotic crust, soil moist to 10 cm

Soil Profile



0-10 2.5YR 3/3 Loamy sand Weak Cryptogamic crust on surface; loamy sand; roots present; minor occurrences of charcoal


Clear boundary; extensive carbonate pisoliths

10-30 10YR 5/8 Loamy sand Sub-angular blocky

Extensive carbonate pisoliths

39

Site 6

20 E of intersection of highway and Pratt road, south side of road, opposite sand quarry.

Coordinates

0585156E 62909373N


Uplands, in swale of degraded dunes. Vegetated road reserve; native vegetation largely cleared for wheat. Mallee gums and scattered salt bush, minor microbiotic crust

Site description

Soil Profile



0-20 5YR 3/4 Clay loam Angular blocky Roots throughout; minor occurrences of charcoal

10-20 2.5YR 3/4 Clay loam Angular blocky Roots present; minor occurrences of charcoal

20-30 5YR 3/4 Medium clay Angular blocky Diffuse boundary; roots present

40

Site 7

Eastern end of Old Mail Rd to the north of road edge.

Coordinates

0588350E 6220011N


Terrace; saltbush shrubland

Site description

Soil Profile



0-10 7.5YR 4/2 Sandy loam Weak Fine roots throughout; weakly structured

10-20 10YR 5/2 Sandy loam Weak Boundary at 10 cm; fine roots throughout

20-30 2.5Y 5/2 Clay loam Angular-blocky Fewer fine roots than previous layer

41

Site 8

Along Mail road towards Walpolla Island, about 1 km E of Dedmens Road turnoff, to N of road

Coordinates

0578099E 6218940N


Terrace. Scattered mallee Eucalyptus trees (savannah-like) with saltbush shrubland and pigface understorey

Site description

Soil Profile



0-10 10YR 4/2 Medium clay Angular-blocky Fine roots throughout

10-20 2.5Y4/2 Medium clay Angular-blocky Fine roots present

20-30 2.5Y 3/2 Medium clay Angular-blocky Fine roots present

42

Site 12

Further to west along Old Mail Rd; west of Dedman’s Track

Coordinates

None collected.


Terrace, residual aeolian sand, with scattered salt bush and areas of local deflation barren of vegetation. Scattered saltbush and pigface

Site description

Orange sand on surface formed by winnowing. Site interpreted as a dune over the flood plain clays.

Soil Profile



0-10 7.5YR 4/6 Loamy sand Weak Fine roots present

10-20 7.5YR 4/6 Sandy loam Weak Yellow mottles present; fine roots present

20-30 10YR 4/6 Light clay Sub-angular blocky

Red mottles; diffuse boundary; coarse and fine roots present

43

Site 13

Murray river bank between Lindsay and Wallpolla islands.

Coordinates

0547327E 6213755N


Modern flood plain abutted against cut bank of upper terrace. Flood plain is very narrow (less than 30 m) and may be an erosional rather than depositional surface. Site lies next to straight stretch of river – no scroll bars. Open forest of river gums with grassy understorey

Site description

Soil Profile



0-10 10YR 3/3 Sandy loam Sub-angular blocky

Boundary between sandy loam and loamy sand at 7 cm; fine and coarse roots present


Slightly bleached layer 7-17 cm; fine and coarse roots present

20-30 10YR 5/4 Light clay Angular-blocky Fine and coarse roots present

44

Site 14

Dedmens drive, across abandoned channel near turnoff from mail road.

Coordinates

0577046E 6219157N


Intermediate flood plain meander belt. Very flat surface of Black Box open woodland, understorey of saltbush and other small shrubs, and groundcover of herbaceous ephemerals and pigface. Some microbiotic crusts.

Site description

Soil Profile




Cryptogamic surface crust; fine roots throughout


Boundary at 10 cm; fine roots present; some coarse roots

10-30 2.5YR 4/4 Clay loam Sub-angular blocky

Fine roots present; some coarse roots

45

Site 15

Location known as “River access 10”

Coordinates

05732613E 6224797N


Modern flood plain meander belt, inside of meander loop, with well developed scroll bars. Well developed river red gum open forest, trees somewhat smaller than on intermediate scroll bar sites. Limited ground cover apart from some sedges.

Site description

Youngest scroll bar, no leaf litter on ground, soil sandy micaceous silt. Contacts in pit parallel to riverward sloping surface.

Soil Profile




Sandy; fine roots throughout; some coarse roots present; clay layer 3-7 cm; yellow mottles present

10-20 2.5Y 6/6 Loamy sand Sub-angular blocky

Fine and coarse roots present; mottling; clay layer 14-16 cm


Mottling; fine and coarse roots present; mottling

46

Site 16

Same area as previous sample

Coordinates

0573642E 6224709N


Modern flood plain, inside of meander loop, with well developed scroll bars. Well developed River Red Gum open forest, trees somewhat smaller than on intermediate scroll bar sites. Limited ground cover apart from some sedges.

Site description

Youngest scroll bar swale, no leaf litter on ground, soil sandy micaceous silt. Contacts in pit parallel to surface. Soil profile more developed than to Site 15.

Soil Profile




Darker organic layer (0-2 cm); fine and coarse roots present; lighter mottles present

10-20 10YR 7/4 Loamy sand Weak Fine roots present; Clay layer slightly bleached (15-18 cm)

20-30 10YR 6/4 Clayey sand Sub-angular blocky

Coarse and fine roots present

47

Site 17

Sample location as previous two sites

Coordinates

0573613E 6224767N


Modern flood plain, inside of meander loop, with well developed scroll bars. Well developed river red gum forest, with large trees. No understorey and ground covered with thick layer of dark, branch and leaf litter.

Site description

Crest of old scroll bar. Pit wall profile consists of 0-5 cm A horizon, 5-26 cm grey-yellow sand, 26-35 cm orange-grey mottled clayey sand.

Soil Profile




Darker organic layer to 5 cm; extensive coarse roots; charcoal present; organic material incorporated


Diffuse boundary at 10 cm; mottles present; some coarse roots; extensive fine roots


Mottles present; some coarse roots; extensive fine roots

48

Site 18

Same location as 17, intermediate swale.

Coordinates

0573619E 6224730N


Modern flood plain, inside of meander loop, with well developed scroll bars. Well developed river red gum open forest. No understorey and ground covered thick layer of dark, branches, twigs, and general litter.

Site description

Intermediate swale to scroll bar of site 17.

Soil Profile




Organic topsoil to 3 cm; extensive coarse and fine roots; yellow mottles


Fine and coarse roots throughout; red mottles present


Mottled with grey and red clay; fine and coarse roots throughout

49

Site 19

Dedmens Track, just to east of Lily lagoon

Coordinates

0575312E 622426N 35 m


Intermediate floodplain meander belt, covered by black box woodland and minor river gum. Understorey of saltbush and prickly shrubs. Groundcover of pigface.

Site description

Wetting front visible in pit at 10 cm depth, with surface 10 cm dry and deeper material moist.

Soil Profile




Thin layer of litter and organic layer to depth of 20 cm; extensive fine and coarse roots; red mottles


Extensive fine and coarse roots; red mottles


Red and yellow mottles; charcoal present

50

Site 20

Adjacent to previous site

Coordinates

0575309E 6223397N 33m


Swale immediately to South of site 19. Intermediate floodplain meander belt, covered by black box low woodland with occasional river red gum trees and an understorey of saltbush and prickly shrubs; groundcover of pigface.

Site description

Wetting front visible at 10 cm depth in pit, with surface 10 cm dry and deeper material moist.

Soil Profile




Surface crust; surface layer of 0-3 cm most likely depositional material; extensive fine and coarse roots present

10-20 10YR 3/2 Medium clay Angular blocky Diffuse boundary at 10 cm; coarse and fine roots present with some large roots

20-30 10YR 3/2 Medium clay Angular blocky Coarse and fine roots present with some large roots

51

Site 21

1 km east of Finnegans Bridge along Dedmans drive

Coordinates

0577135E 6221589N 32 m


Oldest floodplain meander belt, abandoned channel to south. Low open woodland of Black Box with occasional Acacia trees, saltbush understorey and pigface groundcover. Local areas bare of vegetation – possible salt scalds

Site description

Slight surface rise, possible residual source bordering dune on north side of abandoned channel.

Soil Profile




Surface crust; extensive fine roots; some coarse roots present; loamy sand; sub-angular blocky structure


Fine and coarse roots present


Fine and coarse roots present

52

Site 22

2 km east of Finnegans bridge along Dedmans drive

Coordinates

05771298E 6220569N 32 m


Oldest floodplain meander belt with low open woodland of black box with saltbush understorey and groundcover of ephemeral herbs and pigface. Microbiotic crust.

Site description

Oldest floodplain meander belt, moist at depth.

Soil Profile



0-10 2.5Y 5/2 Sandy loam Sub-angular blocky

Cryptogamic crust on surface; fine roots present


Fine roots present


Fine roots present

53

Site 23

3 km east of Finnegans bridge along Dedmans drive

Coordinates

0577110E 6219599N 36 m


Oldest floodplain meander belt with low open woodland of black box with saltbush understorey and groundcover of ephemeral herbs and pigface. Microbiotic crust.

Site description

Oldest floodplain meander belt

Soil Profile



0-10 10YR 4/2 Sandy clay loam

Sub-angular blocky

Cryptogamic crust on surface; fine and coarse roots present

3-10cm 2.5Y 4/2 Clay loam Angular blocky Fine roots present; some coarse roots

10-30 2.5Y 4/2 Clay loam Angular blocky Slightly bleached clay loam; fine roots present; some coarse roots;

55

APPENDIX 7: Analytical Results

Appendix 7.1 Area A soil EC and pH data

Site No. Easting Northing Zone Geomorphic Unit Sample no Sample id Top Depth

(m) Base

Depth (m) pH (1:5) EC1:5 (dS/m)

Moisture content (%)

Moisture content

Apparent Conductivity (mS/m)

1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929545 2007735000003 0.2 0.3 8.07 0.047 1.9 0.019 0.4415 1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929544 2007735000002 0.1 0.2 7.77 0.093 4.3 0.043 1.9859 1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929543 2007735000001 0 0.1 6.87 0.154 8.6 0.086 6.6359 2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929552 2007735002001 0 0.1 7.69 0.141 15.1 0.151 10.6730 2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929553 2007735001001 0 0.1 6.46 3.560 8.2 0.082 146.5999 2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929554 2007735001002 0.1 0.2 6.95 4.400 10.0 0.100 219.9104 3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929557 2007735002003 0.2 0.3 8.23 0.088 4.4 0.044 1.9356 3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929555 2007735001003 0.2 0.3 7.41 0.121 9.6 0.096 5.7950 3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929556 2007735002002 0.1 0.2 7.48 0.143 9.3 0.093 6.6842 4 54 U 1929558 2007735003001 0 0.1 7.77 0.280 12.0 0.120 16.7899 4 54 U 1929559 2007735003002 0.1 0.2 7.85 0.337 5.6 0.056 9.4394 4 54 U 1929560 2007735003003 0.2 0.3 7.9 0.649 4.5 0.045 14.5530 5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929561 2007735004001 0 0.1 8.32 0.172 14.2 0.142 12.1909 5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929562 2007735004002 0.1 0.2 8.24 1.376 7.5 0.075 51.4535 5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929563 2007735004003 0.2 0.3 8.71 1.396 5.0 0.050 34.9336 6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929564 2007735005001 0 0.1 8.3 0.131 12.4 0.124 8.1391 6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929565 2007735005002 0.1 0.2 8.46 0.132 12.4 0.124 8.1628 6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929566 2007735005003 0.2 0.3 8.95 0.146 9.3 0.093 6.7402 7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929567 2007735006001 0 0.1 8.23 0.383 16.5 0.165 31.6738 7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929569 2007735006003 0.2 0.3 7.63 1.958 9.8 0.098 96.3224 7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929568 2007735006002 0.1 0.2 7.44 2.720 8.5 0.085 116.1743 8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929570 2007735007001 0 0.1 7.08 4.430 14.4 0.144 319.6108 8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929571 2007735007002 0.1 0.2 6.48 5.280 12.2 0.122 322.9645 8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929572 2007735007003 0.2 0.3 6.22 5.880 12.8 0.128 377.1160

12 54 T 1929573 2007735008001 0 0.1 8.4 0.136 14.5 0.145 9.8353 12 54 T 1929574 2007735008002 0.1 0.2 9.45 0.313 19.1 0.191 29.8550 12 54 T 1929575 2007735008003 0.2 0.3 9.42 0.644 17.2 0.172 55.5301 13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929578 2007735009003 0.2 0.3 6.03 0.103 7.6 0.076 3.9314 13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929577 2007735009002 0.1 0.2 5.48 0.219 7.4 0.074 8.1425 13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929576 2007735009001 0 0.1 5.78 0.432 17.3 0.173 37.4592 14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929579 2007735010001 0 0.1 6.54 0.036 5.9 0.059 1.0647 14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929581 2007735010003 0.2 0.3 6.54 0.064 4.2 0.042 1.3375 14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929580 2007735010002 0.1 0.2 6.46 0.072 8.5 0.085 3.0321 15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929584 2007735011003 0.2 0.3 5.17 0.049 1.9 0.019 0.4777 15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929583 2007735011002 0.1 0.2 5.17 0.121 4.0 0.040 2.3938 15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929582 2007735011001 0 0.1 5.44 0.274 4.1 0.041 5.5749 16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929586 2007735012002 0.1 0.2 4.96 0.065 1.1 0.011 0.3733 16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929587 2007735012003 0.2 0.3 4.49 0.151 11.8 0.118 8.8813 16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929585 2007735012001 0 0.1 4.96 0.306 7.1 0.071 10.8724 17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929590 2007735013003 0.2 0.3 4.64 0.305 10.7 0.107 16.3014 17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929589 2007735013002 0.1 0.2 4.55 0.319 10.3 0.103 16.4784 17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929588 2007735013001 0 0.1 4.68 0.420 9.2 0.092 19.3826 18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929593 2007735014003 0.2 0.3 5.38 0.837 9.0 0.090 37.6448 18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929592 2007735014002 0.1 0.2 5.12 0.880 10.4 0.104 45.5714 18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929591 2007735014001 0 0.1 4.45 1.050 7.7 0.077 40.2715

56

19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929596 2007735015003 0.2 0.3 5.43 0.655 17.0 0.170 55.7158 19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929595 2007735015002 0.1 0.2 5.02 0.765 14.6 0.146 55.9986 19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929594 2007735015001 0 0.1 4.7 0.897 10.2 0.102 45.5330 20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929598 2007735016002 0.1 0.2 5.5 0.580 14.5 0.145 41.9638 20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929599 2007735016003 0.2 0.3 5.63 0.629 14.2 0.142 44.7195 20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929597 2007735016001 0 0.1 5.04 0.860 14.3 0.143 61.6493 21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929602 2007735017003 0.2 0.3 6.89 0.062 2.7 0.027 0.8520 21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929601 2007735017002 0.1 0.2 6.92 0.120 2.8 0.028 1.7017 21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929600 2007735017001 0 0.1 7.71 0.194 7.3 0.073 7.0851 22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929603 2007735018001 0 0.1 6.12 0.135 10.2 0.102 6.8579 22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929604 2007735018002 0.1 0.2 6.44 0.337 14.9 0.149 25.1013 22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929605 2007735018003 0.2 0.3 7.33 1.092 15.0 0.150 81.7332 23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929606 2007735019001 0 0.1 6.9 0.333 17.0 0.170 28.2659 23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929607 2007735019002 0.1 0.2 6.35 0.633 8.5 0.085 27.0221 23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929608 2007735019003 0.2 0.3 6.11 0.735 7.3 0.073 26.7368

57

Appendix 7.2: Lindsay-Wallpolla Laser Grainsize

Site No. Easting Northing Zone Geomorphic Unit Sample No. Sample ID Top Depth (m)

Base Depth (m)

% Clay (0.01-3.9um)

% Silt (3.9-62.5um)

% Sand (62.5-2000um)

1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929543 2007735000001 0 0.1 49.013625 40.44339 10.542985 sandy silty clay 1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929544 2007735000002 0.1 0.2 31.653135 35.105124 33.241741 clayey sandy silt 1 559602 6215494 54 T 1929545 2007735000003 0.2 0.3 13.170829 28.151205 58.677967 clayey silty sand 2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929553 2007735001001 0 0.1 38.702773 45.744681 15.552547 clayey sandy silt 2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929554 2007735001002 0 0.1 38.812612 42.575983 18.611405 clayey sandy silt 2 559983 6214068 54 T 1929555 2007735001003 0.1 0.2 43.46684 39.548039 16.985121 sandy silty clay 3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929552 2007735002001 0.2 0.3 14.606886 21.289683 64.103431 clayey silty sand 3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929556 2007735002002 0.1 0.2 14.26649 21.401724 64.331786 clayey silty sand 3 508922 6207161 54 U 1929557 2007735002003 0.2 0.3 13.999694 27.122449 58.877858 clayey silty sand 4 54 U 1929558 2007735003001 0 0.1 8.782439 20.907837 70.309724 clayey silty sand 4 54 U 1929559 2007735003002 0.1 0.2 7.258914 13.010814 79.730272 clayey silty sand 4 54 U 1929560 2007735003003 0.2 0.3 11.932722 31.660088 56.40719 clayey silty sand 5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929561 2007735004001 0 0.1 23.622183 38.39483 37.982987 clayey sandy silt 5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929562 2007735004002 0.1 0.2 25.299803 41.459818 33.240379 clayey sandy silt 5 567539 6209595 54 U 1929563 2007735004003 0.2 0.3 19.422158 42.689089 37.888752 clayey sandy silt 6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929564 2007735005001 0 0.1 24.531784 33.777051 41.691165 clayey silty sand 6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929565 2007735005002 0.1 0.2 22.14742 33.67954 44.173041 clayey silty sand 6 585156 6209373 54 U 1929566 2007735005003 0.2 0.3 21.486941 28.196652 50.316407 clayey silty sand 7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929567 2007735006001 0 0.1 34.485996 43.646518 21.867486 sandy clayey silt 7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929568 2007735006002 0.1 0.2 41.640062 35.911533 22.448405 silty sandy clay 7 588350 6220011 54 T 1929569 2007735006003 0.2 0.3 36.858926 37.880844 25.26023 sandy silty clay 8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929570 2007735007001 0 0.1 39.98115 40.63147 19.38738 sandy clayey silt 8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929571 2007735007002 0.1 0.2 48.58403 35.377212 16.038758 sandy silty clay 8 578099 6218940 54 T 1929572 2007735007003 0.2 0.3 49.946529 38.071546 11.981925 sandy silty clay

12 54 T 1929573 2007735008001 0 0.1 32.503183 43.873865 23.622952 sandy clayey silt 12 54 T 1929574 2007735008002 0.1 0.2 38.396651 34.884857 26.718492 sandy silty clay 12 54 T 1929575 2007735008003 0.2 0.3 40.208695 35.400252 24.391052 sandy silty clay 13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929576 2007735009001 0 0.1 23.604778 51.087638 25.307585 clayey sandy silt 13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929577 2007735009002 0.1 0.2 26.125816 50.83291 23.041273 sandy clayey silt 13 547327 6213755 54 Fm1 1929578 2007735009003 0.2 0.3 23.993866 42.181638 33.824496 clayey sandy silt 14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929579 2007735010001 0 0.1 13.202443 35.20898 51.588576 clayey silty sand 14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929580 2007735010002 0.1 0.2 21.584786 38.256587 40.158627 clayey silty sand 14 577046 6219157 54 Fm2 1929581 2007735010003 0.2 0.3 22.047362 42.788564 35.164074 clayey sandy silt 15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929582 2007735011001 0 0.1 12.827616 36.880752 50.291633 clayey silty sand 15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929583 2007735011002 0.1 0.2 8.633833 25.831817 65.53435 silty sand 15 573613 6224797 54 Fm1 1929584 2007735011003 0.2 0.3 5.304469 16.088957 78.606575 clayey silty sand 16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929585 2007735012001 0 0.1 12.012201 37.572623 50.415175 clayey silty sand 16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929586 2007735012002 0.1 0.2 5.071161 15.758901 79.169939 silty sand 16 573642 6224709 54 Fm1 1929587 2007735012003 0.2 0.3 8.886184 26.999305 64.11451 silty sand 17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929588 2007735013001 0 0.1 19.744624 61.107202 19.148174 sandy clayey silt 17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929589 2007735013002 0.1 0.2 22.841994 57.299451 19.858555 sandy clayey silt 17 573613 6224767 54 Fm1 1929590 2007735013003 0.2 0.3 23.722923 56.493711 19.783366 sandy clayey silt 18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929591 2007735014001 0 0.1 21.598942 60.259311 18.141748 sandy clayey silt 18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929592 2007735014002 0.1 0.2 26.21844 59.547105 14.234455 sandy clayey silt 18 573619 6224730 54 Fm1 1929593 2007735014003 0.2 0.3 26.032841 56.585 17.382159 sandy clayey silt 19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929594 2007735015001 0 0.1 26.266812 59.618873 14.114314 sandy clayey silt 19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929595 2007735015002 0.1 0.2 29.631681 62.955823 7.412496 clayey silt 19 575312 6223426 54 Fm2 1929596 2007735015003 0.2 0.3 33.51295 58.110959 8.376091 clayey silt

58

20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929597 2007735016001 0 0.1 40.72107 53.285863 5.993067 clayey silt 20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929598 2007735016002 0.1 0.2 41.608892 50.578808 7.8123 clayey silt 20 575309 6223397 54 Fm2 1929599 2007735016003 0.2 0.3 44.831448 50.20324 4.965313 clayey silt 21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929600 2007735017001 0 0.1 14.861491 44.963318 40.175191 clayey silty sand 21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929601 2007735017002 0.1 0.2 15.2158 41.866588 42.917611 clayey silty sand 21 577135 6221589 54 Fm3 1929602 2007735017003 0.2 0.3 16.566359 40.417336 43.016305 clayey silty sand 22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929603 2007735018001 0 0.1 29.260707 54.712465 16.026827 sandy clayey silt 22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929604 2007735018002 0.1 0.2 36.087475 46.237564 17.674961 clayey silty sand 22 577129 6220569 54 Fm3 1929605 2007735018003 0.2 0.3 48.389037 42.122517 9.488446 silty clay 23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929606 2007735019001 0 0.1 43.872234 46.742235 9.38553 clayey silt 23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929607 2007735019002 0.1 0.2 45.877999 45.28752 8.834482 silty clay 23 577110 6219599 54 Fm3 1929608 2007735019003 0.2 0.3 42.124149 47.852695 10.023157 sandy clayey silt

59

Appendix 7.3: Lindsay-Wallpolla XRF results

Site Batch No Sample ID Depth (cm) Morphology Al2O3 As Ba CaO Ce Cl Co Cr Cu F Fe2O3T K2O La MgO MLOI Calculate MnO W Y 1 200709 1929543 0-10 Terrace 18.103 9.1 344 0.506 72 92 14 78 29 1129 6.989 2.411 39 2.073 11.343 0.063 3 29 1 200709 1929544 10-20 Terrace 9.134 5.7 317 0.266 47 107 7 49 11 779 3.419 1.452 22 0.921 5.71 0.046 2 21 1 200709 1929545 20-30 Terrace 4.963 4.9 224 0.141 35 27 3 35 8 871 1.78 1.041 22 0.352 1.897 0.031 -2 16 2 200709 1929552 0-10 Uplands 5.01 5.2 176 0.293 19 44 3 35 9 703 1.931 0.941 16 0.422 3.142 0.044 -2 15 2 200709 1929553 10-20 Terrace 11.799 7.2 375 0.602 61 145 12 67 15 1024 4.409 1.972 35 1.058 7.652 0.064 9 26 2 200709 1929554 20-30 Terrace 13.435 8.2 340 0.645 65 5269 12 72 20 853 5.089 2.062 37 1.278 8.562 0.076 3 27 3 200709 1929555 0-10 Terrace 12.679 7 483 0.691 63 6148 11 62 19 1098 4.743 1.971 32 1.236 8.094 0.071 4 28 3 200709 1929556 10-20 Uplands 4.8 2 182 0.429 23 78 5 43 -1 744 1.79 0.878 9 0.413 3.84 0.038 -2 8 3 200709 1929557 20-30 Uplands 4.873 4.3 141 3.52 12 54 2 32 7 911 1.805 0.844 14 0.605 4.578 0.034 4 14 4 200709 1929558 0-10 Uplands 3.698 7.2 149 1.171 31 138 3 29 2 678 1.247 0.707 11 0.373 5.644 0.014 -2 12 4 200709 1929559 10-20 Uplands 2.955 3.7 130 0.875 18 209 -1 24 4 748 0.994 0.573 11 0.297 2.246 0.009 -2 10 4 200709 1929560 20-30 Uplands 3.25 6.5 140 5.08 10 469 4 23 8 1073 1.083 0.638 11 1.112 13.468 0.015 2 11 5 200709 1929561 0-10 Uplands 5.817 5.2 206 8.917 45 90 6 44 19 1107 2.187 1.143 28 1.093 11.727 0.073 -2 21 5 200709 1929562 10-20 Uplands 5.716 5.2 179 10.154 27 1517 5 43 17 1118 2.128 1.107 19 1.222 12.408 0.061 -2 19 5 200709 1929563 20-30 Uplands 5.285 5.9 167 13.133 38 1497 2 33 21 1308 1.968 0.959 21 1.694 13.449 0.039 8 17 6 200709 1929564 0-10 Uplands 6.398 5.9 187 3.538 54 54 4 37 13 893 2.321 1.17 30 0.812 8.054 0.052 3 23 6 200709 1929565 10-20 Uplands 6.41 5.6 196 3.376 25 87 5 40 15 857 2.325 1.179 17 0.766 6.049 0.055 5 24 6 200709 1929566 20-30 Uplands 6.222 8.9 170 0.876 29 106 3 43 12 615 2.341 1.031 17 0.538 4.063 0.069 4 18 7 200709 1929567 0-10 Terrace 10.294 6.6 311 3.25 53 225 10 53 19 811 3.738 1.862 33 1.342 8.875 0.064 -2 34 7 200709 1929568 10-20 Terrace 11.394 11.3 383 0.578 61 3670 12 71 18 814 4.173 1.688 32 1.08 7.661 0.084 -2 31 7 200709 1929569 20-30 Terrace 11.526 5.5 364 1.206 56 2677 13 60 19 1082 4.234 1.785 36 1.142 7.468 0.068 -2 30 8 200709 1929570 0-10 Terrace 11.969 9.3 538 0.349 81 5646 13 67 17 1115 3.91 2.037 45 0.999 7.214 0.062 -2 37 8 200709 1929571 10-20 Terrace 13.315 6.9 552 0.293 66 7484 11 66 19 1098 4.389 2.171 37 1.127 7.609 0.043 -2 31 8 200709 1929572 20-30 Terrace 13.811 7 546 0.249 61 8196 12 68 17 928 4.604 2.219 31 1.181 8.003 0.081 -2 32

12 200709 1929573 0-10 Terrace 10.135 5.7 419 4.237 34 89 8 60 21 1180 3.774 1.666 9 2.052 9.681 0.052 -2 23 12 200709 1929574 10-20 Terrace 9.297 7.4 543 7.392 57 111 10 55 18 1200 3.485 1.571 28 1.816 12.032 0.044 -2 20 12 200709 1929575 20-30 Terrace 9.412 8.8 301 6.129 46 428 9 54 26 1359 3.545 1.595 24 1.62 10.082 0.053 6 22 13 200709 1929576 0-10 Fm1 11.091 4.9 379 0.478 58 327 9 74 19 965 3.655 1.858 27 0.783 11.856 0.043 8 28 13 200709 1929577 10-20 Fm1 11.419 7 401 0.387 79 301 12 73 13 1025 3.75 1.847 39 0.805 7.313 0.042 -2 31 13 200709 1929578 20-30 Fm1 8.805 6.3 341 0.302 38 124 5 46 12 668 2.747 1.521 30 0.632 5.484 0.026 3 29 14 200709 1929579 0-10 Fm3 7.817 5.7 356 0.382 75 58 3 60 7 876 1.714 2.122 34 0.393 1.856 0.027 4 38 14 200709 1929580 10-20 Fm3 9.703 4.6 377 0.485 67 106 8 62 11 844 2.773 2.232 39 0.629 5.071 0.07 -2 35 14 200709 1929581 20-30 Fm3 10.04 3.8 367 0.538 66 49 9 54 10 1122 3 2.228 38 0.708 4.773 0.056 5 30 15 200709 1929582 0-10 Fm1 8.099 8.1 379 0.358 58 275 6 56 5 936 2.077 2.055 25 0.418 3.487 0.03 4 27 15 200709 1929583 10-20 Fm1 7.515 9 367 0.332 55 114 6 39 2 975 1.721 2.122 29 0.368 1.591 0.017 -2 26 15 200709 1929584 20-30 Fm1 5.992 7.8 310 0.265 25 79 4 24 -1 754 1.096 1.905 21 0.234 1.988 0.008 -2 25 16 200709 1929585 0-10 Fm1 8.633 7.9 368 0.385 65 320 8 52 11 891 2.375 2.008 31 0.492 5.226 0.043 2 31 16 200709 1929586 10-20 Fm1 5.753 4.1 356 0.267 32 99 4 38 -1 887 0.952 2.013 15 0.204 0.688 0.007 -2 25 16 200709 1929587 20-30 Fm1 7.771 8.1 377 0.348 75 142 2 55 5 951 1.789 2.011 41 0.392 1.482 0.013 19 38 17 200709 1929588 0-10 Fm1 12.666 9 412 0.428 75 449 11 83 12 892 3.958 2.193 39 0.828 10.851 0.051 -2 41 17 200709 1929589 10-20 Fm1 12.776 6.3 434 0.398 77 383 8 70 16 1104 3.734 2.23 37 0.803 8.277 0.034 5 37 17 200709 1929590 20-30 Fm1 12.396 5.5 435 0.382 77 374 9 71 13 1131 3.536 2.21 43 0.784 6.641 0.026 4 39 18 200709 1929591 0-10 Fm1 13.242 8.9 399 0.56 86 1371 11 76 19 1127 4.12 2.225 44 0.921 13.493 0.042 9 35 18 200709 1929592 10-20 Fm1 13.175 7.3 452 0.505 71 939 10 80 11 1029 3.979 2.236 40 0.909 9.504 0.051 10 38 18 200709 1929593 20-30 Fm1 13.034 7.5 468 0.483 90 1086 11 71 16 1280 4.112 2.215 44 0.91 8.006 0.045 6 37 19 200709 1929594 0-10 Fm2 13.706 6.1 477 0.449 76 1392 9 77 18 1162 4.197 2.236 38 0.932 11.41 0.02 10 37 19 200709 1929595 10-20 Fm2 13.258 5.7 534 0.403 80 1039 10 82 21 1047 4.071 2.213 39 0.832 8.594 0.022 4 36 19 200709 1929596 20-30 Fm2 13.716 5.6 407 0.405 80 811 9 71 16 931 4.346 2.202 44 0.868 9.718 0.023 8 35 20 200709 1929597 0-10 Fm2 14.91 9.2 392 0.481 80 1199 15 88 22 1166 5.275 2.194 34 1.025 9.796 0.076 7 38

60

20 200709 1929598 10-20 Fm2 14.562 6.7 366 0.49 86 870 16 82 22 887 4.943 2.163 46 0.982 9.775 0.131 13 38 20 200709 1929599 20-30 Fm2 14.481 7.7 419 0.493 98 833 15 74 17 900 4.842 2.156 53 0.953 9.105 0.104 8 40 21 200709 1929600 0-10 Fm3 9.027 4.7 415 0.596 69 102 7 51 6 888 2.334 2.347 41 0.611 5.882 0.042 4 39 21 200709 1929601 10-20 Fm3 8.519 4.1 428 0.504 63 124 6 57 8 979 1.782 2.399 32 0.493 2.491 0.018 -2 39 21 200709 1929602 20-30 Fm3 8.815 6 444 0.466 81 100 4 57 5 937 1.888 2.448 45 0.533 2.936 0.017 6 37 22 200709 1929603 0-10 Fm3 11.329 4.9 439 0.457 78 156 7 59 15 1019 3.416 2.252 50 0.811 7.445 0.038 10 39 22 200709 1929604 10-20 Fm3 12.078 8.2 369 0.508 74 405 9 78 20 847 3.954 2.197 40 0.959 7.954 0.047 -2 35 22 200709 1929605 20-30 Fm3 13.663 8.9 650 0.623 74 1407 11 76 22 1013 4.647 2.291 45 1.264 8.456 0.059 6 32 23 200709 1929606 0-10 Fm3 13.256 7.4 489 0.518 75 370 11 78 15 1050 4.254 2.08 36 1.025 9.608 0.056 11 35 23 200709 1929607 10-20 Fm3 13.76 6.7 568 0.491 67 848 12 76 15 1060 4.391 2.018 28 0.991 8.553 0.026 3 36 23 200709 1929608 20-30 Fm3 13.56 7.9 515 0.485 71 1001 8 75 13 988 4.283 2.004 41 0.949 8.31 0.016 -2 37

Site Batch No Sample ID Depth (cm) Morphology Mo Na2O Nb Nd Ni P2O5 Pb Rb S Sc SiO2 Sr Th TiO2 U V Zn Zr 1 200709 1929543 0-10 Terrace -1 0.222 10 31 40 0.092 22 109.1 257 15 57.096 111.9 13 0.823 -1 111 95 185 1 200709 1929544 10-20 Terrace 3 0.172 13 22 18 0.053 24 67.8 149 13 78.076 70.2 13 0.545 7.9 61 52 252 1 200709 1929545 20-30 Terrace 5 0.137 8 12 8 0.039 13 45.8 118 11 89.034 44.2 1 0.405 -1 35 33 267 2 200709 1929552 0-10 Uplands 3 -0.01 6 -5 13 0.044 12 40.9 151 3 87.679 52.6 7 0.338 -1 31 28 231 2 200709 1929553 10-20 Terrace -1 0.3 15 29 29 0.05 23 95.2 174 13 71.134 85.3 28 0.696 7.6 78 64 299 2 200709 1929554 20-30 Terrace -1 0.779 15 22 22 0.043 26 102.7 182 16 66.509 93.8 21 0.764 10.7 87 68 264 3 200709 1929555 0-10 Terrace -1 0.877 14 33 20 0.044 29 99.9 271 9 67.97 92 33 0.734 2.1 88 64 256 3 200709 1929556 10-20 Uplands -1 -0.01 9 7 14 0.045 24 40.5 164 3 87.326 54.6 32 0.312 9.7 32 27 202 3 200709 1929557 20-30 Uplands 1 -0.01 7 5 19 0.061 18 40 171 -1 83.167 143 5 0.325 3.2 32 26 215 4 200709 1929558 0-10 Uplands -1 -0.01 4 18 5 0.06 7 33.3 252 11 86.734 77.6 20 0.226 2.5 26 31 104 4 200709 1929559 10-20 Uplands -1 -0.01 5 13 6 0.036 14 26.7 170 8 91.745 61.6 8 0.189 -1 23 24 99 4 200709 1929560 20-30 Uplands -1 -0.01 1 -5 9 0.053 11 32.5 514 -1 74.852 355.8 14 0.191 7.3 26 30 122 5 200709 1929561 0-10 Uplands -1 0.04 6 12 21 0.112 14 46.6 322 8 68.243 296 -1 0.398 1 41 42 196 5 200709 1929562 10-20 Uplands -1 0.25 7 11 18 0.1 15 47.2 317 10 66.066 351.3 8 0.395 3.6 42 40 190 5 200709 1929563 20-30 Uplands -1 0.281 5 16 16 0.076 14 43.9 369 6 62.315 481.1 1 0.372 -1 40 32 195 6 200709 1929564 0-10 Uplands -1 -0.01 8 18 19 0.069 21 46.5 251 9 77.005 127.8 15 0.382 7.2 44 42 168 6 200709 1929565 10-20 Uplands 1 0.034 6 9 19 0.058 17 49.4 186 6 79.169 117.5 7 0.388 3.2 45 39 186 6 200709 1929566 20-30 Uplands 2 0.035 5 10 18 0.046 8 48 128 5 84.255 63.2 6 0.376 -1 41 42 170 7 200709 1929567 0-10 Terrace 1 0.292 15 26 19 0.064 23 92.2 245 11 69.344 188.5 12 0.619 -1 69 57 312 7 200709 1929568 10-20 Terrace 1 0.612 13 22 25 0.036 17 100.4 193 8 71.468 97.1 15 0.631 4.3 77 61 271 7 200709 1929569 20-30 Terrace -1 0.462 12 22 26 0.041 30 100.6 181 13 70.889 124.7 14 0.654 6.9 80 57 293 8 200709 1929570 0-10 Terrace 2 1.011 14 33 21 0.045 21 118.3 616 16 70.801 93.6 16 0.709 2 81 62 329 8 200709 1929571 10-20 Terrace -1 1.211 15 25 24 0.038 24 132.4 621 14 67.993 97.3 14 0.738 5.2 89 65 266 8 200709 1929572 20-30 Terrace 3 1.323 14 34 22 0.038 27 135.3 554 16 66.624 93.5 22 0.752 -1 88 72 253

12 200709 1929573 0-10 Terrace -1 0.157 11 14 22 0.08 20 76.1 258 -1 67.364 137.8 -1 0.532 2.1 55 58 257 12 200709 1929574 10-20 Terrace -1 0.273 11 29 22 0.074 23 72.9 364 10 63.208 189.5 16 0.498 2.8 77 57 235 12 200709 1929575 20-30 Terrace -1 0.413 9 17 25 0.069 21 74.7 366 8 66.251 157.8 -1 0.503 -1 79 55 223 13 200709 1929576 0-10 Fm1 -1 0.361 14 25 13 0.122 34 105 444 14 68.757 73.9 26 0.695 9 72 68 268 13 200709 1929577 10-20 Fm1 2 0.344 14 31 18 0.096 25 102 264 12 72.949 71.2 12 0.752 1.2 79 60 323 13 200709 1929578 20-30 Fm1 -1 0.292 12 13 17 0.05 18 81.5 159 10 79.322 59.1 15 0.615 3.5 57 50 301 14 200709 1929579 0-10 Fm3 4 0.596 12 28 8 0.054 20 102.1 89 6 84.26 65.2 8 0.54 3.1 36 43 475 14 200709 1929580 10-20 Fm3 4 0.488 15 23 19 0.054 23 119.5 114 10 77.673 71 17 0.58 9.4 47 53 413 14 200709 1929581 20-30 Fm3 -1 0.478 17 26 18 0.046 27 120.4 108 -1 77.304 74.7 20 0.57 6.1 42 50 366 15 200709 1929582 0-10 Fm1 4 0.539 14 25 9 0.067 23 102.2 202 9 82.126 62.4 17 0.474 6.9 43 43 419 15 200709 1929583 10-20 Fm1 5 0.604 12 20 10 0.053 16 99.7 136 3 85.027 60.5 5 0.413 3.8 34 34 372 15 200709 1929584 20-30 Fm1 1 0.496 8 10 3 0.037 19 85.1 87 4 87.495 51.5 8 0.302 6.3 27 29 283 16 200709 1929585 0-10 Fm1 2 0.505 14 24 7 0.081 19 100.1 257 11 79.438 64.6 11 0.539 6.6 45 48 397 16 200709 1929586 10-20 Fm1 4 0.485 9 10 3 0.035 24 87.5 84 7 89.117 54 -1 0.28 -1 21 24 269

61

16 200709 1929587 20-30 Fm1 7 0.611 13 26 9 0.052 19 97.8 130 6 84.775 61.5 4 0.491 3.9 41 37 535 17 200709 1929588 0-10 Fm1 2 0.433 16 29 20 0.1 24 132.4 433 17 67.387 71 23 0.778 7.4 79 74 380 17 200709 1929589 10-20 Fm1 2 0.492 17 40 24 0.071 28 136 333 12 70.05 72 22 0.799 6.3 81 77 394 17 200709 1929590 20-30 Fm1 -1 0.531 20 20 22 0.062 28 128.8 250 11 72.307 72.2 24 0.795 4.9 77 67 419 18 200709 1929591 0-10 Fm1 -1 0.443 20 28 23 0.105 27 136.8 963 15 63.573 80.7 21 0.781 6.2 89 82 323 18 200709 1929592 10-20 Fm1 1 0.526 20 20 25 0.083 29 136.4 586 14 67.816 80.2 20 0.806 10.2 82 76 372 18 200709 1929593 20-30 Fm1 2 0.568 17 36 26 0.079 29 130.9 349 10 69.309 77.9 15 0.81 6.1 86 72 383 19 200709 1929594 0-10 Fm2 2 0.536 17 30 15 0.071 26 137 363 19 65.129 78.8 16 0.869 4.6 91 77 316 19 200709 1929595 10-20 Fm2 -1 0.625 20 29 15 0.056 24 137.6 254 18 68.66 78.5 24 0.872 2.5 84 74 336 19 200709 1929596 20-30 Fm2 -1 0.616 19 35 14 0.059 28 142.4 222 17 66.846 78.4 24 0.857 5.6 85 72 315 20 200709 1929597 0-10 Fm2 -1 0.473 18 32 35 0.092 24 143.9 203 16 64.372 79.6 12 0.899 8.8 100 85 303 20 200709 1929598 10-20 Fm2 -1 0.507 20 34 21 0.06 29 145 158 18 65.165 81.4 17 0.883 8.2 100 80 316 20 200709 1929599 20-30 Fm2 -1 0.542 18 43 22 0.054 25 143.3 175 20 66.031 81.2 16 0.892 5.2 99 83 326 21 200709 1929600 0-10 Fm3 2 0.656 17 25 9 0.092 28 106.3 176 8 77.542 78.3 22 0.609 6.4 44 50 488 21 200709 1929601 10-20 Fm3 5 0.655 16 23 10 0.055 24 111 122 11 82.221 74.1 9 0.595 3.9 37 40 512 21 200709 1929602 20-30 Fm3 6 0.624 16 29 8 0.054 20 118.1 100 13 81.343 70.7 19 0.614 5.8 45 42 455 22 200709 1929603 0-10 Fm3 -1 0.547 20 28 14 0.076 33 117 178 8 72.54 87.5 27 0.811 10.1 69 65 319 22 200709 1929604 10-20 Fm3 -1 0.559 17 23 20 0.047 20 115.9 158 11 70.642 88.9 12 0.781 3.9 76 68 296 22 200709 1929605 20-30 Fm3 -1 0.726 18 25 23 0.047 22 127.1 254 13 66.946 115.2 9 0.847 5.4 88 78 275 23 200709 1929606 0-10 Fm3 2 0.519 16 34 23 0.046 23 134.1 198 18 67.535 84.6 20 0.787 8.7 87 67 309 23 200709 1929607 10-20 Fm3 2 0.607 16 32 22 0.04 24 132.1 210 13 67.939 82.9 15 0.813 5.4 90 70 299 23 200709 1929608 20-30 Fm3 2 0.612 17 24 21 0.038 20 132.2 189 17 68.561 87.2 22 0.813 1.3 88 68 305

62

Appendix 7.4: XRD Mineralogy Area A. Note: Halloysite is most likely to be smectite due to method of analysis

Site Number Depth LEME ID Sample # Minerals

Present Corrected Weight % Site

Number Depth LEME ID Sample # Minerals Present

Corrected Weight % Site


Corrected Weight %

1 0-10 2007735000001 1929543 Halloysite 54.8 3 20-30 2007735002003 1929557 Quartz 77 6 0-10 2007735005001 1929564 Quartz 72 Quartz 27.8 Halloysite 10.8 Halloysite 15.1 Muscovite 14 Calcite 10 Calcite 7 Microcline 3.4 Microcline 1.7 Albite 3.4 100 Muscovite 0.5 Muscovite 1.5 100 Orthoclase 1.1

1 10-20 2007735000002 1929544 Quartz 67.3 100.1 Halloysite 21.4 4 0-10 2007735003001 1929558 Quartz 83.3 Muscovite 7.3 Halloysite 12.9 6 10-20 2007735005002 1929565 Quartz 74.4 Microcline 4 Calcite 2.5 Halloysite 14.7 100 Microcline 1.1 Calcite 6.6 Muscovite 0.2 Microcline 3.7

1 20-30 2007735000003 1929545 Quartz 90.2 100 Muscovite 0.6 Albite 4.5 100 Halloysite 4.4 4 10-20 2007735003002 1929559 Quartz 90.4 Microcline 1 Halloysite 5.3 6 20-30 2007735005003 1929566 Quartz 78.7 100.1 Microcline 3 Halloysite 16.8 Calcite 0.9 Albite 2.1

2 0-10 2007735002001 1929552 Quartz 86.7 Muscovite 0.5 Calcite 1 Halloysite 10 100.1 Microcline 0.8 Albite 2.3 Muscovite 0.6 Microcline 1 4 20-30 2007735003003 1929560 Quartz 81.7 100 100 Halloysite 8.9 Calcite 5.5 7 0-10 2007735006001 1929567 Quartz 56.2

2 10-20 2007735001001 1929553 Quartz 54.2 Dolomite 2.6 Halloysite 25.3 Halloysite 29.3 Muscovite 1.3 Muscovite 10.2 Muscovite 11 100 Calcite 5.6 Albite 5.6 Orthoclase 2.8 100.1 5 0-10 2007735004001 1929561 Quartz 57.7 100.1 Calcite 23.3

2 20-30 2007735001002 1929554 Quartz 48 Halloysite 15.5 7 10-20 2007735006002 1929568 Quartz 52.6 Halloysite 30.4 Microcline 3.2 Halloysite 24.9 Muscovite 11.7 Muscovite 0.4 Microcline 9.8 Microcline 5.6 100.1 Muscovite 8.4 Albite 4.3 Albite 4.2 100 5 10-20 2007735004002 1929562 Quartz 56.6 99.9 Calcite 25.7

3 0-10 2007735001003 1929555 Quartz 47.2 Halloysite 14.4 7 20-30 2007735006003 1929569 Quartz 61 Halloysite 31.3 Microcline 3 Halloysite 25.2 Muscovite 10.4 Muscovite 0.3 Muscovite 8.1 Microcline 7.7 100 Albite 3.5 Albite 3.3 Calcite 1.5 99.9 5 20-30 2007735004003 1929563 Quartz 52.4 Microcline 0.7 Calcite 32.1 100

3 10-20 2007735002002 1929556 Quartz 84.1 Halloysite 13.8 Halloysite 9.2 Albite 1.6 8 0-10 2007735007001 1929570 Quartz 54.5 Microcline 5 Microcline 0.1 Halloysite 23.6 Muscovite 1.7 100 Muscovite 9.4 100 Microcline 7.3 Albite 5.2 100

63






Corrected Weight %

8 10-20 2007735007002 1929571 Quartz 48.5 13 10-20 2007735009002 1929577 Quartz 60 15 20-30 2007735011003 1929584 Quartz 70.5 Halloysite 28.7 Halloysite 23.7 Microcline 15.3 Muscovite 11.9 Muscovite 6.6 Albite 5.8 Albite 6.2 Orthoclase 5.1 Halloysite 5.3 Orthoclase 4.7 Albite 4.6 Muscovite 3.2 100 100 100.1

8 20-30 2007735007003 1929572 Quartz 48.2 13 20-30 2007735009003 1929578 Quartz 73.6 16 0-10 2007735015001 1929594 Quartz 50.9 Halloysite 29.6 Halloysite 20.6 Halloysite 25.8 Muscovite 12.1 Albite 4.3 Muscovite 12.4 Microcline 4.9 Microcline 1.6 Albite 5.7 Albite 4.4 100.1 Microcline 5.3

Sodium Chloride 0.8 100.1

100 14 0-10 2007735010001 1929579 Quartz 65.7 Halloysite 11.4 16 10-20 2007735012002 1929586 Quartz 72.7

12 0-10 2007735008001 1929573 Quartz 50.2 Microcline 10.6 Microcline 11.2 Halloysite 26.7 Muscovite 6.6 Halloysite 7.4 Calcite 8.9 Albite 5.8 Albite 5.9 Muscovite 8.4 100.1 Muscovite 2.7 Microcline 5.8 99.9 100 14 10-20 2007735010002 1929580 Quartz 63.2 Halloysite 14.1 1929587 Quartz 70.8

12 10-20 2007735008002 1929574 Quartz 49.4 Muscovite 8.4 16 20-30 2007735012003 Microcline 9.2 Halloysite 22.7 Microcline 8.1 Muscovite 7.3 Calcite 19.9 Albite 6.3 Halloysite 7.1 Muscovite 4.4 100.1 Albite 5.6 Albite 2.2 100 Orthoclase 1.5 14 20-30 2007735010003 1929581 Quartz 58.4 100.1 Halloysite 15 17 0-10 2007735013001 1929588 Quartz 52.2 Microcline 14.6 Halloysite 22.9

12 20-30 2007735008003 1929575 Quartz 53 Muscovite 6.3 Muscovite 11.3 Halloysite 23.3 Albite 5.7 Microcline 8.5 Calcite 14.9 100 Albite 5.1 Muscovite 3.8 100 Albite 3.4 15 0-10 2007735012001 1929585 Quartz 67.3 Orthoclase 1.6 Halloysite 10.7 17 10-20 2007735013002 1929589 Quartz 55.3 100 Microcline 9.9 Halloysite 22.3 Muscovite 7.5 Muscovite 10.5

13 0-10 2007735009001 1929576 Quartz 55.8 Albite 4.7 Microcline 6.4 Halloysite 26.1 100.1 Albite 5.5 Muscovite 9.1 100 Albite 5.2 15 10-20 2007735011002 1929583 Quartz 70.7 Orthoclase 3.7 Microcline 9.3 99.9 Albite 8.6 Muscovite 6.6 Halloysite 4.8 100

64






Corrected Weight %

17 20-30 2007735013003 1929590 Quartz 59.7 19 0-10 2007735016001 1929597 Quartz 45.4 22 0-10 2007735018001 1929603 Quartz 61.8 Halloysite 18.5 Halloysite 32.3 Halloysite 13.3 Muscovite 11 Muscovite 13.6 Muscovite 10.6 Microcline 6.4 Albite 5 Microcline 7.6 Albite 4.3 Microcline 3.7 Albite 6.6 99.9 100 99.9

18 0-10 2007735014001 1929591 Quartz 52.3 20 10-20 2007735016002 1929598 Quartz 50 22 10-20 2007735018002 1929604 Quartz 57.5 Halloysite 24.4 Halloysite 27.2 Halloysite 17.3 Muscovite 12.4 Muscovite 13.3 Muscovite 11.4 Microcline 6.5 Albite 5.6 Microcline 9 Albite 4.3 Microcline 4 Albite 4.8 99.9 100.1 100

18 10-20 2007735014002 1929592 Quartz 56.4 20 20-30 2007735016003 1929599 Quartz 47.9 22 20-30 2007735018003 1929605 Quartz 54.1 Muscovite 10.9 Albite 6.9 Muscovite 13.8 Albite 5.4 Microcline 2.8 Albite 5.1 Microcline 4.9 Muscovite 12.9 Microcline 4.2 100 100 100

18 20-30 2007735014003 1929593 Quartz 59.5 21 0-10 2007735017001 1929600 Quartz 63.9 23 0-10 2007735019001 1929606 Quartz 48.3 Halloysite 24.1 Microcline 10.7 Halloysite 28.6 Muscovite 10.5 Halloysite 10.2 Muscovite 12.8 Albite 4.6 Albite 8.6 Microcline 5.2 Microcline 1.4 Muscovite 6.6 Albite 5.1 100.1 100 100

19 10-20 2007735015002 1929595 Quartz 51.5 21 10-20 2007735017002 1929601 Quartz 70.4 23 10-20 2007735019002 1929607 Quartz 47.3 Halloysite 23.1 Albite 8.6 Halloysite 31.1 Muscovite 12.1 Muscovite 7.3 Muscovite 10.5 Albite 8 Halloysite 7 Albite 5.6 Microcline 5.3 Microcline 6.7 Microcline 5.5 100 100 100

19 20-30 2007735015003 1929596 Quartz 48.4 21 20-30 2007735017003 1929602 Quartz 67.4 23 20-30 2007735019003 1929608 Quartz 46.5 Halloysite 25.2 Microcline 11.1 Halloysite 31.1 Muscovite 12.8 Halloysite 8.3 Muscovite 10.8 Albite 8.6 Albite 6.8 Microcline 6.7 Microcline 5 Muscovite 6.4 Albite 5 100 100 100.1

geomorphology and surface materials: lindsay …

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