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CONTENTSINTRODUCTION

GeologyandGeography

CHAPTER1PlateTectonicsShapeOurLandandSea

CHAPTER2MountainRanges

CHAPTER3EarthquakesandResources

CHAPTER4Plains

CHAPTER5Climate

CHAPTER6Rivers

CHAPTER7Ecosystems

CHAPTER8TheCoast

GLOSSARY

RESOURCES

INDEX

T

INTRODUCTION

GEOLOGY&GEOGRAPHYheEasternCoastismorethanjustthelandbytheocean.Theregionhassweeping, majestic forests. Groundhogs live there, and snapping

alligatorsfilltheswampsinthesouth.Andyoumightknowaboutthefierce,destructivehurricanes.

Butdidyouknow theEasternCoast alsohas amazingnaturalwonders?Haveyou heard of Mount Washington in New Hampshire or Chesapeake Bay inMaryland? Maybe you’ve visited the lower Mississippi River Delta, or theFlorida Everglades. The Eastern Coast is linked from its coastline along theAtlanticOcean to the inlandAppalachianMountainchainrunningfromMainetoAlabama.

Theregionisamaturelandscape,whichmeansit’shadaverylongtimetodevelop.Evenwithitsoldmountainsandrivers,though,it’sstillchangingallthetime.

geology:thescientificstudyofthehistoryandphysicalnatureoftheearth.

geography:thestudyoftheearthanditsfeatures,especiallytheshapeoftheland,andtheeffectofhumanactivityontheearth.

ecosystem: a community of plants and animals living in the same area andrelyingoneachothertosurvive.

endangered:akindofplantoranimalthatisatriskofdisappearingentirely.

Inthisbook,you’ll learnaboutthegeologyandphysicalgeographyof theEasternRegion along the coast of theAtlanticOcean and part of theGulf ofMexico.You’ll read about the forces thathave shaped the region’smountains,plains,rivers,weather,andecosystems.Andyou’lldiscoveralotofinterestingfactsaboutthearea.

Didyouknowthatalligatorswereonceendangered,butnownumberinthehundredsof thousands?Or that theGreatSmokyMountainshave fireflies thatflashinunison?Asyoureadthroughthisbook,you’llgettotryoutexperimentsandprojects.Theywill helpyouunderstandnewconcepts, likehow rocksgetfoldedinmountains,orhowwaterfallscan“move”upariver.

GEOLOGY:MORETHANJUSTROCKSMostpeoplethinkofgeologyasthestudyofrocks.Itcertainlyincludesthat,butit’smuchmore.Whenyoulookatarock,youcandescribeitscolorandshape.Butwhatisevenmoreinterestingishowthatrockformedandhowitgottoitspresentlocation.Thatinvolvesseeingthebigpicture—thepictureofthewholeearth.

Geologyisthescientificstudyofthehistoryandphysicalnatureoftheearth.Itexplainshowthecolorandshapeofarockgivescluestothehistoryofthatrock.

crust:thethick,outerlayeroftheearth.

atmosphere:theairsurroundingtheearth.

hydrosphere: theearth’swater, includingoceans, rivers, lakes,glaciers,andwatervaporintheair.

climate:theaverageweatherofanareaoveralongperiodoftime.

Geologyinvolvesthehugemovementsoftheearth’scrust.Italsoinvolvesthesystemsof theatmosphereandhydrosphere,becauseairandwateraffectthebreakdownandformationofrocks.AndthegeologyoftheEasternCoastispartofthegeologicstoryofournationandtheearth.

GEOGRAPHY:MORETHANJU5TSTATESAND

CAPITALSJustasgeologyisaboutmorethanjustrocks,geographyisaboutmorethanjuststatesandtheircapitals.Theseareimportant,butgeographytellsabiggerstory.There are two parts to geography. Physical geography includes mountains,rivers, climate, and the shape of the land. Cultural geography is how peopleinteractwiththeland.Anexampleofculturalgeographywouldbehowtryingtoprevent floods can change the shape of a river. Cultural geography includesthingslikepopulation,agriculture,andrecreation.

This book covers the states ofArkansas, Louisiana,Mississippi,Alabama,Tennessee, Georgia, Kentucky, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina,Virginia,West Virginia,Maryland, Pennsylvania, Delaware, New Jersey, NewYork,Connecticut,RhodeIsland,Massachusetts,Vermont,NewHampshire,andMaine.

ComesailontheChesapeakeBay,hiketheAppalachianTrailfromMainetoGeorgia,andridearaftdowntheMississippiRiver.Thisbeautifullandisready

andwaitingtobeexplored—byyou!

CHAPTER1

PLATETECTONICSSHAPEOURLANDANDSEA

TheAtlanticandGulfcoastsgentlyslopedowntotheocean.Fartherinland,agroupofmountainrangescalledtheAppalachianMountainsrise,almostfollowingthelineofthecoast.Howdidtheseareasformandwhydotheylooksodifferent?

plate tectonics: the theory that describes how platesmove across the earthand interact with each other to produce earthquakes, volcanoes, andmountains.

TounderstandthedrivingforcebehindtheformationofthedifferentlandscapesintheEasternCoast,youfirstneedtounderstandplatetectonics.

volcano:avent in theearth’ssurface throughwhichmagma,ash,andgases

erupt.

earthquake: a suddenmovement in the outer layer of the earth. It releasesstressbuiltupfromthemotionoftheearth’splates.

erosion:thewearingawayandcarryingoffofmaterialsontheearth’ssurface.

brittle:describesasolidthatbreakswhenputunderpressure.Abladeofgrasswillbend,butadrytwigisbrittleandwillbreak.

mantle: themiddle layer of the earth. The uppermantle, together with thecrust,formsthelithosphere.

dense:tightlypacked.

lithosphere: therigidouter layerof theearth that includes thecrustand theuppermantle.

Plate tectonics is the theory that theouter layerof theearth ismadeupofinterconnectedplatesthatmovearound.Togetherwiththeheatfromthesun,thepowerful forces inside the earth shape every landscape and ecosystem on thesurface of the earth.Volcanoes, mountains, valleys, plains, earthquakes, anderosion all happenwhen andwhere they do because of themovement of theearth’splates.Tounderstandplatetectonics,firstlet’slookinsidetheearth.

APEEKINSIDETheearthmaylooksolidandmotionless,butmuchofitisliquid.Itconsistsofthreelayers.

Thecrustisthethin,outerlayeroftheearth.Thisisthelayerthatwewalkon.It’ssolidbutbrittle,whichmeansthatitbreakswhenunderpressure.

Themantleisthelayerbelowthecrust.Itishotteranddenserherebecause

the temperature and pressure inside the earth increase the deeper you go. Theuppermantleisbrittleandsolid.Together,thecrustandtheuppermantleformthelithosphere,orthehardouterlayeroftheearth.

Thelithosphereisbrokenintoplates.Belowtheplates isa layercalled theasthenosphere.Itispartiallymoltenandcanflowslowlywithoutbreaking—abitlikeSillyPutty.Thecoreisthecenteroftheearth.Itisextremelydenseandmadeupof iron andnickel.There’s an inner core,which is solid because thepressureissogreat,andanoutercore,whichisliquid.

Thecoreisalmostashotasthesun-about9,000degreesFahrenheit(5,000degreesCelsius)!

DIDYOUKNOWYoumighthaveheardoftheearth’splatesbeingsectionsoftheearth’scrust.That’spartlycorrect.Thetectonicplatesaremadeofthecrustandtheupper

mantle,whichtogetherarecalledthelithosphere.Butmostpeoplejustcallitthecrustbecauseit’seasiertoremember.

asthenosphere: the semi-moltenmiddle layer of the earth that includes thelowermantle.Muchoftheasthenosphereflowsslowly,likeSillyPutty.

molten:meltedbyheattoformaliquid.

core:thecenteroftheearth,composedofthemetalsironandnickel.Thecorehasasolidinnercoreandaliquidoutercore.

tectonic: relating to the forces that produce movement and changes in theearth’scrust.oceanic:inorfromtheocean.

continental:relatingtotheearth’slargelandmasses.

PLATES:THEEARTH’SPUZZLEThehardouterlayeroftheearth,orlithosphere,isbrokenupintoabout12largesections,calledtectonicplates.Therearealsoseveralsmallerplates.Theplatesfit together like a jigsaw puzzle.Most of the plates are part oceanic and partcontinental.Forexample,theNorthAmericanPlateincludesnearlyallofNorthAmericaandthewesternhalfoftheAtlanticOcean.

magma:partiallymeltedrockbelowthesurfaceoftheearth.

current:aconstantlymovingmassofliquid.

divergent boundary: where two plates are moving in opposite directions,sometimescalleda riftzone.Newcrust formsat riftzonesfromthemagmapushingthroughthecrust.

rifting:whenthelithospheresplitsapart.

Theplatesareinconstantslowmotion!

That’s because the layer just under the plates—the asthenosphere—is very

hot.Theheatcausesthemoltenrocksthere,calledmagma, tomovearoundinhugerotatingcurrentscalledconvectioncells.Theseconvectioncellsmovetheplatesabove,whicharefloatinglikeraftsonthehotgoobelow.Theplatesalsohelp themselves move along. The older part of a plate is colder and denser.Whenitsinksintothemantle,itpullstherestoftheplatewithitandkeepsthecyclegoing.Platesmovesomewherebetween1 to6 incheseachyear (2 to15centimeters).

ONTHEEDGEVolcanoes and earthquakes don’t just happen anywhere. They’re arranged inpatterns.Forexample, thereare lotsofactivevolcanoesaround the rimof thePacificOcean,but therearenovolcanoes inArkansas.That’sbecausemostofthe action happens where one plate meets another. This is called a plateboundary.Therearethreedifferentkindsofplateboundaries.

Divergent Plate Boundaries are where two plates move apart from eachother.Theydothisbecausethemagmabeneathispushingupward.Thiscausesrifting.Thehotgoopushesoutandsolidifiestoformnewrocks.Nearlyalloftheearth’snewcrustformsatdivergentboundaries.AnexampleofadivergentboundarycanbefoundontheeasternboundaryoftheNorthAmericanPlate,inthemiddleoftheAtlanticOcean.

The North American continent and the western half of the floor of theAtlanticOceanareallpartofonetectonicplate.Thatplateisgrowing,becausenewcrustisformingattheMid-AtlanticRidge.

convergentboundary:wheretwoplatescometogether.

subduction:whenonetectonicplateslidesunderneathanothertectonicplate.

Theoceanfloorisspreadingaslavahobblesupfrombelowandcoolstoformnewcrust.

ConvergentPlateBoundariesarewheretwoplatescollide.Whathappensdependsonwhethertheplatesareoceanicorcontinental.Whenanoceanicplatecollideswith a continental plate, volcanoes form.Because theoceanic plate isdenserandthinnerthanthecontinentalplate,itslidesunderneaththecontinentalplate.Thisiscalledsubduction.

As the subductedoceanicplate sinks lower, itsweightpulls the restof theplatealongaswell.Thesinkingplateencountersalotofheatandpressure.Thiscauses the plate to release hot gas and steam,which rises andmelts the rockabove.Themeltedrock,themagma,alsorisestothesurface,creatingvolcanoes.TheRockyMountainsinthewestformedwhenoceaniccrustsubductedbeneaththeNorthAmericanPlateandcausedthecrusttobuckle.

Oceanic-ContinentalConversance

fault:acrackintheouterlayeroftheearth.

transformboundary:wheretwoplatesslideagainsteachother.

hotspot: an area in the middle of a plate, where hot magma rises to thesurface.

Ifacontinentalplatecollideswithanothercontinentalplate,theybothbuckleupwards, forming mountains. That’s what is happening right now where theIndian Plate and the Eurasian Plate are colliding. The result is the Himalaya

Mountains,whichincludethetallestmountainintheworld,Mt.Everest.

Therearen’tanyconvergentboundarieswithintheEasternCoastregion,butsometimestherecanbemovementalongoldfaults.Thismovementhappensinan area called the New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the western edge ofTennesseeandKentucky.

TransformPlateBoundariesarewheretwoplatesgrindagainsteachotheras theymovesidebyside inoppositedirections.Astheplatesmovepasteachother they sometimes suddenly slip. This creates a big lurch, or earthquake.There’sanoldtransformplateboundarythatrunsfromNewYorktoAlabama.This fault is buried, though, and is not nearly as active or as powerful as themorefamousSanAndreasFaultinCalifornia.

Hotspots areother areasof stronggeologic activity,but theyaren’ton theedge of tectonic plates. These are volcanic regions that usually occur in themiddleofaplate.Theyexistbecauseextremelyhotmagma,probablyfromdeepin the mantle, makes its way to the surface. There is a hotspot beneathYellowstoneNationalPark,whereWyoming,Idaho,andMontanameet.

GIANTCONVEYORBELTThemovementof theplatesactsabit likeagiant,wideconveyorbelt.This

conveyorbelt is likeaflatescalator,usedtomovepeopleor thingsacrossalongspace.Atdivergentboundaries,magmapushesthrough,cools,andformsnewcrust.

Thelithosphereislikearigidboard,though,andastwoplatesmoveapart,theother end of each plate collides with another lithosphere. At the collisionpoint, one plate is subducted, or pushed under, andmelts. So lithosphere iscreatedononeend,anddestroyedonanother.Justlikeconveyorbelts,orthestairsonanescalator, lithosphereappearsononeendanddisappearson theotherend.

TECTONICHISTORYOFTHEEASTERNCOAST

TheEasternCoasthashadavaried tectonichistory.Mostplaces in the regionhaveexperienceddifferent thingshappeningatdifferent times.Forexample,atone time, anareamighthavebeenanoceanbasin receivingsediments.Muchlater,thesameareamighthavebeenpushedupintomountains.Therocksoftenrecord this history, but it can be hard to sort out what happened when. Andsometimes,rockshavebeencompletelyremoveddue toerosionorsubduction.Asyoumightguess,thefartherbackintimeyougo,theharderitistotellwhathappened.Nevertheless,geologistshavepieced togethera roughpictureof thetectonicpast.

sediment:looserockparticlessuchassandandclay.

geologist:ascientistwhostudiestheearthanditsmovements.

DIDYOUKNOW?TheoldestrocksintheUnitedStatesarefoundinnorthernMinnesotaand

northernMichigan.Theyarebetween3.5and3.7billionyearsold.TheoldestrocksonEarthareinnorthernCanada,andareover4billionyearsold.

Over 2½ billion years ago, small bits of continental and oceanic crustcollided and stuck together over time.This process formed the central part ofNorthAmerica,calledthecraton.IntheEasternCoastregion,youcanseeaverysmall section of the ancient craton exposed in the Adirondack Mountains innorthernNewYorkState.Intherestoftheregion,otherrockshavecoveredtheancientrocks.

Abillionyearsago,allthecontinentswereassembledintoasinglecontinentsurroundedbyonegiantocean.

AsNorthAmericacollidedwithanothercontinentalongitseasternedgetoform this supercontinent, calledRodinia, toweringmountainswere pushedup.Many of the rocks at the core of the Appalachians Mountains were formedduring this time.Later, erosion removed layersof rocks in themountainsovermanymillionsofyears.Onlythe“roots”oftheancientmountainsremainedandthelandwasaflatrollingplain.

About 750million years ago,Rodinia thinned and pulled apart—abit liketaffyVolcanoeseruptedandadeepbasinformedalongwhatwasthentheeasternedge of the continent. This is now western Virginia, North Carolina, SouthCarolina,easternTennessee,andnorthernGeorgia.

Waterfilledthebasin,bringingalongwithitclay,silt,sand,andgravel.Asthe basin sank overmillions of years, it left behind thick layers of sediments.ThesesedimentlayerscanbeseennowintheGreatSmokyMountains.

Later,inlandseasfloodedtothewestanddepositedsand,mud,andseashells.These formed a thin covering of sedimentary rocks over the older rocksthroughoutthecentralpartofNorthAmerica.

The process of continents colliding together and pushing the land up intomountainsiscalledanorogeny.AroundthetimeplantsfirstbegantoappearonEarth,NorthAmerica andAfrica had started to come together to form a newsupercontinentcalledPangaea.Thishappenedovera longperiodofabout250millionyears,calledtheAppalachianOrogeny.

sedimentary rock: rock formed from the compression of sediments, theremainsofplantsandanimals,orfromtheevaporationofseawater.

DuringtheAppalachianOrogeny,hugeblocksofcontinentalcrustpiledupontopofeachother.TheAppalachianMountainswerepushedupastherocksfoldedandfaulted.Asrockswereburiedinthebigpile-up,somechangedintonewmetamorphicrocks,andotherswereburieddeepenoughthattheymelted.The molten rocks erupted to form volcanoes or cooled underground to formgranite.

metamorphic rock: rock that has been transformed by heat or pressure orbothintonewrock,whilestayingsolid.

coastalplain:aflatareathatisboundbytheseaononesideandanareaofhigherelevationontheotherside.

continentalshelf:theborderofacontinentthatslopesgraduallyunderwater.

glacier:ahugemassoficeandsnow.

Manyofthoserocksorenowexposedbecausetherockabovehaseroded,suchasBlowingRockinnorthernNorthCarolinaandRedTopMountaininnorthern

Georgia.

Beginningabout240millionyearsagowhendinosaurswerestartingtoroamtheland,Pangaeabeganriftingapart.ThisriftingopeneduptheAtlanticOceanoff the east coast of North America. Since then, the Appalachians have beeneroding,withthesedimentsformingthecoastalplainsandthecontinentalshelfallalongtheAtlanticandGulfCoasts.

DIDYOUKNOW?WhentheAppalachianMountainswereformedlongagotheywereprobablyashighastheHimalayasaretoday!Sincethen,wind,water,andicehaveeroded

them.

During the last 2 million years, glaciers expanded south during colderperiodsandshapedthenorthernpartoftheregion.TheseglacierscoveredmostofNewEnglandandpartsofPennsylvania,NewYork,andNewJersey.Later,whenEarth’s climatewarmed,many lakes and riverswere left as the glaciersmelted.

WHAT’SHAPPENINGNOW?ThetectonicactivityintheEasternCoastregionhasbeenrelativelyquietforalongtime.Youwon’tfindactivevolcanoeshere,andeventheancientmountains

havebeenerodedtolowerelevations.WearealsoinawarmerperiodinEarth’shistory,andglaciershaveretreatednorth,leavingbodiesofwaterbehind.Goingfromeasttowest,thisiswhatyou’llfindintheEasternRegion.

elevation:heightabovesealevel.

AWideningAtlanticOcean:There isadivergentplateboundarynear thecenteroftheAtlanticOcean,runningfromnorthtosouth.Magmaispushingupthroughopeningstoformnewcrust.ItmeansthattheAtlanticOceanisactuallygettingwidereveryday.TheoceaniccrusttothewestofthisspreadingcenterisconnectedtothecontinentalcrustofNorthAmericatoformtheNorthAmericanPlate.

COLUMBUSSAILEDALMOSTALLOFTHEOCEANBLUE!

Columbus sailed the ocean blue in 1492, but he had it easy. The AtlanticOceanisspreadingapartatabout½to1inchperyear(upto2½centimeters),sothereisabout33feetinthemiddleoftheAtlanticOcean(10meters)thatColumbusnevertraveledover!

plateau:alarge,raisedareathatisfairlyflat.

CoastalPlain: The entire coast along theAtlanticOcean and theGulf ofMexicoisastabletectonicarea.Here,theoceaniccrustandthecontinentalcrustarenotsubducting—theyareslowly,butquietly,movingwest together.This iscalledapassivecontinentalmargin.TheareaislowlyingandreceivessedimentsflowingfromtheAppalachianMountains.Thesedimentaryrockshereareveryyoung.

Appalachian Mountains: These mountains form the backbone of theeasternUnitedStates,extending fromNewEngland toAlabama.They includethefollowingareas,fromeasttowest:

Piedmont, which has rolling hills and gentle slopes stretching fromNewJerseytocentralAlabama.BlueRidge,whichhas thehighestmountains in theEastand includes theBlue Ridge Mountains, the Great Smoky Mountains, and ShenandoahNationalPark.Valley and Ridge, which is a series of long, even ridges, with long,continuous valleys in between that look almost like stripes of corduroymeetinginaVshape.Interior Plateau: The plateaus just to the west of the Appalachian

Mountains include the Allegheny Plateau and the Cumberland Plateau. Theseplateaushavebeenerodedinplaceswithsteepslopes.

PLATETECTONICS:THEORIGINALRECYCLER

The earth has been recyclingmaterials for over 4 billion years!Everyrockyou see has come from another kind of rock.And every rock you seewilleventuallybecomeanotherone.Allthisrecyclingisbecauseofthemovementof the plates pushing everything around. To understand this recycling, firstyouhavetoknowabitabouttypesofrocks.

Therearethreemaintypesofrocks:igneous,sedimentary,andmetamorphic.

IgneousRocks have formed from the cooling of molten rock. As you godeeperbeneaththesurfaceoftheearth,itbecomeshotter.Ataround25milesbeneaththesurface(40kilometers),it’shotenoughtomeltrocks.When thatmoltenrock,calledmagma,comestothesurface,itcoolsintoigneousrocks.

SedimentaryRocksformwhensmallparticlesofrock,calledsediments,arepressed tightly together into rock. Sediments come from other rocks beingeroded, or broken into smaller pieces by wind, water, ice, and gravity.Sedimentaryrockscanalsoformfromtheremainsofplantsoranimalsbeingpressed together. When seawater evaporates, the minerals and salts in thewaterstaybehindandcanformintorock.

MetamorphicRocks form when heat or pressure changes rocks into newrocks. Pressure, like temperature, increases as you go farther beneath thesurfaceoftheearth.Ifrocksarepushedunderthesurface,butnotfarenoughtomelt,theycanbechangedintonewrockswithoutfirstmelting.

Igneous rocks can be eroded into sediments, which then form sedimentaryrocks.Thosesedimentaryrockscanthenbeburiedandheatedandsqueezedtoformmetamorphicrocks.Metamorphicrockscanbepusheddownintothemantleandmelted,tolaterformigneousrocks.Oritcouldhappeninreverse,

becauseanytypeofrockcanformfromanytypeofrock.

MAKEYOUROWNPILLOWBASALTSDuring the formation of Rodinia over a billion years ago, volcanoes erupted.Whenlavaflowedontheoceanfloor,itformedrockscalledpillowbasalts.YoucanfindpillowbasaltsfromthistimeatStark’sKnobineasternNewYork.

CAUTION:Thisproject involvesusing theoven, soget an adult tohelp. It’sbest to make these cookies on a cool, dry day. The meringue doesn’t dryproperlyonhot,humiddays.

SUPPLIES•oven

•cookiesheet

1

2

3

4

5

•waxpaper or parchment paper• 3 large eggs at room temperature • tableknife

•2smallbowls

•largemetalorglassbowl

•½teaspooncreamoftartar•electricmixer

•2/3cupfinegranulatedsugar(134grams)•½teaspoonvanilla

•greenfoodcoloring

•1cupminichocolateorwhitechocolatechips(182grams)

Preheattheovento350degreesFahrenheitandputtheovenrackinthecenterposition(180degreesCelsius).Lineacookiesheetwithwaxpaper.

Hold an egg lightlywith one hand.With theother hand, crack the eggshellfirmlywiththetableknife.

Pulltheeggshellapartwithoutlettingtheyolkfallintothebowl.Separatetheeggwhite by pouring the yolk back and forth between the eggshell halves,

letting theeggwhite fall intooneof the smallbowls.Becareful that theyolkdoesn’tbreak.

Whenallofthewhiteisinthebowl,puttheyolkintotheothersmallbowltouseforanothercookingproject,orthrowitaway.Pourtheeggwhiteintothe

largebowl.Repeatthisprocessfortherestoftheeggssoifyoubreakayolkononeegg,youwon’truinthewholebatch.

Addthecreamoftartartotheeggwhites.Beatthemixtureonhighuntiltheegg whites get foamy and form soft peaks that gently fall over when you

removethebeaters.

6

7

8

Graduallyadd the sugarandvanilla, andadd2or3dropsof foodcoloring.Keepbeatinguntilthemixtureisshiny,smooth,andstandsupinapeakabout

2incheshigh(5centimeters).Withaspoon,gentlyfoldinthechips.

Dropteaspoon-sizedblobsofthemeringueontothewaxpaperonthecookiesheet and place in the oven. Immediately turn off the oven and leave the

cookiesheetintheovenforatleast2hours.Themeringuesshouldlookdryandstiff.

Cleanupcarefully!Youdon’tgettolickthebowlinthisrecipebecauseraweggscanmakeyousick.Forthesamereason,makesureyouusepapertowels

towipeupanyspilledegg,thenthrowtheminthetrash.

WHAT’SHAPPENING?Pillowbasaltsformwherecracksintheearth’scrusthaveopenedintheoceanfloorandlavacomesoutintothewater.Thecoldoceanwaterquicklycoolsthelavaintoapillowshape.Pillowbasaltisoftengreenbecauseofareactionbetweenthelavaandthemineral-richseawater.Sometimesbasalthasgas

bubblesandthesebubbleslaterfillwithminerals,justlikeyourmini-chocolatechips.

I

CHAPTER2

MOUNTAINRANGESfyouhikeuponeofthehigherpeaksintheAppalachianMountains,theycanseemveryhigh.Butwhatyouseenowisapartofwhatthemountains

oncewere.GeologiststhinktheAppalachianscouldhavebeenashighastheHimalayas—that’s over four times as high as they are today! TheAppalachiansstretchfromMainetoAlabama.Differentsectionsformedatsomewhatdifferenttimesandindifferentways,buttogethertheyformthebackboneoftheentireEasternCoastregion.

APPALACHIANMOUNTAINSThere are numerous smallermountain ranges thatmake up the Appalachians.TheseincludetheBlueRidgeMountainsinVirginiaandNorthCarolina,andtheGreat Smoky Mountains of Tennessee and North Carolina. The CumberlandMountains stretch through Tennessee, Kentucky, Virginia, and West Virginia,and the Allegheny Mountains are in Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, andPennsylvania. In the northern section are the Catskills of New York, the

BerkshiresofMassachusetts, theWhiteMountainsofNewHampshire,andtheGreenMountainsofVermont.

AppalachiaisthesouthernpartofthemountainchaininGeorgia,Tennessee,Kentucky,Virginia,WestVirginia,NorthCarolina,andMaryland.

Moving from east towest in the southern part of theAppalachians, you’llfindthePiedmontareathatisrollinghills,thentheBlueRidgeMountains,thenthe Valley and Ridge, which includes the Alleghenies and the CumberlandMountains.Beyond is theAppalachian Plateau,which includes theAlleghenyPlateauandtheCumberlandPlateau.

DIDYOUKNOW?Somemountainranges,liketheCatskillMountainsinNewYork,areactuallyplateausthathaveerodedinplacestomakevalleysThesedissectedplateaus

givetheappearanceofmountains.

The Appalachian Mountains are some of the oldest mountains on Earth.You’llfindthreemajortypesofrocksintheAppalachians,dependingonwhenandhowtheyformed.

The oldest rocks are usually metamorphic rocks, which were originallysedimentaryorigneousrocks.Theywereburiedoverabillionyearsagowhencontinents crashed together. Old Rag Mountain in Virginia has beautifulexamples of these old metamorphic rocks, with rounded peaks and lots ofboulders. These are often called basement rocks because they’re like thebasement in a house. Just like the foundation of a house is poured first, thesebasementrocksformedfirst,andtheyholdeverythingelseup.

Thenvolcanicrocksformedwhenthecontinentsriftedapart.Lavabubbledout through rifts in the crust and cooled to formbasalt.One lava flow cooledbefore thenexteruption.Asa result, the landscapeoften looks likeastaircasebuilt intosteepcliffs.Later,whenthebasaltmetamorphosed, thenewmineralsthat formedhadagreenish tint.These rocksare calledgreenstonesbecauseoftheircolor.

DIDYOUKNOW?TheAppalachianMountainswereanaturalbarrierforpeopletravelingwest.DanielBoonewasanexplorer,furtrapper,andfolkherointhelate1700sIn

1775,DanielBooneblazedatrailthroughtheCumberlandGapintheAppalachiansinVirginiaandTennesseetoKentucky.Atfirstitwasjustapath,butitwaslaterwidenedtoatrack,calledtheWildernessRoad,thatwagons

couldcross.TheWildernessRoadallowedsettlerstoreachKentuckyandareasfartherwest.

StonyManPeakinShenandoahNationalParkinVirginiaisagoodexampleofagreenstonestaircase.

Finally,theyoungestrocksaresedimentaryrocksthatformedasanewoceanwas forming across eastern North America. Calvary Rocks Peak in Virginiacontainsexamplesofthesesteep-slopedsedimentaryrocks.

Althoughmanyrocksoriginallyformedindifferentenvironments,themain

event that actually pushed the rocks into mountains was the AppalachianOrogeny As North America collided with Africa, the rocks were jammedtogetherandpushedupward.Rocks foldedand faulted fiercely.As rockswereburied,thepressureandincreasedheatchangedthemintodifferentrocks,whichiscalledmetamorphism.

Thesemetamorphosedrocksareoftenharderandlessresistanttoerosion.

WEATHERINGANDEROSIONThe rocks we see today at the tops of the Appalachian Mountains were farbeneath the surfaceof theearthwhen themountainsweremuchhigher.Theserocks were exposed as the mountains eroded. And they’re still being erodedevery day. How does this happen? Through a process called weathering anderosion.

Weathering is when rocks are broken down from large pieces into smallpieces. This happens by physical processes or chemical processes. Erosion iswhenthesmallerrockpiecesaremovedaway.Oncerocksarebrokendown,thesmaller pieces are eroded away bymoving water, glaciers, or gravity—eitherfallingorslowlycreepingdownhill.

Therearemanyphysicalprocessesthatbreakdownrocks.Arockcanfallorrubagainstanotherrock.Orarockcanbreakdownfromwind,water,orice,orfrom pushing by strong tree and plant roots. Chemical processes also breakdown rocks, such aswhenacidic water flows over a rock. Taste plain lemonjuice and the acid in itwillmake yourmouth pucker!All rainfall is naturallyslightly acidic because carbon dioxide in the air reacts with water to formcarbonicacid.

acidic:fromacids,whicharechemicalcompoundsthattastesour.Examplesarevinegarandlemonjuice.Wateralsocontainssomeacid.

carbondioxide:agasformedbytherottingofplantsandanimals,andwhenanimalsbreatheout.

DIDYOUKNOW?TheAppalachianTrailrunsfromMountKatahdininMainetoSpringer

MountaininGeorgia,andpassesthrough14states.Itisabout2,181mileslong(3,510kilometers).EarlyNativeAmericanscreatedsectionsofthetrail.Theofficialtrailwasestablishedin1937.A“through-hiker”issomeonewhohikes

thewholetrailinoneseason,usuallyfromaroundMarchtoOctober.Somesectionsareextremelysteep,andhikersmustholdontotreesandrootswhile

climbing.

Thedrip-dropof rainor theslowmovementofglaciersmaynotseemlikeenough to erodemountains 20,000 feet high (6,000meters) down to less than5,000feet(1,500meters),butthat’sexactlywhathashappened.BecauseintheAppalachians,there’sbeenplentyoftime—thelastingredientneededforerosiontooccur!

HIGHMOUNTAINSThehighest “mountain” above sea level in each stateof the region is listedbelow.Youmightnotice that somestates lista“hill”or“azimuth”or“highpoint”becausetheydon’treallyhaveanymountains.TherearefivestatesinAmericathathaveahighestpointthatislessthan1,000feetabovesealevel(305meters),andallofthemareintheEasternCoastregion.

Alabama CheahaMountain 2,405feet(733meters)Arkansas MagazineMountain 2,753feet(840meters)Connecticut Mt.Frissell—Slope 2,380feet(725meters)Delaware EbrightAzimuth 448feet(137meters)Florida BrittonHill 345feet(105meters)Georgia BrasstownBald 4,784feet(1458meters)Kentucky BlackMountain 4,139feet(1,262meters)Louisiana DriskillMountain 535feet(163meters)Maine Mt.Katahdin 5,267feet(1,605meters)Maryland BackboneMountain 3,360feet(1,024meters)Massachusetts Mt.Greylock 3,487feet(1,063meters)Mississippi WoodallMountain 806feet(246meters)NewHampshire Mt.Washington 6,288feet(1,917meters)NewJersey HighPoint 1,803feet(550meters)NewYork Mt.Marcy 5,344feet(1,629meters)NorthCarolina Mt.Mitchell 6,684feet(2,037meters)Pennsylvania Mt.Davis 3,213feet(979meters)RhodeIsland JerimothHill 812feet(247meters)SouthCarolina SassafrasMountain 3,560feet(1,085meters)

Tennessee ClingmansDome 6,643feet(2,025meters)Vermont Mt.Mansfield 4,393feet(1,339meters)Virginia Mt.Rogers 5,729feet(1,746meters)WestVirginia SpruceKnob 4,861feet(1,482meters)

GREATSMOKYMOUNTAINSNATIONALPARK

GreatSmokyMountainsNationalPark,ontheborderbetweenTennesseeandNorth Carolina, is America’s most visited park. It contains very oldmountains,withlotsofmetamorphicrocks.TheGreatSmokiescontainmanyhigh mountains, with one stretch running for 36 miles (58 kilometers), allabove 5,000 feet (1,500 meters). The highest peak is Clingmans Dome at6,643feet(2,000meters)

old-growthforest:aforestthatisveryold.

habitat:thenaturalareawhereaplantoranimallives.

biodiversity:therangeoflivingthingsinanarea.

species:agroupofplantsoranimalsthatarerelatedandlooklikeeachother.

organism:anylivingthing.

The park gets lots of rain, with about 55 inches per year in the valleys (140centimeters)and85inchesperyearinthepeaks(215centimeters).ThisismorerainthananywhereelseintheUnitedStatesexceptthePacificNorthwest.Withallthatrain,plantsthrive.Almostalloftheparkisforest,andonequarterofthatisold-growthforest.

Because of changes in elevation, the Great Smokies contains lots of different

habitats. This means that the park has an incredible biodiversity. Scientistshavefoundmanydifferentplantsandanimalsinthepark:•Over17,000speciesoforganisms,andscientiststhinktheremaybeasmanyas80,000more!

• Over 100 species of trees, which is more than there are in all of northernEurope.

•1,600speciesoffloweringplants.

•66 speciesofmammals, includinggrayand red foxes, coyotes,woodchucks,opossums,skunks,andbobcats.About1,500blackbearsliveinthepark.

•200speciesofbirdsand50speciesoffish.

•Atleast30speciesofsalamanders.

larvae:thewormlikestageofaninsect’slife.

Great SmokyMountains National Park has 17 species of fireflies. A firefly is a type of beetle thatflashesa light from itsbelly toattractamate. Ifyou live in theEasternCoast region,youmight seefirefliesonwarmsummereveningsasflashesoflightaroundyourbackyard.

One species of firefly in the Great Smokies is special. For about two weeks in June, synchronousfireflies flash inunison, all at the same time.Fireflies spendmostof their life—up to twoyears—aslarvae, before turning into an adult beetle.And then they only live as a beetle for 21 days,withouteatingthewholetime!

Fireflies are bothered by bright lights. To watch fireflies, whether in the Smokies or in your ownbackyard,coveryourflashlightwithredorbluecellophane.Onlyuseyourflashlightwhenyouhavetoandpointitattheground.It’sbestnottocatchfirefliessoyoudon’taccidentallyhurtthem.

Great Smoky Mountains National Park is called the “Salamander Capital of the World.” Manysalamandersdon’tbreathelikeyouandIdo.Theybreathethroughtheirskin!

Thereare24speciesofsalamandersthatdon’thavelungs.Theyexchangeoxygenthroughthewallsoftiny blood vessels in their skin and linings of their mouths and throats. You can find lunglesssalamandersalongstreams,andunderleavesandlogs.Theirskinismoistandtheyneedtoliveinwetenvironments.The Great SmokyMountains are the perfect place for these salamanders. The largestsalamandersintheparkarehellbenders,whichgrowaslongasanaverage15-month-oldtoddleristall.That’s2feetlong(61centimeters)!

MAKEYOUROWNFOLDEDMOUNTAINS

SUPPLIES•atleast3colorsofplayclay•rollingpin

•tableknife

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Rollout eachcolorof clay into the size and shapeof avery largepancake,about ¼ inch thick (½ centimeter). If you have enough clay, roll out extra

layers.Stackthelayersontopofeachother,alternatingcolors.

Placeyourhandson theoutsideedgesof thestackandgentlypush towardsthemiddle.Theclayshouldforminto2or3folds.Youmayhavetoliftthe

middleuptohelpitformthefolds.It’sokayifthefoldsflopoverabitontheirsides.Thisisliketwotectonicplatescollidingandforcingthecrusttofold.

Rotate the foldedclay90degrees.Repeat step2so thatyouare folding thefolds.Youwillneedtoliftthemiddletoformthesecondfold.Theclayshould

haveroughdomeshapes.

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Withthetableknife,sliceoffthetop½inchofthedomes(1centimeter).Howdothelayersofclaylook?Tryslicingverticallyalongonesideofthedome.

Thentryslicingatanangle.Thisisliketheerosionofrocks.

Trythisagainwithnewclaybutexperimentwithdifferentwaysoffoldingtheclay.

WHAT’SHAPPENING?

Whentectonicplatesareonthemove,rocksareoftenburiedatgreatdepthswhereit’smuchhotter.Whenforcesactonthesehotrocks,theycanfold,just

likeyourclay.

Often,rocksgetpushedfromdifferentdirectionsovertime.Whenthathappens,foldsintherockscangetre-folded,whichiscalledsuperposedfolding.Thisiswhathappenedwhenyoure-foldedyourclay.Then,whentherocksarelaterupliftedabovethegroundanderoded,thefoldsandrocklayerscanlook

differentdependingonwheretheerosionhappened.Thesamethinghappenedwhenyoucuttheclayatdifferentangles.

TheAppalachianMountainshaveundergonefoldingfromforcesindifferent

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directions.Manyofthesefoldsareexposedthroughoutthemountainchaininroadcutsandotherareas.

MAKEYOUROWNWEATHERINGSTATION

Haveanadultsuperviseasglasscanbreak.

SUPPLIES•glassjarwithlid(onethatyoudon’tmindbreaking)•coldtapwater

•gallon-sizeplasticresealablefreezerbag(3.8liters)•freezer

Filltheglassjarwithcoldtapwaterallthewaytothetop.Tightlysealthejarwiththelid.Thereshouldbenopocketsofair.

Placethejarinthefreezerbagandsealthebag.Placethejarandbaginthecoldestpartofthefreezerovernight.

3Withanadult’shelp,carefullyremovethebagandjar.Whatdoyounotice?Wrapthejarandbaginadditionalbagsorpaperanddisposeofitinthetrash.

WHAT’SHAPPENING?

Ifyoufreezealiquiditturnsintoasolid.Usually,asolidtakesuplessspacethanaliquid.Butwaterisunusualbecauseitexpandswhenitbecomesasolid.Whenyoufrozethewaterinthejar,itexpandedandexertedenoughpressureon

theglasstobreakit!

Frostactionisoneofthewaysthatweatheringbreaksrocksintopieces.First,waterseepsintotinycracksinrocks.Whenthetemperaturedropsbelow

freezing,thewaterfreezes.Justlikeinyourjar,thewaterexpandsasitfreezesandexertsgreatpressureontherock.Thiswidensthesmallcracks.VWhentheicemelts,watercanseepevenfartherintotherock.Whenthishappensoverand

over,evenhugeboulderscanbereducedtopebblesovertime.

T

CHAPTER3

EARTHQUAKESANDRESOURCEShe forces of the earth can cause extreme hazards, or create greatresources.Have you ever felt an earthquake?You don’t hear about it

often, but earthquakes periodically shake things up inmany parts of theEasternRegion. There are also abundant resources, such as coal, oil andnaturalgas.

coal:adarkbrownorblackrockformedfromdecayedplants.Coalisusedasafuel.

oil: a thick dark liquid that occurs naturally beneath the earth. Oil can beseparatedintomanyproducts,includinggasolineandotherfuels.

EARTHQUAKES!

Whenstressbuildsupinrocks,theycansuddenlylurchintoanewposition.Thatiurchingiscalledanearthquake.Mostearthquakeshappendongfaults,whichrecracksintheouterlayeroftheearthcalledthelithosphere.

Richterscale:ascaleusedtomeasurethestrengthofanearthquake.

seismicwave: a wave of energy generated from an earthquake. Thewavetravelsthroughtheearth.

DIDYOUKNOW?OnMarch11,2011,anearthquakeoffthecoastofJapanmeasured9.0ontheRichterscale.Itwasthefourth-largestearthquakesincetheear1900.ButtheearthquakeinHaitionJanuary12,2010,wasmoredevastatingbecauseit

happenedclosetoalargecitywheremostofthebuildingswerepoorlybuiltandcollapsed.Itrinjuredorkilledhundredsofthousandsofpeople.

Whenanearthquakehappens,itreleaseshugeamountsofenergy.Wavesof

energytraveloutinalldirectionsasseismicwaves.It’sabitlikewhenyoutossalargerockintoapond.Theripplesofwaterspreadoutinalldirections.

HOWBIGISTHATEARTHQUAKE?Earthquakes are measured mainly by their magnitude. Magnitude is thestrength of an earthquake and is recorded on the Richter scale. When themeasurementincreasesby1,themagnitudeincreasesby10.Soanearthquakethatmeasures8.0is10timesaspowerfulasanearthquakethatmeasures7.0.Here are some typical effects that people might feel near the epicenter ofearthquakes of variousmagnitudes. This is the point on the earth’s surfacedirectlyabovethelocationoftheearthquake.

MagnitudeontheRichterScale WhatitFeelsLike HowOftenTheyOccurin

theWorldBelow3.0 Youusuallycan’tfeelit. 1,000perday

3.0to3.9 Youcanfeelaslighttrembling,butthereisnodamage. Over100perday

4.0to4.9 Tablesandchairsrattle. About20perday

5.0to6.9 Somedamagetobuildings,especiallyifthey’repoorlybuilt. About3perday

7.0to7.9 Seriousdamagetobuildings,withsomedestroyed. 18peryear

8.0to8.9 Seriousdamageforseveralhundredmiles. 1peryear

9.0to9.9 Devastating,affectingpeopleforthousandsofmiles. 1per20years

10.0andup Neverrecorded. ?

NEWMADRIDSEISMICZONEDoyouknowwhichstateintheUnitedStateshadtheearthquakethataffectedthe largest area in recorded history?Do you think ofCalifornia? It’s true thatCalifornia has lots of earthquakes.But the earthquake that affected the largestareahappenedinNewMadrid,Missouri.ThisiswheretheEasternCoastregionmeetstheGreatPlainsregioninthecenterofthecountry.

TheNewMadridSeismicZone isasystemof faults right in themiddleoftheNorthAmericanPlate.TheareaiswhereMissouri,Kentucky,Arkansas,and

Tennessee meet. There are several faults here about 150 miles long (241kilometers), fromArkansas to southern Illinois. In 1811 and 1812, therewerethreehugeearthquakesalongthesefaultsthatmeasuredbetween7.5and8.0ontheRichterscale.

Sincetheyhappenedbeforethereweremoderninstrumentstomeasureearthquakes,scientistshavetoestimatetheirstrengthbasedonnewspaper

reportsandbylookingatchargesintherocks.

These were the largest quakes east of the Rocky Mountains in recordedhistory.TheywerefeltfartherthanmuchlargeronesinAlaskabecausetheolder,colderrocksinthecratontransmitseismicwavesfarther.Peoplefeltthemfromthe Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean and from Canada to Mexico.Sidewalks buckled in Baltimore, Maryland, and chimneys fell down in

Cincinnati,Ohio.ChurchbellsranginBoston,Massachusetts.

DIDYOUKNOWWhentheAugust2011earthquakehitinVirginia,peopleimmediatelybegansending“tweets,”theshortelectronicmessagessentbythemessageservice

Twitter.ThetweetsactuallyreachedpeopleinNewYorkCity40secondsbeforetheseismicwavesdid!TheU.S.GeologicalSurvey(USGS)monitors

earthquakesusingseismometers,whichcantakeupto20minutestogenerateanalertofanearthquake.TheSUSGSisnowexperimentingwithTwitterasafast

andcheaperwaytotrackearthquakes.

InWashington,D.C.,President JamesMadisonandhiswifeDolly thoughtsomeonewasrobbingtheWhiteHouse.AndthebanksoftheMississippiRivercollapsed.Insomeplaces theearth tiltedsomuchthat theriverranbackwardsforawhile!

seismograph:aninstrumentthatmeasurestheintensityofaseismicwave.

Willanother“BigOne”happen?Theonlyquestioniswhen.Eachyearthereare about 500,000 earthquakes that are detectable by seismographs. About100,000canbefeltbyhumans,butonly100actuallycausedamage.IntheareaofNewMadrid, thereareearthquakesonmostdays,butyouusuallycan’tfeelthem.

EARTHQUAKESINVIRGINIA?OnAugust23,2011, touristsstood500feetupon theobservationdeckof theWashington Monument (152 meters). As they looked out on the city ofWashington,D.C.,theyfeltthefloorbeneaththemshake.Chipsofstonestartedfallingfromtheceiling.Itwasanearthquake!

TheWashingtonMonumentshookviolentlyandthevisitorsraceddownthesteps to the ground. Everyone got down safely, but the monument now hascracksontheoutsideandlotsofdamagedstoneontheinside.

Peopleon theEastCoast aren’t used to earthquakes.Thisone, centered incentralVirginia,was5.8ontheRichterscale,thelargestinVirginiasince1897.EarthquakesinthecentralandeasternUnitedStatesoccurmuchlessfrequentlythanintheWest,andthey’reusuallyofsmallermagnitude.

The2011.Virginiaearthquakeprobablyoccurredalongveryoldfaults.ThewaveofenergytraveledroughlyalongtheAppalachianMountains–northeastandsouthwest.ItwasfeltasfarawayasNewYorkCity,Missouri,Canada,and

Georgia.

BIGEARTHQUAKESINTHEPASTAsignificantearthquakeusuallyleavesarecordofitintherocks.Geologistscanread that record, like youwould read a book. They look closely at faults thathavemovedinthepast10,000years.Thesearethebestpredictorsofwhenandwhereearthquakesmightoccurinthefuture.Whatdogeologistslookfor?

Paleoliquefaction is evidenceof liquefaction thathasoccurred in thepast.Liquefactioniswhensoilflowslikealiquid,usuallyduetoalargeearthquake.Thevibrations loosenthewater-filledsoilandbreakthegrain-to-graincontact.Sometimesthesand“boils”whentheliquefiedsandburststhroughsurfaceclayandspillsout.TheNewMadridearthquakesproducedlotsofsandboilsbecause,overmillionsofyears,theMississippiRiverhasdepositedhugeamountsofsandcovered over by clay. Scientists can see these circular areas of sand boils inpicturestakenfromtheair.

Stalagmitesareanotherclue.Thesearecave formations that scientists canstudytodateanearthquake.Stalagmitesgrowslowlywhendripsofwaterfilledwith minerals fall on the ground of a cave and slowly build up. If the earthmoves in an earthquake, the source of the drip moves too. That makes thegrowthofthestalagmiteshift,andyoucanseewhereitchanges.Scientistscutpaper-thin slices where the change happened and analyze the minerals to tellwhenthecrystalsformed.Thisisthedateoftheearthquake.

cave: anaturalundergroundopeningconnected to the surface, largeenoughforapersontoenter.

fossilfuels:oil,naturalgas,andcoal,whicharenaturalfuelsthatformedlongagofromtheremainsoflivingorganisms.

naturalgas:acolorless,odorlessgasusedasafuel.

fossil:theremainsortracesofancientplantsoranimals.

DIDYOUKNOWTheUSGSshowsearthquakesintheUnitedStatesforthelastsevendaysonits

website:Barthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes.Thereareusuallydotsforearthquakesaroundthe“bootheel”inthesoutheastcornerofMissouriforthe

NewMadridSeismicZone.

NATURALRESOURCESTherearethreemajortypesoffossilfuels—coal,oil,andnaturalgas,and theEasternCoastregionhasplentyofallthree.They’recalledfossilfuelsbecausejustlikefossils,theyformedlong,longagofromlivingorganisms.

Mostfossilfuelsformedhundredsofmillionsofyearsago—evenbeforethedinosaurs.Manyareaswerecoveredwithswamps,hugetrees,andotherplants.There were also shallow inland seas with tiny floating sea creatures calledplankton.

Coal,oil,andnaturalgasallformthroughasimilarprocess.First,plantsorplankton die and sink to the bottom of the swamp or ocean. Layers of thisorganicmaterial build up and are covered by sediments. Asmore andmorelayers of sediments and organic material build up, heat and pressure turn theorganicmaterial into coal, oil, or natural gas.The difference is in the originalmaterial. Coal comes from trees or plants, and oil and gas are formed fromplankton.

organicmaterial:matterthathascomefromorganisms.

carbon:anelementfoundinalllivingthings.

mine:todigsomethingoutoftheground.

COALCoalisablackrockthatismademostlyofcarbon.Itcanbeburnedtoproduceheatandelectricity.ThefirstknownuseofcoalwasinChinaabout3,000yearsago.

Coalcanbeminedbysinkingtunnels,knownasshafts,deepunderground.Elevatorstakecoalminerstothebottomoftheshaftstodigthecoal.Coalisalsomined in strip mines where the layers above the coal are stripped away bymachines. Most of the mines in the East are underground mines reached by

shafts,becausethecoalisdeepbeneaththesurface.

ALOSTTOWNCentralia,Pennsylvania,isatownthatwasburnedoutofexistence.Thelandbeneaththetownbeganburningin1962,whenafiresomehowstartednearanabandoned coalmine.Miners can never extract all of the coal from a coalmine,andsomeisalwaysleftbehind.Ifthatremainingcoalcatchesonfire,itisdifficulttoputoutbecauseit’sburningunderground.

People in Centralia slowly became aware of the fire beneath their feet. In1981, a sinkhole 4 feetwide and150 feet deep opened in a backyard (justover1meterwideand46metersdeep).A12-year-oldboyfellin.Luckily,hiscousincametohisrescue.After30yearsofslowburning, thestateclaimedthetownin1992anddemolishedanyremainingbuildings.Afewyearslater,theUnitedStatesPostal Service took away the town’s postal zip code.Thefireisstillburningandscientiststhinkitmayburnforhundredsofyears.

sinkhole:aholeordepression in the land,normallycausedbyerosion intheunderlyingrock.Sinkholescanswallowcarsorevenhomes.

CoalhasbeenminedthroughouttheAppalachianMountainssincethe1700s.Today,coalisstillminedinWestVirginia,Kentucky,andPennsylvania.Atfirst,peopleusedpicksandshovels,butlateinthe1800s,theystartedusingmachinestocutintothecoal.

Althoughsafetyhas improved,coalmining is still adangerous job.Peoplecan be hurt or even die from explosions, cave-ins, or gas poisoning. In 1907,3,200workersdied in coalmining accidents.Today, about30peopledie each

year mining coal in the United States. There’s still a lot to be done to keepworkerssafe.

OILANDNATURALGASOilisalsocalledpetroleum.Thisthickliquidisusedasafuelforheating,andtopowerfactoriesandcars.Oilandnaturalgasarefoundinpocketsbetweenlayersofrock.Theyare lessdense thanothermaterials,andslowlyrise throughrocklayersuntil they reacha layer that traps theoil andgas.Oilwas firstpumpedfromawellinTitusville,Pennsylvania,onAugust27,1859.

rawmaterial:amaterialthatcanbeusedtomakeaneworusefulproduct.

technology:tools,methods,andsystemsusedtosolveaproblemordowork.

horizontaldrilling:drillingforoilorgaswherethewellishorizontalorclose

tohorizontal.

hydraulic fracturing: a process where liquids are pumped down a well athighpressuretoforcethesurroundingrocktofracture,orcrack.

Maybeyourfamilyusesnaturalgastoheatyourhomeoryourwater.Naturalgas is also burned to produce electricity, and used as a raw material. It isusuallyfoundnearoildepositsandformsinasimilarwaytooil.Itcanalsobefoundinlayersofshale,whichisasedimentaryrock.Theseshalelayersformedmore than 300 million years ago, when shallow seas covered much of theinteriorofNorthAmerica.Organicmatterwasburiedwithfinesediments.Thesedimentsturnedintoshale,andtheorganicmatterbecamenaturalgas.

Itusedtobetoodifficulttoextractnaturalgasfrommostshale.Thelayersofshalearedeepbeneaththesurface,andthegasistightlyboundintheshaleanddoesn’t releaseeasily.But people have developed new technologies to extractthe natural gas. Two things make this possible: horizontal drilling andhydraulicfracturing.

Drillers firstdrillverticallydown toa littleabovewhere theshale layer is.Then thepipes slowly curveuntil they are horizontal and running through theshale layer.Tiny holes are in sections of the pipe.Usinghydraulic fracturing,waterisforcedthroughthetinyholesatextremelyhighpressure—strongenoughto fracture, or “frack” the surrounding rock for hundreds of feet. The cracksreleasethenaturalgas,whichflowsupthepipetothesurface.Itiscollectedandtransferredbypipelinetostoragetanksuntilitisused.

These “fracking” techniques have been used in a huge area called theMarcellusShale.Thisisalayerofshalecontainingnaturalgasdeepbeneaththesurfaceof theearth. It runs fromNewYork throughPennsylvania,Ohio,WestVirginia,Maryland,andVirginia,andisoneofthelargestareasofnaturalgasintheworld.Anevenlargerareaofnaturalgas,theUticaShale,isevendeeperand

extendsabitfartherwestintoOhio.

DIDYOUKNOW?ThefirstnaturalgaswellfromshaleintheUnitedStateswasinFredonia,NewYork,in1821.UnlikemorerecentdrillingintheMarcellusShale,shalewellsat

thattimewereshallow.

ThesetwonaturalgasregionswillmaketheUnitedStatesoneofthelargestproducersofnaturalgasintheworld.

OFFSHOREDRILLINGWhatdodrillersfacewhentheydrilloffshore,deepundertheocean?Almost-freezing water. Extreme pressure. Uncertain and sometimes dangerousweather.Drillscango7,000feetunderwater(2,100meters), thendeep into

theearth.Mostoffshoreoilwells are in shallowerwater (less than500 feetdeepor150meters),wherethedrillingplatformcanbeattachedtotheoceanfloor.Butnewerdrillingtechniqueshavealloweddrillinginverydeepwater,wherethegiantdrillrigsactuallyfloatonthewater.

Oilwellshavebeendrilledunderwatersincethelate1800s,butit’sonlysincethe1930sthatwellshavebeendrilledintheGulfofMexico.TherearewellsofftheshoresofFlorida,Alabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,andTexas.

DEEPWATERHORIZONOILSPILLOnApril20,2010at9:45pm,ageyserofwatererupted240 feet (73meters)into theairontheDeepwaterHorizondrillingplatformin theGulfofMexico.Then came an eruption of natural gas that caught fire, causing a series ofexplosions and a huge fireball. Eleven people died in the explosion. The fireburned for 36 hours, then the entire rig sank Oil from the well gushed deepunderwaterforthreemonths.ItwasthelargestoffshoreoilspillinthehistoryoftheUnitedStates.

DIDYOUKNOW?Weput“gas”inourcartomakeitrun,butthatkindofgasisshortforgasoline,andit’sactuallyaliquidthatcomesfromoil.Naturalgas,likeair,isagas.

geyser:aliquidshootinghighintotheair.

eruption:aviolentexplosionofgas,steam,orash.

TheDeepwaterHorizonwasanextremelydeepwell.Itwentthrough4,132feetofwater(1,259meters),then35,050feetofrock(10,683meters).

microbes:ahugevarietyoflivingcreaturesthataresosmalltheycanonlybeseenwithamicroscope.

When a pipe breaks off in very deepwater, it’s hard to stop the oil leak.There’sagiantshut-offvalvecalledablowoutpreventer,whichissupposedtostoptheflowofoilandcapthewellifthere’saproblem.Forsomereason,theblowout preventer didn’twork on theDeepwaterHorizon, and the oil gushedintotheocean.

It’s very difficult to cap off awell if the blowout preventer doesn’twork.And in extremelydeepwater, it’s evenharder.Thepressure is sogreat at thatdepththatitwouldcrushahumanlikecrumplingpaper.Thetemperaturesaresocold that thewater isalmost freezing.And if that isn’tenough,oceancurrentscanbepowerfulatthebottomoftheocean.

Tiny blobs of oil naturally seep into the ocean all the time. Normally,microbesandsunlightbreakitdown.Butmicrobesandsunlightcan’tkeepupwithall theoil froma spill, and itbuildsup.Becauseoilmostly floatson thesurfaceoftheoceanafteraspill,itspreadsoutinathinlayerthatishardtocleanup.Andtheoilisharmfultowildlife.

OilWell

Bird feathers get coated in oil,making it hard for them to float and staywarm.Seaturtlesandmarinemammalsbecomecoatedwithoil.Marinemammalssometimesswallowoil.Seacoralsarecoatedwithoilanddie.

ThecompanythatownsDeepwaterHorizonisworkingwithscientiststocleanup themess, and to helpprotect and restorewildlife harmedby the spill.ThewarmwatersoftheGulfhelptobreakdowntheoilfasterthanifithadspilledincolderwater.Butthebestsolutionistopreventspillsbeforetheyhappen.

Somepeoplethinkthatdrillingforoilintheocean,especiallyindeepwater,istooriskyforhumansandtheenvironment.Manybelieveitshouldbebanned.Others think that we need to keep drilling so we don’t have to rely on othercountriesforoil.Theythinkweneedtofigureoutwhatwentwrongandchangehowweoperatetopreventspills.Whatdoyouthink?Howwouldyoufindoutmoretodecide?

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MAKEYOUROWNFRPCKINGHOSECAUTION:Haveanadulthelpwiththehammering.

SUPPLIES•old,unusedgardenhose

•nail

•hammer

•capforagardenhose

•outdoorwaterspigot

Askyourparents if there is anunusedgardenhoseyoucanuse.Youmightalsofindoneatayardsale.It’sfineifitleaks.

Findtheendthatattachestothewaterspigot.Afewfeetfromthatend(about1meter),hammerthenailintothehosewithanadult’shelp.Pulloutthenail

andmove it about 2 inches away (5 centimeters).Make a hole about every 2inchesuntilyoureach theend.Tightly screw thehosecaponto theendof thehose.

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Attachthehosetothespigot.Turnthespigotonatfullpressure.Wheredoesthewatergo?Whydoyouthinkthewaterspraysuphighinsteadofdribbling

outoftheholes?

Youcanreuseyourhoseasasoakerhosetosteadilywatergardenplants.Burythehoseundersoilormulchnexttoplants,andturnthewateronlow.Itwill

slowlywateryourplants.

WHAT’SHAPPENING?Frackingworksalotlikeyourhose,onlyatmuchhigherpressures.Waterisforcedthroughholesinthedrillpipesatextremelyhighpressure—enoughto

fracture,or“frack”thesurroundingrock.

MAKEYOUROWNEARTHQUAKEWAVES

SUPPLIES•1sheetofposterboard2feetby3feet(about60by90centimeters)

Grab the posterboard with both hands on one end. While standing, gentlyshaketheposterboard.Doesitmovelikeawave?

2Make several creases in the posterboard.The creases should be in differentdirections—someparalleltothesideyouheld,andsomeatadiagonal.Grab

oneendoftheposterboardagainandshakeit.Doesitmovethesame?Howisitdifferent?

WHAT’SHAPPENING?Whenyoufirstshooktheposterboardwithoutcreases,itwasabitlikewhenearthquakeshappenintheeasternUnitedStates.Therearen’tasmanyfaultsthere,soseismicwavestravelwithoutbeinginterrupted.Whenyoushooktheposterboardwithcreases,itwasmorelikeearthquakesinthewesternUnitedStates.Therearemanyfaultsthroughoutthewest,whichinterrupttheseismicwaves.Also,rocksintheEastaregenerallyolderandcolder,whichallows

seismicwavestotravelfarther.

MAKEYOUROWNOILSPILL

SUPPLIES•large,shallowbakingdish

•water

•tablespoon

•oliveoil

•cleancraftfeather

•widebowl

•dishdetergent

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Fill the baking dish about 2 inches deep with water. Slowly pour 1tablespoonfulofoilontopofthewater.Whatdoestheoildo?

Holdingthefeatheroverthesink,gentlypourwateroverthefeather.Runyourfingersthroughthefeather.Dotheindividualbranchesseparateandfluffasit

begins todry?Now swish the feather in the oil in the baking dish so that thefeatheriscoatedinoil.Dotheindividualbranchesseparateandfluffnow?

Fill the bowlwithwater. Pour one tablespoonful of detergent into the bowlandstir.Soakthefeatherinthemixtureandgentlyworkthedetergentthrough

the feather’s brancheswithyour fingers.As the feather dries, do thebranchesseparateandfluff?

WHAT’SHAPPENING?Oilandwaterdon’tmix,andoilislessdensethanwater.Sowhenoilisspilledintheoceanorrivers,theoilspreadsoutintoathinlayerthatcoatsthewater.Wildlife,especiallybirds,canbecomecoatedinoilastheyenterthewater.Itmakesitdifficultforbirdstostaywarmbecauseoil-coatedfeathersdon’t

insulatewell.Scientistscansometimeshelpbirdsrecoverbycarefullycleaningtheirfeathersusingdetergent.Andhowdotheycleanupanoilspill?It’snot

easy.Trycleaningupyourspillwithdifferentmaterials,suchassponges,papertowels,andnets.

CHAPTER4

PLAINSPlateaus and plains stretch for miles and miles east and west of theAppalachianMountains.Sometimes rollinghills, andother times flat as apancake,theymakeupmostofthelandscapeandcoverallorpartofeverystate in the region. In some states, like Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi,Delaware,andRhodeIsland, it’sallyou’ll find.Theplainsgivetheregionitsbeautifulbeaches,fertilefarmland,andincrediblebayousandswamps.

plain:alargeareaofflatland.

fertile:landthatisgoodforgrowingplants.

bayou:atermusedmainlyinMississippiandLouisianafortheswampyarmorslow-movingoutletofalake.

COASTALPLAINS, PIEDMONT,

ANDINTERIORPLAINSThe coastal plain stretches from the eastern edge of New Jersey down theAtlantic coast, wrapping around Florida along the Gulf Coast. This area liesbetweentheAppalachianMountainsandtheocean.

bedrock:solidrockunderloosematerialsuchassoil,sand,clay,orgravel.

floodplain: anarea arounda shallowwinding riverwhere the land is lowerthanotherareas.

The bedrock on the coastal plain is mostly sedimentary rock that wasdepositedwhentheareawascoveredbytheocean.Latertheregionwasuplifted,and it tiltsslightly towards thesea.Thecoastalplainalsohasmanysedimentslikegravel,sand,andclayontopofthebedrock.

SedimentshavebeenstrippedfromtheAppalachianMountainsandcarriedeastbyrivers.

Inthepast,thesealevelwaslowerandthecoastalplainalsoincludedareasthatarenowcoveredbyseawater.AnexampleofthisistheChesapeakeBayinMaryland,whichusedtobeafloodplainoftheSusquehannaRiver.

FromNewJerseytocentralAlabama,thePiedmontregionrunsbetweenthecoastal plain and the AppalachianMountains. The Piedmont is a plateau thatformed alongwith theAppalachianMountains as continents crashed together.Theareahassinceerodedawaytoformrollinghills.

DIDYOUKNOW?ThehighestpointinFloridaisonly345feethigh(105meters),andaverage

elevationisonly98feetabovesealevel(30meters).

Millions of years ago, a shallow sea swept into the interior part of thecountry and covered the central part of the continent to the west of theAppalachian Mountains. The sea advanced and receded many times, whichdepositedflatlayersofyoungersedimentaryrocks.Theseinteriorplainsincludethe western sections of Tennessee and Kentucky, the northern section ofAlabama,andthewesternsectionofNewYork.

CAVES!TheEasternCoastregionhasthousandsofcavesofallshapesandsizes.Someare just a shallow hollow in the earth, while others wind for tens or evenhundredsofmilesintotaldarkness.

limestone:atypeofrockthatoftenformsfromtheshellsofseaanimals.

SomeofthemorefamouscavesintheregionareMammothCaveinKentucky,LurayCavernsinVirginia,andRussellCaveinAlabama.

Mostofthemarelimestonecaves.Layersoflimestoneweredepositedwhena shallow sea covered the interior of North America. Limestone was alsodepositedallalongthecoastalplainregionwhensealevelswerehigher.

Limestoneisatypeofrockthatdissolvesinslightlyacidicwater.Itoftenhascracks in it, and rainwater seeps into these cracks. The acid in the rainwaterslowlydissolvestherock,makingthecrackswider.Insomecaves,astreamcantravel through the limestone until it finds an outlet, eroding even more rockalongtheway.Eventually,partoftheroofcancollapse,whichformscaverns.

cavern:averylargecaveorsystemofinterconnectedcaves.

speleothem:adistinctivecaveformation,suchasastalactiteorstalagmite.

LargeareasoftheEasternCoastregionhavewhatiscalledakarstlandscape.That is where the bedrock is limestone that has been dissolved, formingsinkholes, sinkingstreams,andcaves.Fromanairplane, akarst landscapecanlookpockmarked.Nearlyhalfofthecoastalplainhasthistypeoflandscape.

CAVEFORMATIONSOncecavernsform,caveformationsofallshapesandsizescandevelopthatlooklike teeth, columns, curtains, pearls, and beards! These cave formations arecalledspeleothems.Asrainwaterseeps through limestoneanddissolves it, thelimestonedoesn’tdisappear—it’s just in thewater.Whenwaterdrips from theceilingofacave,averysmallbitoflimestoneisleftbehind.Dropbydrop,hugespeleothemsform.Maybeyou’veseenpicturesofstalactitesandstalagmites.

Thekindofspeleothemformeddependsmainlyonwhetherthewaterdrips,trickles, or seeps into the cave. Here are some formations you might find incaves:

Stalactitesgrowwherewaterdripsfromtheceiling.Stalagmitesgrowwherewaterdripsontothefloor.Draperiesgrowwherewaterrunsdownaslantedceilingorwall.Columnsarewhereastalactiteandstalagmitemeet.Soda straws are hollow tubes that grow where water seeps through theceiling.Theycanturnintoastalactiteiftheholeatthebottomgetsblocked.Pearlsgrowinpoolsofcalcite-richwaterlikeanoysterpearl.Theygrowlayeruponlayeraroundagrainofsand.Flowstonegrowswherewaterflowsoverwallsorfloors.Beardsareclumpsofdelicate,thinthreadsthatgrowfromwatercontainingadissolvedmineralcalledgypsum.Popcornformationsareclustersthatlooklikepopcornorgrapes.Theyarefoundonceilings,floors,andwalls.

SINKHOLES!

Sinkholesareopeningsinthegroundthatappearwheretherockunderneathhasdissolved.Thisusuallyhappensinakarstlandscapebecausethelimestonehasdissolvedfromslightlyacidicwater.Sinkholescanslowlysink,oropenupallatonce.Whenthathappens,asinkholecanswallowentirehouses!Afteritforms,asinkholemightswallowariver,fillwithwaterandbecomealake,oropenanentrancetoacave.TheEasternCoastregionhassomeamazingsinkholes!

•The“DecemberGiant”sinkholeopenedonDecember2,1972inShelbyCounty,Alabama.Hundredsoftonsofrockanddirtcollapsedtomakeahole350feetwide(107meters),450feetlong(137meters),and150feetdeep(46meters).It’soneofthebiggestsinkholesinAmerica.

•KingsleyLake is an almost circular lake innorth-centralFlorida that’s 90 feet deep (27meters). Itprobablyformedwhenthelimestoneunderneathdissolvedandcreatedasinkhole.

•CassCaveinWestVirginiahasapit140feetdeep(43meters),whichswallowsastream.

•AsinkholeopenedinWinterPark,Florida, in1981.It is320feetwideand90feetdeep(98meterswideand27metersdeep),andswallowedacardealership,apublicpool,andatwo-storyhousewhenitopened!

MAMMOTHCAVEMammothCave inKentucky is theworld’s longestknowncave system.Morethan392milesofthecavehavebeenexplored(631kilometers),andeveryyearmore passages are found and mapped. The passages are interconnected andcomplex.Ifyouwanttovisitthecave’smostinterestingplaces,headtoFrozenNiagara,GrandAvenue,andFatMan’sMisery.Untilthe1990s,youcouldtakeaboatrideonanundergroundriver.There’sevenahotelinsidethecavethatyoucanstayin!

Mammoth Cave had its beginning about 350 million years ago, when ashallow,inland,saltwaterseacoveredtheinteriorofNorthAmerica.A700-footlayer of limestonewas deposited (213meters) and then covered by a 60-footlayerofsandstone(18meters).

adapt:changesaplantoranimalmakestosurvive.

albino:ahuman,animal,orplantthatisverypaleanddoesnothavetheusualamountofskin,eye,andhaircolor.

Later, the sandstonewaserodedaway.By10millionyears ago therewereenoughcracksandholesthatrainwaterbeganseepingintothelimestonebelow.Theslightlyacidicrainwaterslowlycarvedoutcavesandpassages.Inthelowerlayers, the cave is still forming today Mammoth Cave has stalagmites andstalactites, draperies, and soda straws.Mixed inwith the limestone is anothermineral,calledgypsum.Theseepingrainwaterpicksupbitsofgypsum,whichitthendepositsinthecaves.Gypsumformations,calledgypsumflowers,areverydelicate, and they form only in upper, dry parts of the cave because gypsumdissolvessoeasilyinwater.

Mammoth Cave has an amazing array of unusual animals. Living in totaldarknessImeansthatanimalshavetoadaptin|interestingways.Thereare12different species that arealbino and don’t have eyes, because they live in thepitchblackofthedeepcaves.Theseincludefish,crayfish,shrimp,andbeetles.

EXPLORATIONOFMAMMOTHPeople first explored Mammoth Cave at least 4,000 years ago. There’s even evidence that NativeAmericansminedthecaveforcrystalsandgypsum.Thecavewasre-discoveredin1797,andhasbeenopenfortourssince1816.

One of the great explorers of Mammoth Cave was Steven Bishop, a young slave who first sawMammothin1838.Usingjustalanternandrope,heexploreddeepcavernsanddiscoveredriversandchasms.He taughthimself to read sohecould studybooksabout caves.Bishopnamedmanyof therivers and formations inMammoth, andmadeamapof it in1842 thatwasused for40years.Somepeople believe that Bishop usedMammothCave as a place to hide runaway slaves as they escaped

north.

slave:apersonownedbyanotherpersonandforcedtoworkwithoutpay,againsttheirwill.

chasm:adeepcrackorhole.

ThreeendangeredspeciesliveinMammothCave,includingtheIndianabat,theGraybat,andthecaveshrimp.Therearealsomanyfossilsinthelimestone,evenfossilizedteethfromsharks!

GLACIERSMostof thenorthernareasof theEasternCoasthavebeen transformedby theactionofglaciers.Howdoglaciers form?Howdidglacierscomesofarsouth,andwhyaren’t theyherenow?Whenmoresnowfalls thanmeltseachyear, itaccumulatesandeventuallyformsaglacier.

Therearetwomaintypesofglaciers:alpineandcontinental.Alpineglaciersare formed in valleys high in the mountains where temperatures are colder.Continental glaciers are huge ice sheets that completely cover the land of amajorpartofacontinent.Today,therearecontinentalglaciersonGreenlandandAntarctica.Butinthepast,continentalglacierscoveredmuchofnorthernNorthAmericaandnorthernEuropeandAsia.

IceAge: aperiodof timewhen large ice sheetscover largeareasof land. It particularly refers to themost recent seriesofglaciationsduring thePleistocene.An ice age can include shorter periodswhenglaciersretreat,aswellasperiodswhentheglaciersgrow.

glaciation:whenalargepartoftheearthiscoveredinice.

glacialperiod:aperiodoftimewithinaniceagewhenalargepartoftheearth’ssurfaceiscoveredwithice.

interglacialperiod:aperiodwithinaniceagethatissomewhatwarmerandglaciersretreat.

ICEAGE!Earth’sclimategoesthroughnaturalvariationsintemperatureovertime.Thisisduetotheearth’sdistancefromthesun,howEarthturnsonitsaxis,andwherethecontinentsare.

Inthelast2.5millionyears,untilabout10,000yearsago,therehavebeenatleast 11 major cycles of cooling and warming. This entire time is called thePleistocene,orsometimesjusttheIceAge.Duringthecoldperiods,glaciationoccurredastemperaturesdroppedovermany,manyyearsandglaciersexpanded.These are calledglacialperiods.When the climatewarmed and temperaturesrose,calledinterglacialperiods,theglaciersshrank.

DuringtheglacialperiodsoftheIceAge,about30percentofthelandonEarthwascoverediniceupto2milesthick(3kilometers).

Themostrecentglaciation lasteduntilabout10,000yearsago.Icecoveredthe New England states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts,Connecticut, and Rhode Island, as well as most of New York and northernsectionsofNewJerseyandPennsylvania.

No one knows whether the Ice Age is over or still going on. Interglacialperiods last about 10,000 to 12,000 years, and we’ve been in an interglacialperiodforaboutthatlong.Humaneffectsontheclimatecouldpossiblydelaythestartofanotherglacialperiod.

GLACIALLANDFORMSGlacierserodethe landandreshapeit.Whenglaciersmove, theirgreatweightcracksandcrushestherockbeneath.Theglacierplucksupchunksofrockandcarriesthemalong.Thechunkscanvaryinsizefromfinesedimentcalledrockflourtohouse-sizedboulders.Theyarefrozenintotheiceand,astheymove,therockchunksgrindandpolishthebedrockunderneath—abitlikesandpaper.

Whentheglaciermelts,itdepositsthismaterialintovariouslandforms.

Many of these effects of glaciers might be hard to recognize because thelandformsarecoveredoverbygrasslands, forests,andfields.But lookbeyondthevegetationandyoumightseesomecluesthataglacierhasbeenaround.

Scratchesandgroovesinthebedrockaredeepparallelscratcheswheretheglacierscrapedovergroundcarryingbrokenrock.CadillacMountainonMountDesertIslandwasprobablythefirstsurfacetoemergewhentheglacierthatoncecoveredthewholestateofMainemelted.Therearegrooveson thebedrock innorth-southparallel linesbecause theglaciermovedand shaped the land fromnorthtosouth.

IfyouevergetachancetolookatCadillacMountain,you’llseethatit’sshapedlikeacat.Ithasgentlyslopingnorthandsouthsides,andsteepeastandwest

sides.

Glacialpolishislikepolishingbrasswithcleanerthathasabitofgritinit.Glacierswithrockflourpolish theunderlyingbedrock.Therockhasasmoothsurface,almostlikeglass.

Tillisarandommixtureofclay,rocks,andgravel,whichiscarriedalongbyaglacierandthendepositedastheicemelts.

Morainesaredepositsoftillthatformonthesidesandfrontofglaciers.Asthe glacier melts, the till is dropped out into mounds and ridges. Terminalmorainestracethefarthestedgeofaglacier.OnLongIslandinNewYork,therearemanyterminalmoraines.

DIDYOUKNOW?Twiceinthelong-agopast—710and635millionyearsago—scientistsbelieveEarthwascoveredinicesheets,evenattheequator!ScientistscallthistheSnowballEarthTheory.\Evenduringthisdeepfreeze,

lifesurvivedintheformoftiny,single-celledmicrobes.

Eskers occurwhen a glacier has a river flowing underneath it. That riverdepositsmaterial just like regular riversdo.When the entireglaciermelts, thedepositedmaterialformsameanderingridgeoftillcalledanesker.

GreatEskerParkinWeymouth,Massachusetts,is90feethighandisthehighesteskerinNorthAmerica(27meters).

Erraticsarerocksthathavebeencarriedbyaglacierfromanotherlocation.They can be as small as a pebble or as large as a house. Scientists try todeterminewhereerraticscamefromtohelpthemmaptheflowdirectionsoftheglacier.On a visit toCentral Park inNewYorkCity, you can seemany hugeerratics,aswellasgroovesandgougesleftbyglaciersonthebedrock.

DIDYOUKNOW?Glaciersoftenhaveabluishorgreenishtintbecausemostoftheairhasbeensqueezedout.

Drumlins are smooth, teardrop-shaped mounds that were molded by aglacier. These often occur in groups and from above can look like a pod ofwhalesswimming.

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Kettles are bowl-shaped depressions that form when a block of ice isseparatedfromtheglacierandcoveredbytill.Whentheicelatermelts,thetillcollapsesintoabowlshape.SpruceHoleBoginDurham,NewHampshireisakettleholethathasfilledwithwatertoformabog.

MAKEYOUROWNCAVERN

SUPPLIES•boxofsugarcubes

•largeglassjar

•tweezers

•modelingclay

•toothpick

•water

•cuporspraybottle

•foodcoloring

Use tweezers toarrange thesugarcubes in stacksofdifferentheights in thejar.Makesuretocompletelylinetheinsideedgeofthejarwithsugarcubes.

Completelycovertheopeningofthejarwithalayerofclayatleast1/8inchthick(1/3centimeter).Makesuretherearen’tanygaps.

3Usethetoothpicktopokeholesintheclay.Makesuretheholesreachtothesugarcubes.Trypokingafewholesononesideofthejar,andmanyholeson

theotherside.

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Putwater in a cup or spray bottle, and add food coloring. Spray, or slowlypour,afewspoonfulsofwateroverthetopoftheclay.

Asthewaterseepsthroughtheholes,lookatthesugarcubesthataretouchingthesidesofthejar.What’shappening?Lettheexperimentsitforawhile,then

addmorewater.Arepassagewaysforming?

DIDYOUKNOW?Likemostcaves,(MammothCavehastemperaturesthatremainsteadyat54degreesFahrenheitallyear

round(12degreesCelsius).

WHAT’SHAPPENING?

ThesugarcubesrepresentthelimestoneinMammothCave.Thespacesbetweenarethecracksandspacesinthelimestone,andtheclayrepresentstheoverlyingsandstone.Likelimestone,thesugardissolvesinwater,whichcanleavebehind

openspaces,orcaverns.

MAKEYOUROWN

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KETTLES

SUPPLIES•2half-gallonpaperboardmilkcartons(1.89liters)•scissors

•gravel

•water

•freezer

•clay

•towel

Cutthemilkcartonsinhalf.Rinseoutthebottomhalvesandthrowawaythetopsorkeepthemtouseasgardenscoopers.

Fill thebottomofoneof thecartonswitha single layerofgravel.Fillbothcartonsalmosttothetopwithwaterandplacetheminthefreezerovernight.

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Takethecartonsoutofthefreezerandcutthecartonaway.Ifyouhavetroublereleasing the carton, run it under warm water for a minute. The pieces of

gravel should be sticking out slightly from the ice. If they aren’t, run the iceunderwarmwaterforaminutetoexposethegravel.

Roll the clay into a flat rectangle. Use the towel to hold the chunk of icewithoutthegravelandplacetheiceatoneendoftheclay.Dragtheicealong

the claywith a slight downward pressure.Are theremarks on the clay?Thenrepeatusingtheicethatcontainsgravel.Aretheremarksontheclaynow?

WHAT’SHAPPENING?

Glacierscontainsedimentsofallsizes,fromfine-grainedsilttohugeboulders.Astheglaciermovesoverthegroundunderneath,thesedimentscoursawaysoil

andsand.Becauseofthegreatweightoftheoverlyingice,largerpiecesofsedimentcanscrapegroovesintorocksunderneath,justasyourgravel-filledice

didwiththeclay.

F

CHAPTER5

CLIMATEromthe tipofMaine to theveryendofFlorida, theEasternCoasthassomeofthemostdiverseweatherinAmerica.Ifyoutravelfromnorthto

south, you’ll cross four climate zones! You could pass through hugeNor’easters dumping heavy snowfall across the Mid-Atlantic and NewEngland states in the winter, before arriving at the subtropical and eventropicalbeachesofthesouth.Andwatchoutforscorchingheatwavesandhurricanesupanddownthecoastinthesummer!

Nor’easter: a storm blowing from the northeast, usually along thenortheastern coast of theUnitedStates. It often brings highwinds and coldtemperatures.

subtropical:anareaclosetothetropicswheretheweatheriswarm.

tropical:ahotclimate,usuallyneartheequator.

hurricane:aseveretropicalstormwithwindsgreaterthan74milesperhour.

latitude:thelinesthatrunwestandeastontheglobeparalleltotheequator.Latitudesvaryfromzerodegreesattheequatorto90degreesattheNorthandSouthPoles.

equator:animaginarylinearoundtheearth,halfwaybetweentheNorthandSouthPoles.

WHATMAKESTHEWEATHER?All theweatheron theplanetstartsoutwith thesun.Thesun’senergy iswhatheats the earth andchanges the temperatureof a certain area.Butwhy isn’t italwayswarmwhen the sun shines in thewinter?Andwhy is FloridawarmerthanMainewhentheybothreceivesunlight?

Theanswerhas todowith somethingcalled latitude.Linesof latitudeareimaginarylines“drawn”aroundtheearthparalleltotheequator.Ifyouliveinalatitudethatisonorclosetotheequator,thesunsrayshityourlocationonEarthdirectlyforthelongestamountoftime.

Asyoumove intoareasof latitudefarthernorthorsouthfromtheequator,sunlighthitsatmoreofanangle.Thisspreadsouttheenergyfromthesunsotheearthdoesn’theatupasmuchintheseareas.The‘angleofsunlightisalsowhyyoufeelmoreheatfromthesunatnoon,whenthesunisdirectlyoverhead,thanyoudointhelateafternoon.

TheEasternCoastregionstretchesallthewayfromthenorthtothesouthoftheUnitedSates.Themoresouthernareasareatalatitudeclosertotheequatorandreceivemoreenergyfromthesunthan thenorthernareas.For this reason,theaveragetemperatureinJulyinFloridais92degreesFahrenheit(33degreesCelsius), while the average in Maine is 73 degrees Fahrenheit (23 degreesCelsius).

Whatelseaffects theEasternCoastclimate?Theoceans.Beingnext to theAtlantic Ocean and the Gulf ofMexicomeans that the temperatures near thecoast aremuch less extreme than they are in themiddle of the country.Hugebodiesofwater like theoceanheatupandcooldownmoreslowly thanairorland,sooceanshelpkeepthetemperaturemilder.

Altitudecanalsomakeabigdifferenceinclimate.Asyougethigherup,thetemperature tends to drop. As you climb a mountain, you can expect the airtemperaturetofallbyanaverageof3.6degreesFahrenheitevery1,000feetyouclimb (2degreesCelsiusper305meters).This isbecause theatmosphereactslike a blanket to keep heat in. At higher altitudes, there aren’t as many airmolecules,so the“blanket” isn’tas thickandheatescapes. In theAppalachian

Mountains,temperaturesarecoolerthanatloweraltitudesandasimilarlatitude.

altitude:theelevation,orheightabovesealevel.

WEATHERANDCLIMATE:WHAT’STHEDIFFERENCE?

Peopleoftengetweather andclimateconfused.Weather iswhathappens inthe atmosphere related to temperature, precipitation, winds, and clouds.Climateistheaverageweatherofaplaceoveralongperiodoftime.

Gatlinburg,Tennessee,islocatedonly25milesawayfromClingmansDome(40kilometers),thehighestpointontheAppalachianTrail.InJanuary,whentheaverage temperature in Gatlinburg is 51 degrees Fahrenheit (10.5 degrees

Celsius), it’s only 35 degrees Fahrenheit on Clingmans Dome (1.7 degreesCelsius).

HURRICANE!Hurricanesarehugespinningstormsthatrotatearoundapointoflowpressure.Theyformovertropicaloceansandcarrytorrentialrainandhighwinds.Whenthey strike land, hurricanes can be deadly. Six out of the tenmost expensivedisasters to clean up in theUnitedStates have been fromhurricanes.Howdotheystart?Whyaretheysodestructive?Let’sfindout!

Hurricanes are born as tropical storms over warm waters close to theequator. The water needs to be at least 80 degrees Fahrenheit (26.5 degreesCelsius),buttheairaboveneedstobecoolersothunderstormscanform.Inthelatesummermonths,thewaterneartheequatorwarmsupenoughtoevaporate.Thewatervaporrisesup,creatinglargecloudsfullofmoisture.

precipitation:rain,snow,oranyformofwaterfallingtoEarth.

low pressure: a pocket of air in the atmosphere that is not pushing downstronglytowardEarth.

tropicalstorm:arevolvingstormthatformsinthetropics.

evaporate:whenaliquidheatsupandchangesintoagas.

watervapor:waterasagas,likesteamormist.

As the air and water vapor rise, air from surrounding areas swirls in toreplaceit.Thatairiswarmedwhenitcomesintocontactwiththeoceanandittoorisesup.Thiscyclecontinues,withmoreandmorewatervaporsuckedupintotheclouds.Powerfulwindsspinthecloudsfasterandfasterintoatropicalstorm.

DIDYOUKNOW?ThehurricaneseasonlastsfromJunetoNovember30.Thepeakmonthsare

AugustandSeptember.

Mosttropicalstormssweeparoundtheoceanforadayortwobeforedyingout,butafewmoveontobiggerandmoredestructivethings.WindscanpushthestormwestwardacrosstheAtlanticOcean.That’swhenthestormdoeswhatitdoesbest:slurpupmorewatervaporandgrowbiggerandfasterandfiercer.

Whenthewindinatropicalstormaveragesmorethan75milesperhour(120kilometersperhour)andspinsinacounterclockwisedirection,it’sahurricane.

HurricanescreatedintheAtlanticOceanmovewestinthedirectionofNorthAmerica.This is because they arepushedwest by the tradewinds across theNorthernHemisphere.Eventually, if itsurviveslongenough,ahurricanewillbeblownintoland,whereitmoveall thewayuptheEastCoastoftheUnitedStates.

tradewinds:steadywindsthatblowfromeast towest inabeltbetween30degreeslatitudeabovetheequatorto30degreeslatitudebelowtheequator.

Northern Hemisphere: the half of the earth north of the equator. ThesouthernhalfiscalledtheSouthernHemisphere.

Whenahurricanetravelsoverlandorovercoldwater,itlosesenergy.That’sbecauseahurricane’stremendousenergycomesfromtheheatofwarm,tropicalwater.Whenyoutakeawaythatenergysource,thehurricaneeventuallydiesout.Butbeforeit’sover,thehurricane’sheavyrains,strongwinds,andlargewavescan do a lot of damage to trees, beaches, powerlines, buildings, and cars incoastalareas.

WHAT’SINAHURRICANE?Maybeyou’veseenapictureofahurricanefromabove,onthenews.ItlooksabitlikeaFrisbee.Ashurricanesspincounterclockwise,theycollectcloudsthatforminahugecircle.Theverycenterofahurricaneiscalledtheeye.Allofthewindsandcloudsrevolvearoundtheeye.Asairrisesofftheoceanandbringsinwatervaporandcreateswinds, theeye’sopenspace formswhere therearenocloudsandtheairisverycalm.

Eventhoughtheeyeispeacefulcomparedtotherestofthestorm,themostdangerouspartofahurricaneisrightnexttoit.Theeyewallistheareaofcloudssurrounding the eye, and the strongest winds and themost rain can be foundthere. The eyewall itself can be between 30 and 50 miles wide (48 to 80kilometers).

DIDYOUKNOW?Hurricanesarehugeheatengines,releasingenergythroughtheformationofrainandtheenergyofthewind.Theaveragehurricanereleases200timesasmuchenergyinadayastheenergyproducedbyalltheelectricpowerplantsin

theworld.That’sasmuchenergyasabout10,000nuclearbombs!

THELARGESTSTORMSONEARTHHurricanesarethelargeststormsonEarth.Justhowbig?Theycanbe300to600miles wide (483 to 965 kilometers) and about 10miles high (16 kilometers).Sustainedwindsupto155milesperhour(250kilometersperhour)cancoveralarge area, but winds can gust up to 225 miles per hour (360 kilometers perhour).

STORMSURGE!Stormsurgeistheriseinthelevelofwatercausedbyastorm.Thisbecomesabig problem for people living on the coasts when a hurricane hits land. Astormsurgeisn’tjustahighwave—it’sawallofwaterthatcanoverwhelmacoastalarea.Stormsurgeas tallas25 feet (7½meters) iseven taller thanahouse!AcrosstheEastCoasttherearehundredsoftownsandcitiesalongthewater. Storm surge floods streets, sweeping away cars and destroyingbuildings. In addition, storm surge sends waves much farther inland thanusual. The frequent, high waves from hurricanes can batter buildings withgreatforce.

Stormsurgecanbeupto25feethigh(8meters).Ontopofthewatermovinginfromtheocean, thegiantclouds inahurricanedumphugeamountsof rain.Hurricanes can drop asmuch as 5 to 15 inches of rain in one hour (13 to 38centimeters).

Even though a hurricane slows down and loses energy when it hits land,cloudscarryingveryheavyrainscandriftmilesandmilespastthecoastintotheinland sections of the Eastern Coast region. In August 2011, Hurricane IrenecausedthegreatestdamageineasternNewYorkstateandVermont.Heavyraincauseddramaticflooding,washingoutbridgesandroads.

HURRICANEKATRINA

OnAugust 29, 2005, themost destructive hurricane ever to strike theUnitedStatesmadelandfallinLouisiana.HurricaneKatrinaaffectedmillionsofpeopleontheGulfCoast.ThestormsurgeinLouisiana,Mississippi,andAlabamawasashighas28feet(8½meters).HurricaneKatrinacausedabout$125billionindamage,makingitthecostlieststormevertohittheUnitedStates.

Interestingly,Katrina wasn’t the most powerful hurricane ever to hit theUnited States. What made it so terrible? The geography of the area that

HurricaneKatrinahitwasamajorfactorintheseverityofthestorm.Normally,land gradually rises away from the ocean and is above sea level. But inNewOrleans,Louisiana,sectionsofthecityare6or7feetbelowsealevel(about2meters).

New Orleans isn’t directly on the ocean, but it sits right in between theMississippiRiverandLakePontchartrain.Tostopeitherofthesebodiesofwaterfromfloodingthecity,hugeleveessurroundit.Aleveeisalargewallmadeofconcreteandsteelbuilttoholdwaterback.

DIDYOUKNOW?Astormwithwindsgreaterthan74milesperhour(119kilometersperhour)thatoccursintheAtlanticOcean,theGulfofMexico,ortheeasternPacificOceaniscalledahurricane.ButinthewesternPacificOcean,EastAsia,andAustraliait’scalledatyphoon,andintheIndianOceanit’scalledacyclone.

As strong as theywere, the levees inNewOrleanswere nomatch for thepowerfulstormsurgefromKatrina.Theycollapsedassoonasthestormhit.Asaresult,80percentofthecitywascoveredinwater,andalmostalloftheroadsinandoutofNewOrleansweredestroyed.Partsofthecitywereunder20feetofwater(6meters)!

WINTERSTORMSHave you ever heard someone say that a storm front is coming into the area?Largeareasofairarecalledairmasses.Whenawarm,moistairmasscollideswithacold,dryairmass,theareawheretheymeetiscalledafront.Stormsoftenoccuralongfrontsbecausetheairisunstable.

Inthewinter,strongstormscanformwhenwarm,moistairfromtheGulfofMexicorisesovercold,dryair fromCanadaWhenthese twoairmassesmeet,lookoutforintensesnowstormscalledblizzards!ThesestormsoftenformneartheGreatLakesbecausewindpicksupmoistureasitblowsoverthewater,andthendumpsitoutassnowwhenitpassesoverland.

blizzard:aseveresnowstormwithhighwinds,lowtemperatures,andheavysnow.

ANor’easterisanintensestormthatcanoccurintheeasternUnitedStatesduring thewintermonths. It’s a lot like a hurricane.This low-pressure systemrotates counterclockwise, and gets its initial energy fromwarmerwater to thesouth.Thestormtravelstothenortheastfromthesouth,andthewindsthatdriveitcomefromthenortheast.

Nor’eastersformwhenastormcomingfromthesouthmeetscold,Arcticair.

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Theresultcanbehighwindsandsnowsoheavyyoucanbarelysee!

WORLD’SWORSTWEATHERMt.WashingtonintheWhiteMountainsinNewHampshireisknownasthe“Home of the World’s Worst Weather.” Three different storm tracks cometogether here, and theway themountains are oriented from north to southcauses thewind toblowevenharder. Justhowbad is it? In1934,windsof231milesperhourwererecorded(372kilometersperhour).Mt.Washingtonreceivesannualsnowfallof256inches(650centimeters)andwindsstrongerthanhurricaneforcefor104dayseachyear.OutsideofAntarctica,itisoneofthetoughestplacesonEarthtolive.Butsomescientistsdoexactlythat:theytaketurnslivingandworkinginaweatherstationatthesummitallyearlongtostudythefascinatingweatherandclimateontopofthemountain.

MAKEYOUROWNHURRICANE

SUPPLIES•largebowlorsink

•water

•largespoon

•blackpepper

•foodcoloring

Fillthebowlorsinktoacoupleofinchesbelowtherim.

Usethespoontostirthewaterinacircular,counterclockwisemotionuntilthewaterismovingveryfast.Dropasmallamountofpepperintothewateratthe

3

centerof thebowl, somemorepeppernear theoutsideof thebowl, and somemore about an inch from the center of the bowl.Watch how fast the peppermovesandwhereitgoes.

Ifyoulike,stirthewateragain,anddropafewdropsoffoodcoloringneartheoutside of the bowl, at the center of the bowl, and about an inch from the

center.Watchhowthefoodcoloringmovesinthewater.

WHAT’SHAPPENING?Thecenterofyourbowlisliketheeyeofahurricane.Thepepperandfood

coloringdon’tmoveveryfastthere.Butthepepperandfoodcoloringthatyoudroppedaninchfromthecentermovemuchfasterthanneartheoutsidebecausethisareaisliketheeyewallinahurricane.Youmaynoticethepepperandfoodcoloringinthecentergetting“caught”bytheswirlingwaterarounditanddrawnoutward.That’sbecausetheeyeofyourhurricaneisverysmall,sothepepper

andfoodcoloringonlystayintheeyeforjustafewsecondsbeforethey’resweptoutward.Buttheeyeofarealhurricaneisatleast5mileswide,sothere’s

plentyofroomforacalmarea.

HURRICANES’NAMESHurricanes have been given names of people for hundreds of years. In theWest Indies, in the Caribbean Sea, people used to name hurricanes aftersaints.The practice of naming hurricanes becamewidespread duringWorldWar II. In 1953, female names in alphabetical orderwere used to officiallynamehurricanes.From1979on,sixdifferentlistsofmaleandfemalenameshavebeenusedinrotationforAtlanticOceanhurricanes.Sothelistthatwasused in 2011will be used again in 2017. If a storm is extremely deadly orcostly,thenthenameis“retired”andnotusedagain.

DIDYOUKNOW?ThewordhurricanecomesfromtheSpanishwordhurricane,whichcomesfrom

theMayanwordHunraken.Thiswasthenameoftheirgodofstorms.

MAKEYOUROWNPRESSUREDIFFERENCESCAUTION:Thisprojectinvolvesmatches,sohaveanadulthelp.

1

2

SUPPLIES•hardboiledegg,peeled

•clearglassorheavyplasticbottlewithneckslightlysmaller thantheegg•pieceofpaper

•matches

Checktomakesuretheopeninginthebottleisslightlysmallerthantheegg.Largejuiceorsportsdrinkbottlesoftenworkwell.

Scrunch up the paper and drop it into the bottle. Ask an adult to light thematch and drop it into the bottle. Immediately place the egg on top of the

bottleopeningwiththenarrowsidedown.

WHAT’SHAPPENING?Astheflameburns,itheatstheair.Hotairtakesupmorespacethancoldair.

Youmayhavenoticedtheeggjumpingontopofthebottle,lettingthehotairoutofthebottle.Astheflamegoesout,theaircoolsandtakesuplessspace,

loweringtheairpressureinsidethebottle.Thehigherairpressureoutsidepushestheeggintothebottle.Ahurricaneformsbecauseofdifferencesinairpressure.Closetotheequator,thesunheatstheairclosetothesurfaceofthewater,andit

rises.Thiscreateslowpressurenearthesurfaceoftheocean—justliketheinsideofyourbottle.Asahurricaneforms,airfromsurroundingareasissucked

intothelow-pressurearea,liketheeggwassuckedintothebottle.

L

CHAPTER6

RIVERSook on anymap that shows rivers and cities.Do younotice anything?Most major cities are located along rivers, and it’s not a coincidence.

Plants, animals, and people all live near rivers. These bodies of waterprovide us with water, food, transportation, and recreation. TheEasternCoastgetsplentyofrainandsnow,whichmeansitalsohasplentyofrivers.Riversconnectthelandscape.

Thewater inriverscomesfromprecipitation that flowsover thesurfaceoftheland.Smallercreeksandstreamsflowtogetherandformbiggerstreamsandrivers.Theyarecalledtributariesoftherivertheyflowinto.Thelandthatdrainsintoa river is thewatershedof that river.Awatershed is likea largebathtub.Thesidesofthebathtubareridgesorhighelevationpoints.Thedrainistheriverat thebottom. In a real bathtub, anydropofwater that falls into it eventuallyflowstothedrain.Onland,thewaterflowstotheriver.

watershed:thelandareathatdrainsintoariverorstream.

crop:aplantgrownforfoodandotheruses.

Allriversflowintoanoceansomewhere.

RiversintheEastdrainintoeithertheAtlanticOceanortheGulfofMexico.MostoftheriversthatdrainintotheGulfflowintotheMississippiRiverfirst.

THEHUDSONRIVERANDERIECANALTheHudsonRiverstartshighinthemountainsofNewYorkandflowssouthfor315miles(507kilometers)throughNewYorkCityandintotheAtlanticOcean.TheHudsonformedabout12,000yearsagowhenglaciersgougedoutvalleys.Whentheicemelted,theriverbeganflowing.

Intheearly1800s,mostpeoplelivedalongtheEastCoast.Therewasrich,fertilelandfartherwest,buttheAppalachianMountainswereadifficultbarriertocross.Therewasnoeasywaytotransportgoodsacrossthemountains.Peoplestill needed cloth, tools, and other necessities from the East. Even today, it ismucheasiertotransportgoodsbywaterthanoverland.Imaginehowharditwastomovegoodsbylandwhentherewerenocars!

Findingawater routeacross theAppalachianswouldopenup theWest forsettlement,butthereweren’tanywaterroutes.ThensomepeoplehadtheideaofconnectingtheHudsonRivertoLakeEriebybuildingawaterchannelcalledacanal.Noonehadever triedsuchabigconstructionproject,andmanypeopledidn’tliketheidea.Butothershadvisionandconfidence,andonJuly4,1817,constructionbegan.

In1825,theErieCanalopened,creatingariverroadthatlinkedtheAtlanticOcean to the Great Lakes. The canal was 363 miles long (584 kilometers),anywhere from 28 to 40 feet wide (8½ to 12 meters), and 4 feet deep (1¼meters).Becausecanalboatsdidn’thaveengines,horsesandmulespulledthemfromtowpathsalongthesidesofthecanal.Ittookabout7to10daystogofromErie, Pennsylvania, to Albany, New York. New Yorkers could now buy coalfromwesternPennsylvaniaandcropsfromOhioandbeyond.AndOhiofarmers

couldbuymanufacturedgoods.TheErieCanalisstillusedtoshipgoods,andithasbeenenlargedforlargerboats.

DIDYOUKNOW?TheErieCanaltookeightyearstobuild.Menworked14-hourdayscutting

downtreesanddiggingbyhand.Theworkwasoftendangerous,astheyhadtousegunpowdertoblastopenrock.Feversoftenspreadintheworkcamps.

NIAGARAFALLSNiagaraFallsarethemostvisitedwaterfallsintheworld.Whatmakesthemsoamazing?ThereisahugevolumeofwaterthatflowsherefromtheGreatLakes,andthesteepslopegivespowertotheragingwater.TherearemanywaterfallsintheworldthataretallerthanNiagaraorthatcarrymorewater,butNiagaraFallsisamongthetop10intheworld.

THEERIECANALINSONGThisclassicfolksongisabouttheErieCanal.Tosavemoney,bridgesacrossthecanalwerebuiltjust4feetabovethewater(1¼meters),sowhenaboatgottoabridge,everyonecalled“LowBridge!EverybodyDown!”

I’vegotamule,hernameisSal,FifteenmilesontheErieCanal.

She’sagoodol’workerandagoodol’pal,FifteenmilesontheErieCanal.

We’vehauledsomebargesinourday,Filledwithlumber,coal,andhay,

Andweknoweveryinchoftheway,FromAlbanytoBuffalo.

Lowbridge,everybodydown!Lowbridgeforwe’recomin’toatown!Andyou’llalwaysknowyourneighbor,

You’llalwaysknowyourpal,Ifyou’veevernavigatedontheErieCanal.

NiagaraFallsareontheNiagaraRiverinNewYork,whichflowsfromLakeErie to Lake Ontario. They are actually three sets of falls, two in New Yorkcalled theAmericanandBridalFalls, and theHorseshoeFalls inCanada.TheHorseshoe Falls drop 173 feet (53meters) and theAmerican Falls drop evenfartherat183feet(56meters).

DIDYOUKNOW?NootherverylargewaterfallsareaseasilyaccessibleasNiagaraFalls.YoucangetrightupclosetoNiagaraFalls,seethefallsfromallangles,andeventouch

them!

TheHorseshoefalls,inacrescentshape,carrythemostwaterandarethemostspectacular.

NiagaraFalls formedabout12,000yearsago.Theentire regionused tobecoveredbyglaciers.Astheglaciersmoved,theydugoutdepressionsintheland.Then, when temperatures rose and the ice melted, the depressions filled with

water. These depressions became the Great Lakes and the Niagara River thatjoinsLakeErieandLakeOntario.

TheNiagaraRiver flowsoverNiagaraFalls.All riverserode therock theyflowover.But some rocks under theNiagaraRiver are harder than others, sotheydon’terodeevenly.

gorge:anarrowvalleybetweenhillsormountains,usuallywithsteeprockywallsandastreamrunningthroughit.

TherocksatthetopofNiagaraFallsareharderthanthesofterrocksbelow.

The softer rocks erode from underneath, which sometimes causes the harderrocksabovetofallinlargechunks.Asaresult,thewaterfallsareslowlymovingupstreamastherockserode.Butthewaterfallsthemselvesdon’tdisappear.Theyhavemovedabout7miles(11kilometers)upstreamsincetheyformed.ThereisnowagorgewhereNiagaraFallsoncewas.

DIDYOUKNOW?Itsoundscrazy,but21peoplehaveattemptedtogooverNiagaraFallsasastunt.Sixteenofthemhavelived.PeoplehavegoneovertheFallsinabarrel,

walkedatightropeacross,orsimplyjumped.

RIVERSDRAININGINTOTHEATLANTICOCEAN

ThereareseveralotherimportantriversthatdrainintotheAtlanticOcean.

•The Connecticut River is New England’s largest river system, passingthroughConnecticut,Massachusetts,NewHampshire,andVermont.Itis380mileslong(611kilometers).

•TheSusquehanna is the largest rivercompletely in theUnitedStates thatdrains into the Atlantic. It is about 450 miles long and travels throughPennsylvaniaandMaryland(724kilometers).

•ThePotomacRiver flowsthroughVirginia,WestVirginia,Maryland,andWashington D.C. for 383 miles into Chesapeake Bay (616 kilometers). ItwindspasttheWashington,Lincoln,andJeffersonMemorialsinWashingtonD.C.

•The JamesRiver at 304miles long (489 kilometers), was the first rivergivenanEnglishname.ItwashometothefirstpermanentEnglishsettlement,Jamestown.TheJamesRiverisentirelyinVirginiaandisoneofthelongest

riverscontainedinonestate.

THELOWERMISSISSIPPIRIVERThe Mississippi River is one of the great rivers of the world. Including itstributaries,it’sthelargestriversysteminNorthAmerica.Itdrainsahugearea,including31 states, from theAppalachianMountains in theeast, to theRockyMountainsinthewest,andnorthtoCanada.TheLowerMississippiRiveristhepartoftheriverstartingfromwheretheOhioRiverjoinsitatIllinois,Kentucky,andMissouri,allthewaytoitsmouthattheGulfofMexico.

mouth:whereariveremptiesintoanotherbodyofwater.

Rivers scour the land they flowover andpickup sediment that they carrydownstream. The steeper and faster a river travels, the more sediment it cancarry.Butwhenthatriverreachesabodyofwater that isstanding,suchastheGulfofMexico, thewaterslowsdownandcantcarryverymuchsediment.Sothesedimentdropsandcreatesanewareaoflandcalledariverdelta.Usually,ariverdeltaisshapedlikeafan.

DIDYOUKNOW?Theword“delta”describesthefan-shapeddepositofsedimentatthemouthofariver.Thenamecomesfromtheupper-caseGreekletterDelta,whichisshaped

likeatriangle.

As theMississippi River nears the Gulf ofMexico, it drops much of thesedimentthatit’sbeencarrying.Thatsedimenthasformedthe landareacalledthe Mississippi Delta, where the river breaks into smaller channels. TheMississippi carries about 145 million metric tons of nutrient-rich sedimentsfrom the interior of the country to the coastal region and theGulf (2.4 billionkilograms).

nutrients:substancesthatlivingthingsneedtoliveandgrow.

seaport:aplacewhereshipscanloadandunload.

dredge:equipmentthatscoopsupobjectsandmudfromthebottomofariverorocean.

wharf:alandingplacewhereshipscantieuptoloadorunload.

Normally,adeltaslowlyincreasesinsizeasmoresedimentsaredeposited.ButtheMississippiDeltaissinkingbelowsealevelbecauseofdamsandotherman-madechangestotheflowoftheriver.TheMississippiRiverusedtocarrymorethantwicetheamountofsedimentstothedeltaasitdoestoday.

DIDYOUKNOW?Thereareabout240differentkindsoffishintheMississippi,alongwithabout50differentmammals.Youcanfindegrets,muskrats,otters,andalligatorsinthemangroveswampsoftheLowerMississippi.Thedeltaareaisanimportanthabitatforallkindsoffishandshellfishsuchasshrimp,oysters,andcrab.

NewOrleans,Louisiana, isamajorseaport city about100miles (upriverfrom the Gulf ofMexico (161 kilometers). The Army Corps of Engineers inNewOrleansoperatessevendredgesthatscourthebottomoftheMississippitokeepthechannelatleast45feetdeepinthisarea(14meters).Thisallowsocean-goingshipstopassthroughNewOrleansandupstreamasfarasBatonRouge,Louisiana.New Orleans is the busiest seaport in the country. It also has thelongestwharf in theworld,which is 2miles long and can fit 15 ships at onetime(3½kilometers).

Up the river from New Orleans, the Army Corps of Engineers hasconstructed levees tokeepmostof thewater in themainchannel.Without thelevees,theriverwouldflowtothechanneloftheAtchafalayaRiver,whichhassteeper banks. If that happened, the amount of water combined would flood

manyareaswherepeoplelive.TheportofNewOrleanswouldbeleftdry.

DIDYOUKNOW?Leveesareman-maderiverbanksbuilttopreventtheriverfromoverflowingitsbanks.Theycontrolthedirectiontherivertakes.Therearemorethan1,600milesofleveesalongtheMississippiRiver,longerthantheGreatWallof

China!Theyprotectthelandfromfloodsandkeeptheriverinitsmainchannel.

BARGESANDTOWSAllalong theMississippi,barges transport cropsdown the river to theport atNewOrleans for transportallaround theworld.Theyalsomovecoal,oil, andothergoodsuptheriverfromthedeltaregionandotherpartsoftheworld.

Bargesareabetterwaytocarrylargeloadsthantrucksoreventrains.Theyuseonlyonethirdasmuchfuelasatruckpertonofgoodscarried.EspeciallyontheLowerMississippi,manybargesarepushedtogetherbyonetowboat.About30bargesareput together thatcarryup toabout45,000tonsofgoods(40,800metric tons). It would take 1,800 large trucks to carry all that. And sometowboatscanpushasmanyas70bargestogether!

barge:aflat-bottomedboatusedtotransportheavyloadsonriversorcanals.Abargeispushedbyatowboat.

OHIORIVERTheOhioRiveristhelargesttributaryofthemightyMississippiRiver.In fact,where theOhio joins theMississippi, it’s actually the larger of the two rivers.The Ohio starts in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where the Allegheny andMonongahelaRiversjoin.Itwinds981miles(1,579kilometers)untilitreachestheMississippi,twistingandturningalongthewayasitfindsthelowestpoint.

DIDYOUKNOW?Duringthe1800s,amanfromMassachusettsnamedJohnChapmantraveledupanddowntheOhioRiver,plantingappleseedsashewent.Heplantedsomany

appletreesthathewasgiventhenickname,“JohnnyAppleseed.”

Native Americans, who built thousands of earth and stone mounds in theOhio River valley, used the river as an important route for trading. Later, itserved as a river road for Europeans transporting goods. TheOhioRiver stillcarriesmoregoodsbyshipthananyotherriverbesidestheMississippi.

TENNESSEERIVERTheTennesseeRiveristhelargesttributaryoftheOhioRiver,about652mileslong(1,049kilometers).LiketheOhio,it’snotthatfarfromtheAtlanticOcean,butitdrainswestbecausetheAppalachianMountainsblockitfromgoingeast.ItflowsthroughTennessee,Alabama,abitofMississippi,andKentucky.

DoyoulivealongtheTennesseeRiver?Chancesarethatwhenyouturnonthelightsinyourhouse,theenergyiscomingfrompowergeneratedfromtheriver.

Howcanwaterbeturnedintoelectricity?Actually, it isn’t thewater that isbeingturnedintoelectricity.It’stheenergyfromthestrongflowofthewater.Apowerplantthatturnstheenergyfromflowingwaterintoelectricityiscalledahydroelectric plant because “hydro”means “water.” The Tennessee River hasmany dams that are part of a system generating hydroelectric energy. Sincewaterisarenewableresource,manypeoplefeel it isabettersourceofpowerthanfossilfuels.

hydroelectricenergy:electricitygeneratedfromtheenergyofflowingwater.

renewable resource: any natural resource that isn’t used up, that can bereplaced

FLOOD!

Afloodhappenswhenwatercoverslandthatisusuallydry.Heavyrainorsnowcancausethewaterlevelsinastreamorrivertorisehighenoughtoflowoverits banks. The Eastern Coast receives a lot of rain and snow, and floods canhappenanywhere.

•TheJohnstownFloodof1889floodedasmalltownonthefloodplainoftheLittleConemaughandStonyRiversinwesternPennsylvania.TherewasadamthatcreatedalakeontheLittleConemaugh.OnMay31,1889, thedambrokefromheavyspringrains.Mudandwaterspewedout,destroyingeverythinginitspathandkilling2,209people.

•TheMississippiRiverFloodof1927happenedafterheavy rains in1926left the Mississippi River water level high. When 15 inches of rain (31centimeters)fellin18hoursonApril15,1927,theriveroverfloweditsleveesin145places.Therewerefloodsin11states,killing246peopleandcausing$400millionindamages.

HOWHYDROELECTRICENERGYWORKS

For thousands of years, people have used water wheels to take the energyfromflowingwaterandchangeit intomechanicalenergytodowork.Waterwheels were often hooked up to huge grinding stones to grind wheat intoflour. Hydroelectric power works in a similar way. But it transforms theenergyintoelectricityinsteadofsimplyturningagrindingwheel.

Here’showitworks:

1.Adamisbuiltacrosstherivertoholdbackallofthewater.Thiscreatesabarrieracrossariver.Thewaterbacksupandformsalake,calledareservoir.

2.Thedamfunnelsthewaterintoalargetunnel,calledapenstock.

3. The penstock releases the water at a steady rate into huge turbines. Aturbineislikeawaterwheelonitsside,withlargeblades.

4.The flowingwater turns thebladesof the turbines.Then thewater flowsbackintotheriver.

5.Theturbinebladesareconnectedtoalargemetalrodwithgiant,powerfulmagnetsattached to it.Themagnets spinvery fast.Theyare surroundedbylargecoilsofcopperwire.Whenthemagnetsspin,theycreateelectricity!

Theamountofelectricitythatahydroelectricplantcanproduceisdeterminedbytwothings.Oneisthevolumeofwaterthatflowsthroughtheturbines.Theotheristheheightthatthewaterfallsfrom.Theheightfromthereservoirtotheturbinesiscalledthehead.Whenalotofwaterfallsfromagreatheight,youcangetalotofelectricity.

MAKEYOUROWNSWEETWATERFALL

SUPPLIES

1

2

3

•onecanofwhippedcream

•plate

•plainchocolatebar,suchasHershey’s•spoon

Spray thewhippedcreamonto theplate ina square shape.Build up severallayersuntilthewhippedcreamisabout1inchhigh(2½centimeters).

Breakthechocolatebarintoseparaterectangles.Placethechocolateontopofthewhippedcreaminasinglelayer,withtherectanglestouchingeachother.

Scoop out sections ofwhipped cream from underneath the chocolate.Whathappenstothechocolate?Ofcourse,inthenameofscience,you’llhavetoeat

thewhippedcreamandchocolate soyoucancontinue to“erode” thewhippedcream.

WHAT’SHAPPENING?Thewhippedcreamislikesoftrocks,cappedbytheharderchocolaterocksontop.Asthewaterinarivererodesthesoftrock,itundercutsthehardertoplayer,whichfallsdowninchunks.Thisiswhat’shappeningwhenwaterfalls,suchas

NiagaraFalls,migrateupstreaminariver.

MAKEYOUROWN

1

2

3

4

5

RAFT

SUPPLIES•2sheetsofpaper

•15popsiclesticks

•glue

•scissors

Placeonepieceofpaperonatable.Place10popsiclesticksflatonthepaperwiththeirsidestouching.Thisisyour“raft.”

Putdabsofglueontobothsidesofanotherpopsiclestickatoneof itsends.Placethispopsiclestickbetweenthefifthandsixthpopsiclesticksinyourraft

so it is standing upright. This is your “mast.” Press the two sides of the rafttogethersotheyaresnugagainstthemastandtheglue.

Placebeadsof glue across the raft sticks in four lines.Twoof thebeadsofglueshouldbeclosetotheends,andtwobeadsofglueshouldbenexttothe

mast.

Place the last fourpopsiclestickson thebeadsofglueandpressfirmly.Letdry.

Cut a square from the second piece of paper about 4 inches square (10centimeters).Glueitontooneof theflatsidesof themastat thetop.You’re

readytogoraftingontheriver!

CHAPTER7

ECOSYSTEMSWateristhedefiningfeatureoftheuniqueecosystemsintheEasternCoastregion.Freshwaterformslakesandponds,andincredible,diversewetlandsthroughouttheregion.Thesearelowlyingareasoflandsuchasamarshesor swamps,where the soil is soakedwithwater.Wetlandsprovidehabitatforawidevarietyofplantsandanimals.AndsaltwaterborderstheentireEastCoast, creating an environment that supports spectacular coral reefsandevenmoreplantsandanimals.

THEEVERCLADESThe Everglades are one of the most important wetlands in the world. Theystretch from Orlando, Florida, to the South Florida Bay. The Everglades areteemingwiththousandsofspeciesofplantsandanimals,someofwhicharen’tfoundanywhereelseintheworld.

Youcanfindanamazingarrayofbirdssuchasherons,ibis,andegrets.Youcanalsofindbears,foxes,panthers,alligators,manatees,andturtles.

DIDYOUKNOW?TheEvergladesisreallyacollectionofseveralimportantecosystems.Theregionhastwoseasons:thedryseasonfromNovembertoMay,andthewetseasonfromMaytoNovember.Theecosystemschangeconsiderablywiththeseasons.Manyareasaremarshyduringthesummerandmuchdrierduringthe

winter.

ThebestplacetoseetheEvergladesisinEvergladesNationalPark.Theparkwascreatedtopreservetheincrediblediversityoflifeinthe‘Everglades.It isonlyasmallpartofthewholeareaoccupiedbythehistoricEverglades,butitisstill a magnificent and diverse region. From a distance the park isn’t veryinteresting,butupclose,theparkisfascinating.

SLOUGHSANDSAWGRASSMARSHESAttheheartoftheEvergladesisariverabout100mileslong(161kilometers),60 miles wide (97 kilometers), and about 6 inches deep in most places (15centimeters). If that sounds like an unusually shallow and wide river, you’reright.Ifyoutakeaquicklook,thewaterlookslikeastagnantswamp.But thewaterisactuallymovingslowly,about100feetperday(30meters).

TheEvergladesstartatthehugeLakeOkeechobeeincentralFlorida,whichisthelargestfreshwaterlakeinFlorida,andthelargestlakeintheUnitedStatesafter the Great Lakes and the Great Salt Lake. The lake overflows its banksduringthewetseason,andflowssouthtoFloridaBay.

stagnant:notmoving.

sawgrass:atallgrassinmarshyareas,withleavesthathaveedgesthatlookliketheteethofasaw.

Thereare free-flowingchannelsofwatercalledsloughs(pronouncedsloo).The twomain sloughsare theSharkRiverSloughand theTaylorSlough.Butmostofthewaterinthishugeriverisfilledwithsawgrassthatcangrowupto9feet tall (3meters). It grows right in the flow of water that goes through theEverglades,andgivestheEvergladesthenickname“RiverofGrass.”

Scatteredthroughoutthesloughsandsawgrassmarshesaresmallislandsofhardwood trees called hammocks. They are home to many species of smallanimalssuchasfoxes,raccoons,andducks.

CYPRESSSWAMPSCypressisatypeofevergreentreethatcansurviveinaverywetenvironment.Itdoesn’t needdeep soil.Cypress swamps thrive throughout theEverglades, butare concentrated in the Big CypressNational Preserve on the north border ofEvergladesNationalPark.Someofthemostfierceandferociousanimalsinthecountrythrivehere,liketheAmericanalligatorandtheFloridapanther.

DIDYOUKNOW?Alligatorsandcrocodilesonlyexisttogetherinoneplaceintheentireworld—

theEverglades!Agroupofalligatorsiscalledacongregation.

MANGROVEFORESTSTheEvergladeshasthemostextensivesystemofmangroveforestsintheworld.Around the southern tip of Florida, the water runoff from Lake Okeechobeespreadsoutintosmallerchannelsofbrackishwater.Liningthesechannelsisaverypeculiar typeof tree—themangrove.This tree livesdirectly in thewater,butithaslong,stilt-likerootsthatcomeoutofthetrunkafootortwoabovethewater (30 to 60 centimeters). These spidery roots absorb both salt and freshwater, and also help the tree “breathe” when its roots are covered by water.Mangrove forests provide a wall of protection against hurricanes and stormsurges,sincetheiruniquerootsmakethemextremelystrong.

brackish:slightlysaltywaterthatisamixofseawaterandriverwater.

Thewebofrootsonmangrovesalsomakeonexcellentplaceforfishandother

marinelifetomaketheirnests.Mangroveforestsorefilledwithabountyofunderwaterlife.

DONTFORGETTHELITTLEGUYS!The large animals that live in the Everglades, such as alligators, herons, andpanthers,usuallygetthemostattention.Buttheycouldn’texistwithoutthesmallanimalstheyhunt,whocouldn’texistwithoutthemanyplantsthatgrowintheEverglades. The most common plant is sawgrass, which carpets millions ofacres.Geeseandducksfeastonitsseeds,andbirdsandreptilesnestinitsthickhedges.

reptile:acold-bloodedanimalsuchasasnake,lizard,alligator,orturtle,thathasaspine,layseggs,hasscalesorhornyplaces,andbreathesair.

Manyotherwater-dwellingplantslivethroughouttheregion,likebladderwort,whiteandyellowwaterlilies,andmaidencane.

Though they have some strange names, you probably wouldn’t noticeanythingspecialaboutanyoftheseplantsifyouhappenedtoseetheminyourbackyard.Ifyouhungaroundlongenoughthough,you’dseethesmall,delicate,yellowbladderwortflowerturnintoafiercehunter!Whenaninsecthitsatrigger

onthebladderwort’spetal,itissuckedintotheflower.Itallhappensinaboutahundredth of a second,making the bladderwort the fastest-knownkiller in theplantkingdom.

THEBIGGESTBEASTSINTHEEVERGLADES

Predatorsareanimportantpartofanyecosystem.Theyhuntsmalleranimals,whichhelps tokeep theirpopulationsbalanced.Someof themost ferociouspredatorsmaketheirhomeintheEverglades.

predator:ananimalthathuntsanotheranimalforfood.

extinction:thedeathofanentirespeciessothatitnolongerexists.

American Alligator: This is one impressive beast. On average, alligatorsmeasurefrom10to15feetfromnosetotail(3to4½meters),andcanweighup to 1,000 pounds (455 kilograms)! They are the largest reptile in NorthAmerica.While alligators are clumsy on land, in thewater they are lethal.Theirwebbedfeetandpowerfultailsallowthemtoswimfast.

Ifyouseeababyalligatororeggs,stayaway.Amotheralligatorguardshereggs and her young ferociously! When the eggs hatch, the mother gentlycarries thehatchlings to thewater inhermouth.Thenshewatchesoverheryoungfortwoyears.

American alligators were hunted almost to extinction, and in 1967 theAmerican alligator was named an endangered species. With protections inplace,Americanalligatorsrecoveredfully,andtodaymorethanamillionliveacrossthesoutheasternUnitedStates.Youmightfindtheminrivers,marshes,

orponds—andofcoursetheylovetheEverglades.

American Crocodile: Sometimes the alligator is mistaken for its closerelative,theAmericancrocodile.ThiselusiveanimalonlylivesinonespotintheentireUnitedStates—theEverglades.Thereareafewdifferencesbetweencrocodilesandalligators.

• Crocodiles have a triangular head, while alligators have a broad, shortersnout.

•Crocodileshavelighterskin,whilealligatorshavedarkerskin.

•Thefourthtoothonthelowerjawofcrocodilesisvisiblewhentheirmouthisclosed.

•Crocodilesaremorerare,andliveinsaltyorbrackishwater,whilealligatorsliveinfreshwater.

Bothanimalsareextremelypowerful,andtheirbiteislikebeingcrushedbyasmalltruck.Andbotharedangerous.Don’teverapproacheitheranalligator

oracrocodile,evenifitlooksasleep!

Florida Panther: If you’re extremely lucky, you might see this rare andsneakymammalontheprowl.TheFloridaPantherlivesinsouthernFlorida,withmost of their population residing inBigCypressNational Preserve orEvergladesNationalPark.Pantherscangrowupto7feetlong(2meters),sotheyneedalotofspacetoroamandhunt.Eachadultpantherusuallymarksanareaofabout200squaremiles(322squarekilometers).Panthersareagileand fast, and can reach speeds of 35 miles per hour when hunting (56kilometersperhour).

Florida Pantherswere hunted almost to extinction. It’s illegal to hunt themnow,butalossofhabitatforthepanthersmakesithardforthemtothrive.In1995therewereonlyabout20to30Floridapanthersleftinexistence.Peoplehave worked to help the panthers survive, and there are now about 100panthers.That’sagoodstart,butthere’sstillalongwaytogotoensurethatthepantherpopulationisstrong.

West Indian Manatee: The manatee is magnificent, and huge, but

underneathit’sacuddlymonster.Thisgentlegiantmunchesonseagrassasitslowly paddles itsway in shallow freshwater.Manatees can grow up to 10feet long(3meters)andweighhalfa ton.Theyareoftencalled“seacows”because of the way they graze like cows. They are endangered, mainlybecauseofalossofhabitatandaccidentalcollisionswithboats.

INVASIVESPECIESAn invasive species is a plant or animal that is brought to a new ecosystem,eitheronpurposeorbyaccident.Itquicklymultipliestolargenumbers.Becausethe species isn’t native to the area, there are no predators or diseases thatnaturallycontrolitsgrowth.Sothespeciescanspreadquicklyoveralargeareaand overwhelm the native species. Several invasive species have made theirhomeintheEverglades,disruptingtheecosystems.Someoftheinvasiveplantsareold-worldclimbingfern,melaleuca,seasidemahoe,andBrazilianpepper.

invasive species: a species that is not native to an ecosystem and rapidlyexpandstocrowdoutotherspecies.

nativespecies:aspeciesthatbelongsinanecosystem.

InvasiveanimalsintheEvergladesincludetheBurmesepythonandthegreeniguana.

The Burmese python is probably themost famous invasive species in theEverglades.In the1980s, itbecamepopular tokeep thesehugesnakesaspets,but many pet owners later dumped them in the nearby Everglades. The largepythonhasnopredators in thisecosystem,so thepopulationkeptgrowingandgrowing. Unfortunately, the pythons eat 70 different rare and endangeredspecies, bringing these species even closer to extinction.Hundreds of pythonsareremovedfromtheEvergladeseachyearinanefforttocontroltheirnumbers.

The green iguana is another reptile that has made a huge impact on theEverglades.Thissmall,plant-eatingreptilewasalsointroducedtotheecosystemby careless pet owners.Someof the iguana’smain food sources are two veryrareplantsthatgrowinthemangroveforests.Iftheiguanapopulationcontinuestogrow,theseplantspeciesmaydieout.

Before you get a pet—especially an unusual one—carefully considerwhetheryoucantakecareofit.Andifyoualreadyhaveapetandfindyoucan’tcare for it, don’t just dump it into the wild! There are many places such asanimalrescueorganizationsthatcanfindaplaceforyourpet.

DIDYOUKNOW?

TheBurmesepythonisoneofthelargestsnakespeciesonEarth,averaging12feetinlength(3½meters).Somegrowaslongas19Ifeet(almost6meters).At

times,theyeveneatalligators!

BAYOUSAbayouisabodyofslow-moving,sometimesstagnantwaterinaflat,lowlyingarea. Bayous are found mainly on the Gulf Coast in the states of Texas,Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, and southern Florida. The GulfCoastregionoftheEastCoastisperfectforbayousbecauseofthemanyrivers,streams, and other bodies of water that branch off of larger rivers like theMississippi.Manydifferentspeciesmaketheirhomeinthebayou, likecatfish,frogs, alligators, crawfish, and shrimp. The East Coast has some well-knownbayous.

BayouTecheusedtobethemaincourseoftheMississippiRiveruntilabout2,800yearsago,whentheriverswitcheditscourse.

DIDYOUKNOW?TheGreatDismalSwampisamarshyareainsouthernVirginiaandnorthernNorthCarolina.It’soneofthelargestwildareasleftintheEastCoastregion.LakeDrummondliesinitscenter,andtheentireareaishometoanincrediblevarietyofwildlife,includingbirds,bears,weasels,bobcats,andotters.DuringearlyAmericanhistory,escapedslavesformedasettlementintheGreatDismal

Swamp.

BayouBartholomewisthelongestbayouintheworld,measuring364mileslong(586kilometers),andstretchingbetweenLouisianaandArkansas.Ithasatleast 117 species of fish and 31 species ofmussels, whichmakes it themostdiversestreaminNorthAmericaforaquaticanimals.

CORALREEFS

Coral reefs the most diverse ecosystems in all the oceans, and are built byanimals smaller thanyour fingernail.They formwhere thewater iswarmandclear.Thetinycoralanimalsjustneedasolidstructuretoattachto.Floridaistheonlystate in thecontinentalUnitedStates thathasextensivecoral reefs.Thesereefsprovidefood,shelter,andbreedingplacesforahugevarietyofplantsandanimals.Youmightfindlobsters,snapper,crabs,shrimp,andsharksswimmingaroundthecoralreefsoffofthesoutherntipofFlorida,takingadvantageofthewidearrayoflifethatflourishesthere.Floridahasmanydifferentreef-buildingcorals.

reef:anareaofrocks,coral,orsandthatisclosetothesurfaceofthewater.

BrainCoralisamassive,roundcoralthathascurvedgroovesonitssurfacethatlooklikethefoldsofahumanbrain.Braincoralgrowsslowly,butisverysturdy.

StarCoralisthemostcommoncoralindeeperwater.Ithasastarpatternonitssurface.

ElkhornCoral has large, flattened branches that look remarkably like thehornsofanelkormoose.Itgrowsfairlyquickly—severalinchesinayear(morethan10centimeters).

StaghornCoral’s cylindrical branches can grow to anywhere from a fewinchestoover6feetlong(10centimetersto2meters).

DryTortugasNationalParkisaclusterofsevenislandsabout70mileswestofKeyWest,Florida(113kilometers).Theislandsaremadeofcoralreefsand

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sand. Tropical storms often shift and reform the sand. Dry Tortugas hasincrediblebirdsandmarineplants andanimals, aswell as about30 speciesofcoral.

Dry Tortugas National Park is part of the Great Florida Reef. This hugebarrier reef is 170miles long and 4mileswide (274 kilometers long and 6½kilometerswide).Abarrier reef is a long reef that creates a barrier between acoastlineandtheocean.TheGreatFloridaReefisthethird-largestbarrierreefintheworld,andisabout6,000yearsold.Likeothercoralreefs,theGreatFloridaReefhassuffereddamageinrecentdecadesfromdiseasesandchangesinwatertemperature.Manyorganizationsworktoprotectthereef,tokeeptheecosystemhealthyenoughtosupportthemillionsofanimalsthatlivethere.

MAKEYOUROWNNAKEDEGGS

SUPPLIES•afewwholeeggs,stillintheirshells•bowl

•vinegar

Placeyoureggsinthebowl.Trytokeeptheeggsfromtouchingeachother.Fillthebowlwithenoughvinegartocovertheeggs.Setthebowlwhereyou

canseeitbutwhereitwillbeundisturbed.Coveritifthevinegarsmellbothersyou.

Afteratleastaday,carefullytakeouttheeggs.Theyshouldbesoftandyoumaybeabletoseethroughthemabit.Iftheeggsaren’tsoft,pourouttheold

vinegar,puttheeggsbackinthebowl,andcoverwithnewvinegarforanotherdayorso.Youmayalso seeachalkywhite layeron theoutside. If theegg issoft,youcangentlyrub thisoffunderrunningwater.This iswhat’s leftof theshell.

3Holdoneof thenakedeggsafewinchesabove thekitchensinkanddrop it(about10centimeters).Fromhowhighcanyoudropaneggbeforeitbreaks?

WHAT’SHAPPENING?Eggshellsaremademostlyofcalciumcarbonate,anaturallyoccurringsubstanceproducedbycoraltoformcoralreefs.Seashells,pearls,limestone,andeggshells

aremadeofcalciumcarbonate.Theeggactuallygrowsthemineralshell.Vinegarisanacid,andcalciumcarbonateisabase.Whenthevinegarandeggshellcomeintocontact,theyreactandthevinegardissolvestheshell.

base:asubstancewithabittertaste.Soapisusuallyabase.Soisbakingsodaandammonia.

Coralsusecalciumandotherparticlescalledcarbonateionsinseawatertomakethecalciumcarbonateskeletonstheylivein.Whencoraldies,itsskeleton

remainsandnewcoralbuildsontheoldskeleton.Thisishowacoralreefgrows.

Insomepartsoftheworldtoday,coralreefsarethreatened.Oceanwaterisbasic.Buttherearesomeplaceswhereseawaterisbecomingslightlylessbasicand

coralreefsaresuffering.Ifwaterislessbasic,itmeanstherearefewercarbonateionsforcoralstousetomaketheirskeletons.Increasedcarbondioxideinthe

atmospherefromhumanactivitymaybecausingthischange.

Theoceanwillneverbeasacidicasthevinegarinyourexperiment,butitmaynotalwaysbebasicenough.Scientistsareresearchinghowtheatmosphere,oceans,andcoralreefsworktogether,sowecanmakesurecoralhaswhatit

needstoliveandgrow.

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CHAPTER8

THECOASThe Eastern Coast region has more coastline than any other region inAmerica. FromMaine to Florida, wrapping around theGulf Coast to

Louisiana,17differentstatesbordertheocean.Thecoastmightseemlikeasimple border between the land and water, but it’s a complex place forpeople,plants,andanimals.

TheAtlanticOcean isn’t the sameeverywhere.Therearebigdifferences fromplace to place, such as temperature and the types of plants and animals livingthere. Some of these differences have to do with the currents, and the majorinletsofChesapeakeBayinMarylandandtheGulfofMexico.

THEGULFSTREAMAlloceanshavecurrents,whicharebigmovementsofwateroverhundredsandthousandsofmiles.They’reabitlikeanunderwaterriver.ThemajorcurrentsintheNorthernHemispheremoveinaclockwisedirection.This is thereasonforoneoftheworld’smajoroceancurrents:theGulfStream.

TheGulf Stream is a current that starts in theGulf ofMexico and travelsnorthuptheeastcoasttoCapeHatteras,NorthCarolina.Thenthecurrentmovesaway from North America as it heads into the Atlantic Ocean and towardEurope. The Gulf Stream carries more water than all of the world’s riverscombined!

Because theGulfStreamstarts in thewarm, tropicalwatersof theGulfofMexico,itmakestheplacesittravelstowarmerthantheywouldbeotherwise.Forexample,London,England,isfarthernorththancitiesinthestateofMaine.ButaveragewintertemperaturesinMaineareseveraldegreescolderbecausetheGulfStreamdoesn’tgothere.

TheGulfStreamalsomakesthesoutheastcoastoftheUnitedStates,includingFlorida,Georgia,SouthCarolina,andNorthCarolina,wormerthanyoumight

expect.

TheGulfStreamisoneofthefastestoceancurrents.Ittravelsatanaveragespeedof 4miles per hour (6½kilometers per hour), but can go as fast as 5½

milesperhourat thesurface(9kilometersperhour).That’s faster thanpeoplewalk,andismanytimesfasterthanthespeedoftheAmazonRiver!

GULFOFMEXICOTheGulfofMexico isamajorbodyofwater that isconnected to theAtlanticOcean.It isenclosedbythestatesofFlorida,Alabama,Mississippi,Louisiana,Texas,andthecountriesofMexicoandCuba.AbouthalfoftheGulfisrelativelyshallowbecause thecontinental shelf reachesoutalongmuchof itscoast.Thecontinentalshelfisanextensionofthecontinentthatiscoveredbywater.Waterinthecontinentalshelfmightbeonlytensoffeetormetersdeep,comparedtothedeepocean,whichisthousandsoffeetormetersdeep.

BecausesomuchoftheGulfofMexicoisfairlyshallow,ithasalotofplantsandanimalslivingonitsoceanfloor.

Thereisalwaysmorelifeinshallowerwaterthanindeeperoceanswhereitisdarkandthewaterpressureisverystrong.TheGulfisfulloffishofallkinds:snapper,swordfish,grouper,shrimp,crabs,andoysters.Morefishandshellfishare harvested from theGulf each year than from themid-Atlantic Ocean andChesapeakeBaycombined.

OLDSOWOld Sow is an enormous whirlpool that sometimes forms off the coastbetweenMaineandCanada.OldSowformsbecauseoftheunusualshapeoftheunderwater seafloor.Many shipshavebeen lost in itsdepths, especiallybeforeboatshadmotors.Thewhirlpoolcanbeaslargeas250feetacross(75meters)!

CHESAPEAKEBAYChesapeakeBayisalargeestuary,wheresaltwaterfromtheoceanmixeswithfreshwaterfromrivers.ItswatershedcoversMaryland,Virginia,WestVirginia,Delaware,Pennsylvania,andNewYork.ChesapeakeBayformedabout12,000yearsagowhenglaciersmelted,causingthesealeveltorise.Therisingseawaterfloodedthearea.

whirlpool:acurrentofwaterspinninginacircle.

estuary:apartlyenclosedcoastalbodyofwater,whichhasriversandstreamsflowingintoitandisconnectedtotheocean.

Because of the mixing of fresh and salt water, and because it’s protectedfromlargeoceanstorms,ChesapeakeBayistheperfectplaceforhugenumbersofplantsandanimalstolive.

Thereareover2,700differentkindsofplantsandanimalslivinginthebay.If youwant to try crabbing,ChesapeakeBay is the place to go! Some of theanimalsyoumightfindthereinclude:

DIDYOUKNOW?ChesapeakeBayisthelargestestuaryintheUnitedStates.TheSusquehanna

Riverprovideshalfofthefreshwatercomingintothebay.

ChesapeakeBaybluecrabs

Atlanticbottlenosedolphins

muskrats

bobcats

redfoxes

baldeagles

ospreys

greatblueherons

oysters

hermitcrabs

horseshoecrabsOne of the most important elements of Chesapeake Bay is its submerged

aquaticvegetation.Theseunderwatergrassesprovidefoodandshelterformanyorganisms in thebay.Themore than16 speciesofunderwatergrasses includewildcelery,sagopondweed,redheadgrass,andwaterstargrass.

Thesegrassesprovideimportantplacesforyoungcrabsandfishtohidefrompredators.Many birds eat the bay grasses, and the grasses also help preventerosion.

ChesapeakeBayhassufferedfrompollutionandoverfishinginthepost,butithasbeenimprovinginrecentyears.

Humanactivitycause sedimentsandnutrient to flow into thebay.Mostofthese nutrients come from fertilizers used by farmland and from towns and

cities.Youmight think thatnutrientswouldbegoodfor thebay,but toomanynutrients are a problem.Algae growswhen there are toomany nutrients, andexcessivealgaeuseuptheoxygeninthewater.Thismakesitdifficultforotherlivingthingstosurvive.

DIDYOUKNOWChesapeakeBayinMarylandholdsmorethan18trilliongallonsofwater.Mostofthebayislessthan6feetdeep(1.8meters).There’sabout11,600milesofshoreline,whichismorethantheentireWestCoast

(morethan18,600kilometers)!

Overfishinghasalso reduced thenumberof fish, crabs, andother shellfishthat liveinthebay.Peoplehavebeenworking to reducepollutionand to limitthe harvesting of fish and shellfish. This will help the bay to recover itspopulationsofplantsandanimals.

BEACHESANDROCKYCOASTS

Whenmostpeoplethinkofthecoast,theythinkofmilesofsandybeaches.TheEasternCoastcertainlyhasbeaches,butitalsohasrockycoasts,wetlands,andcoralreefs.Thewetlandsmixwiththebeachesallalongthecoast,aswellasinbays such as ChesapeakeBay Scuba diving is a fun activity among the coralreefsthatcanbefoundontheFloridacoast.

BeachesextendfromMassachusettstoLouisiana.Therearelongstretchesofsugary sand, and short sandy stretches mixed in with other areas. Beachesusuallyformwhere there isawidecontinentalshelfand little tectonicactivity,whichistrueontheAtlanticandGulfCoasts.

Beachesaremadeofsandthatisconstantlyinmotion.

Waves,tides,andcurrentsmovethesand,andthebeachescanchangefromday to day. They form from sediments that are carried from inland areas by

rivers andwind, aswell as from theoceanbottom.Beachesalong theEasternCoastusuallyhavedunesontheinlandside.Strongdunegrassesanchorthesandinplace.Thedunesareanimportantenvironmentforwildlifeandotherplants.

Along the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, narrow barrier islands have formedparallel to the coast in many places. They protect the coast from storms andpowerfulwaves,andformcomplexsystemswithmarshes,dunes,andinlets.

BALDHEADISLANDBaldHeadIsland isabarrier islandoff thecoastofNorthCarolina.Youcan reachBaldHead Islandonlybyferry.Onceontheisland,youcanonlygetaroundbyfoot,bicycle,orgolfcarts.BaldHeadisamixofbeaches,withamarshandaforestthatrunthroughtheisland.Someofthewildlifeontheislandincluderedandgrayfoxes,coyotes,andotters.Along themarshes, look for loons,peregrine falcons,egrets, and great blue herons. In the many freshwater lagoons, you might even see an Americanalligator!

FromMay through October, loggerhead sea turtles nest all along the coast from North Carolina toFlorida,includingatBaldHeadIsland.Loggerheadsareabout3feetlong(about1meter)andhaveanextra big head. They eat crabs and other animals with hard shells, as well as fish and seaweed.Loggerheads are an endangered species because many of them are caught in fishing nets, anddevelopment in theirnestingareashas reduced thenumbersof turtles thathatch.Peoplearetryingtoprotectloggerheadsbyusingfishinggearthatdoesn’tcatchturtles,andbyprotectingnestingareas.

Afemalereturnstonestatthesameplacethatsheherselfhatched.Shemaytravelthousandsofmilestoreach that special place. She climbs up onto the beach and digs a deep hole for the eggs with herflippers.After the eggshatch, thebaby turtlesdig theirwayup through the sand.The hatchlings areonlyabout2incheslong(5centimeters).Theyheadfortheoceanquicklytoescapefrompredatorslikecrabsandbirds.Atnighttheyscurrytowardthebrightestlight,whichisusuallythemoonlightshiningon theocean.Artificial lights canconfuse thehatchlingsaboutwhichway togo, sopeoplewho livealongbeachesaretryingtoreducetheiruseoflightsatnight.

DIDYOUKNOW?CapeFearisanarrowpieceoflandthatsticksoutintotheoceanfromBaldHeadIslandinNorth

Carolina.Itgetsitsnameforareason.TheCapeFearRiverandtheGulfStreamcometogetherhere,andthemixingcurrentscreatedangerouswaters.Offthecoastoftheislandare30milesofdangerous

watersandsandbars(48kilometers),calledtheFryingPanShoals.

LIGHTHOUSESRockyshoresontheEasternCoasthaveformedwhereglaciersandstrongwaveshaveremovedthefine-grainedsedimentfromacoast.InMaineandotherpartsofNewEngland,theglaciersretreatedquicklyanddidn’tleavemuchsedimentbehind.

harbor:aprotectedindentinacoastlinewhereshipscananchorandunload.

Lighthouseswarnshipsofdangerouscoastlinesandhelpguide themalongthecoastandintosafeharbors.Thistalltowerwithalightmustbehighenoughtobeseenfromfaraway.Eachlighthousehasitsownpatternofflashingonand

off,andsometimesevenacoloredlight.Atnight,ashipcaptainknowswhereheis by the pattern of the lights. The shape of the lighthouse and its colors andpatternsofpaintiscalleditsdaymark.

LighthouseswereusedasfarbackasancientEgyptandChina. In theyear283, the Egyptians built the tallest lighthouse in history. It stood 900 feet tall(274meters)andworkedfor1,500years.ThefirstlighthouseinNorthAmericawasbuiltinSt.Augustine,Florida,in1586.TheoldestlighthouseintheUnitedStatesthatstillexistsistheSandyHookLighthouseinNewJersey.Itwasbuiltin1764,andit’sstillinoperation!TheUnitedStateshasalongcoastline,withmorelighthousesthananyothernation.

ACADIAAcadiaNationalParkisaclusterofislandsontheMainecoast.LikemuchofthenorthernAtlanticcoast

inMaineandCanada,theparkhasarockyshoreline.Thetidesbringinwater twiceaday.When thetidesgoout,someofthewaterstaysbehindintidepools,whicharebustlingwithplantsandanimals.Thisareaiscalledtheintertidalzonebecauseitisexposedbetweenthetides.Creatureshavetobeveryresourcefultoliveinthisareabecausesometimestheyarecoveredinseawater,andothertimesexposedto air. Some of the creatures that live in tide pools are barnacles, sea stars, mussels, crabs, and seacucumbers.

Before electricity, lighthouses were lit using fires. Later the lamps werefueled by oil.A lighthouse keeperwas responsible for tending the lighthouse,whichincludedaddingthefuel,windingclocks,maintainingthelighthouses,andweathering storms. They usually lived in a small house attached to thelighthouse,ofteninremoteandlonelylocations.Lighthousekeeperssometimesriskedtheirlivestorescuepeoplefromshipsthatsankduringstorms.

In1907,theSwedishinventorNilsDalendevelopeda“solarvalve”thatshutoffthelightatsunrise.Thevalverelitthelightifitwascloudyorfoggy,andatnight. With this invention, lighthouses could work more efficiently. DalenreceivedtheNobelPrizeinphysicsforthisworkin1912.

Of course, everything is automated now and lighthouse keepers aren’tneeded anymore.Many lighthouses aren’t even needed anymore because shipcaptainshaveGPSandotherwaysofknowingwheretheyare.

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MAKEYOUROWNLIGHTHOUSE

SUPPLIES•pencil

•onesheetof8½-by-11-inchstiffwhitepaper•scissors

•small,3.5ounceclearplasticcup•blackandredmarkers

•cellophanetape

•blackconstructionpaper

•largeglass

•pen-sizedflashlight

•ballofplayclay

Usingthepencil,drawtheoutlineshownhereonthepaper.Maketheshapeasbigasyoucan.Outlinethestripes,butdon’tcolortheminyet.

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Cutouttheshape.Rollthepaperintoacone-shapetowerthatisnarroweratthetopbutwithanopeningwideenoughforthebottomoftheplasticcupto

fitinside.Slideoneedgeunderneaththeoppositeedge.Makesurethelinesforthestripesmeet.Iftheydon’t,slightlyredrawthelinessotheydo.

Unroll thepaperand lay it flat.Color thebottomedge redand the topedgeblack.Thencolorinthediagonalstripesblack.

Roll thepaperbackupand tape it closed,making sure the stripesmeet andoneedgeisunderneaththeother.Youcancolorabitmorewithblackmarker

tohelpthestripesmeet.

Insert thebottomof theplasticcup into the topof the tower.The topof thecupshouldstickout.Tapethecuptothepapertower.

Ontheblackpaper,tracearoundthelargeglasstomakeacircle.Cutoutthecircle, then cut a straight line from the outside of the circle to the center.

Overlap the twocutedgesslightly toformaconeshape.Tape theedges.Tapetheconeontopoftheclearplasticcupsothatitlookslikeahat.

Rollaballofclayandflattenitslightly.Pressthebottomoftheflashlightintotheclaysothattheflashlightcanstandupright.Turnitonandplacethepaper

towerovertheflashlight.

WHAT’SHAPPENING?

TheCapeHatterasLighthouseisthetallestandoneofthebest-knownlighthousesinAmerica.ItislocatedonHatterasIslandintheOuterBanksofNorthCarolina.Itis208feettall(63meters),andwasconstructedfromabout1,250,000bricks.Thisregionwasknownasthe“GraveyardoftheAtlantic”becausesomanyshipssankintheoceanstormsinthearea.TheGulfStreamcollideswithcolderwaterfromthenorthhere,whichmakesfortreacherous

waters.TheCapeHatteraslightisvisibleevery7.5secondsandcanbeseenfor

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upto24milesunderclearconditions(39kilometers).Itsdaymarkisadiagonalblackandwhitestripe,similartoabarbershoppole—justliketheoneyou

made.

MAKEYOUROWNCORIOLISEFFECT

SUPPLIES•whiteposterboardorlargesheetofpaper•scissors

•friend

•marker

Cut the posterboard into a circle.Hold it against thewall by pressing yourfingerinthecenterofthecircle.Presshardenoughtoholdthepaperagainst

thewallbutsothatthepapercanturnfreely.Haveyourfriendpracticespinningthepaperclockwise.Thepapershouldturnatasteadyrate.

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3

While your friend is turning the paper, take themarker in your other hand.Drawfromtoptobottomonthepaperinastraightlinethroughthecenter.

Takedownthepaperandturnitover.Switchplacesanddothesamething,butthistimeturnthepapercounterclockwise.Takedownyourpaperandlookat

bothsides.Arethelinesstraight?

WHAT’SHAPPENING?

WindsandcurrentsofwaterareaffectedbytheCorioliseffect-Whenyouturnedthepaperclockwise,themovementofthelinecurvedtotheleft.Thisishow

motionoccursintheSouthernHemisphereasthegloberotatesfromwesttoeast.Whenyouturnedthepapercounterclockwise,itwaslikethemotionintheNorthernHemisphere,andthelinecurvedtotheright.Hurricanesinthe

NorthernHemispheremovewestanduptheEasternCoastduetotheCorioliseffect.It’salsowhytheGulfStreamtravelsnorthalongtheEasternCoast,then

outintotheAtlantic.

GLOSSARYacidic:fromacids,whicharechemicalcompoundsthattastesour.Examplesarevinegarandlemonjuice.Wateralsocontainssomeacid.

adapt:changesaplantoranimalmakestosurvive.

albino:ahuman,animal,orplantthatisverypaleanddoesnothavetheusualamountofskin,eye,andhaircolor.

altitude:theelevation,orheightabovesealevel.

asthenosphere: the semi-molten middle layer of the earth that includes thelowermantle.Muchoftheasthenosphereflowsslowly,likeSillyPutty.

atmosphere:theairsurroundingtheearth.

barge:aflat-bottomedboatusedtotransportheavyloadsonriversorcanals.Abargeispushedbyatowboat.

base:asubstancewithabitter taste.Soap isusuallyabase.So isbakingsodaandammonia.

bayou:atermusedmainlyinMississippiandLouisianafortheswampyarmorslow-movingoutletofalake.

bedrock:solidrockunderloosematerialsuchassoil,sand,clay,orgravel.

biodiversity:therangeoflivingthingsinanarea.

blizzard: a severe snow stormwith highwinds, low temperatures, and heavysnow.

brackish:slightlysaltywaterthatisamixofseawaterandriverwater.

brittle:describesasolidthatbreakswhenputunderpressure.Abladeofgrass

willbend,butadrytwigisbrittleandwillbreak.

carbon:anelementfoundinalllivingthings.

carbondioxide: a gas formedby the rottingof plants and animals, andwhenanimalsbreatheout.

cave:anaturalundergroundopeningconnectedtothesurface,largeenoughforapersontoenter.

cavern:averylargecaveorsystemofinterconnectedcaves.

chasm:adeepcrackorhole.

climate:theaverageweatherofanareaoveralongperiodoftime.

coal:adarkbrownorblackrockformedfromdecayedplants.Coalisusedasafuel.

coastalplain: a flat area that is bound by the sea on one side and an area ofhigherelevationontheotherside.

continental:relatingtotheearth’slargelandmasses.

continentalshelf:theborderofacontinentthatslopesgraduallyunderwater.

convergentboundary:wheretwoplatescometogether.

core: thecenteroftheearth,composedofthemetalsironandnickel.Thecorehasasolidinnercoreandaliquidoutercore.

crop:aplantgrownforfoodandotheruses.

crust:thethick,outerlayeroftheearth.

current:aconstantlymovingmassofliquid.

dense:tightlypacked.

divergent boundary: where two plates are moving in opposite directions,sometimes called a rift zone. New crust forms at rift zones from the magmapushingthroughthecrust.

dredge:equipmentthatscoopsupobjectsandmudfromthebottomofariverorocean.

earthquake:asuddenmovementintheouterlayeroftheearth.Itreleasesstressbuiltupfromthemotionoftheearth’splates.

ecosystem: a community of plants and animals living in the same area andrelyingoneachothertosurvive.

elevation:heightabovesealevel.

endangered:akindofplantoranimalthatisatriskofdisappearingentirely.

equator: an imaginary line around the earth, halfway between the North andSouthPoles.

erosion:thewearingawayandcarryingoffofmaterialsontheearth’ssurface.

eruption:aviolentexplosionofgas,steam,orash.

estuary:apartlyenclosedcoastalbodyofwater,whichhasriversandstreamsflowingintoitandisconnectedtotheocean.

evaporate:whenaliquidheatsupandchangesintoagas.

extinction:thedeathofanentirespeciessothatitnolongerexists.

fault:acrackintheouterlayeroftheearth.

fertile:landthatisgoodforgrowingplants.

floodplain:anareaaroundashallowwindingriverwherethelandislowerthanotherareas.

fossilfuels:oil,naturalgas,andcoal,whicharenaturalfuels thatformedlongagofromtheremainsoflivingorganisms.

fossil:theremainsortracesofancientplantsoranimals.

geography: the studyof the earth and its features, especially the shapeof theland,andtheeffectofhumanactivityontheearth.

geologist:ascientistwhostudiestheearthanditsmovements.

geology:thescientificstudyofthehistoryandphysicalnatureoftheearth.

geyser:aliquidshootinghighintotheair.

glacialperiod:aperiodoftimewithinaniceagewhenalargepartoftheearth’ssurfaceiscoveredwithice.

glaciation:whenalargepartoftheearthiscoveredinice.

glacier:ahugemassoficeandsnow.

gorge: a narrow valley between hills or mountains, usually with steep rockywallsandastreamrunningthroughit.

habitat:thenaturalareawhereaplantoranimallives.

harbor:aprotectedindentinacoastlinewhereshipscananchorandunload.

horizontaldrilling:drillingforoilorgaswherethewellishorizontalorclosetohorizontal.

hotspot:anareainthemiddleofaplate,wherehotmagmarisestothesurface.

hurricane:aseveretropicalstormwithwindsgreaterthan74milesperhour.

hydraulicfracturing:aprocesswhereliquidsarepumpeddownawellathighpressuretoforcethesurroundingrocktofracture,orcrack.

hydroelectricenergy:electricitygeneratedfromtheenergyofflowingwater.

hydrosphere: the earth’s water, including oceans, rivers, lakes, glaciers, andwatervaporintheair.

IceAge: a period of timewhen large ice sheets cover large areas of land. ItparticularlyreferstothemostrecentseriesofglaciationsduringthePleistocene.Aniceagecanincludeshorterperiodswhenglaciersretreat,aswellasperiodswhentheglaciersgrow.

igneousrock:rockthatformsfromcoolingmagma.

interglacial period: a periodwithin an ice age that is somewhatwarmer andglaciersretreat.

invasive species: a species that is not native to an ecosystem and rapidlyexpandstocrowdoutotherspecies.

larvae:thewormlikestageofaninsect’slife.

latitude: the lines that runwest and east on the globe parallel to the equator.Latitudesvaryfromzerodegreesat theequator to90degreesat theNorthandSouthPoles.

limestone:atypeofrockthatoftenformsfromtheshellsofseaanimals.

lithosphere: the rigid outer layer of the earth that includes the crust and theuppermantle.

low pressure: a pocket of air in the atmosphere that is not pushing downstronglytowardEarth.

magma:partiallymeltedrockbelowthesurfaceoftheearth.

mantle:themiddlelayeroftheearth.Theuppermantle,togetherwiththecrust,formsthelithosphere.

metamorphicrock:rockthathasbeentransformedbyheatorpressureorbothintonewrock,whilestayingsolid.

microbes:ahugevarietyof livingcreaturesthataresosmall theycanonlybeseenwithamicroscope.

mine:todigsomethingoutoftheground.

molten:meltedbyheattoformaliquid.

mouth:whereariveremptiesintoanotherbodyofwater.

nativespecies:aspeciesthatbelongsinanecosystem.

naturalgas:acolorless,odorlessgasusedasafuel.

Nor’easter:astormblowingfromthenortheast,usuallyalongthenortheasterncoastoftheUnitedStates.Itoftenbringshighwindsandcoldtemperatures.

NorthernHemisphere:thehalfoftheearthnorthoftheequator.ThesouthernhalfiscalledtheSouthernHemisphere.

nutrients:substancesthatlivingthingsneedtoliveandgrow.

oceanic:inorfromtheocean.

oil: a thick dark liquid that occurs naturally beneath the earth. Oil can beseparatedintomanyproducts,includinggasolineandotherfuels.

old-growthforest:aforestthatisveryold.

organicmaterial:matterthathascomefromorganisms.

organism:anylivingthing.

plain:alargeareaofflatland.

plateau:alarge,raisedareathatisfairlyflat.

platetectonics:thetheorythatdescribeshowplatesmoveacrosstheearthandinteractwitheachothertoproduceearthquakes,volcanoes,andmountains.

precipitation:rain,snow,oranyformofwaterfallingtoEarth.

predator:ananimalthathuntsanotheranimalforfood.

rawmaterial:amaterialthatcanbeusedtomakeaneworusefulproduct.

reef:anareaofrocks,coral,orsandthatisclosetothesurfaceofthewater.

renewable resource: any natural resource that isn’t used up, that can bereplaced.

reptile: a cold-blooded animal such as a snake, lizard, alligator, or turtle, thathasaspine,layseggs,hasscalesorhornyplaces,andbreathesair.

Richterscale:ascaleusedtomeasurethestrengthofanearthquake.

rifting:whenthelithospheresplitsapart.

sawgrass:atallgrassinmarshyareas,withleavesthathaveedgesthatlookliketheteethofasaw.

seaport:aplacewhereshipscanloadandunload.

sedimentaryrock:rockformedfromthecompressionofsediments,theremainsofplantsandanimals,orfromtheevaporationofseawater.

sediment:looserockparticlessuchassandandclay.

seismicwave:awaveofenergygeneratedfromanearthquake.Thewavetravelsthroughtheearth.

seismograph:aninstrumentthatmeasurestheintensityofaseismicwave.

sinkhole: a hole or depression in the land, normally caused by erosion in theunderlyingrock.Sinkholescanswallowcarsorevenhomes.

slave:apersonownedbyanotherpersonandforcedtoworkwithoutspecies:agroupofplantsoranimalsthatarerelatedandlooklikeeachother.

speleothem:adistinctivecaveformation,suchasastalactiteorstalagmite.

stagnant:notmoving.

subduction:whenonetectonicplateslidesunderneathanothertectonicplate.

subtropical:anareaclosetothetropicswheretheweatheriswarm.

technology:tools,methods,andsystemsusedtosolveaproblemordowork.

tectonic:relatingtotheforcesthatproducemovementandchangesintheearth’scrust.

tradewinds: steadywinds that blow from east to west in a belt between 30degreeslatitudeabovetheequatorto30degreeslatitudebelowtheequator.

transformboundary:wheretwoplatesslideagainsteachother.

tropical:ahotclimate,usuallyneartheequator.

tropicalstorm:arevolvingstormthatformsinthetropics.

volcano: a vent in the earth’s surface through which magma, ash, and gaseserupt.

watershed:thelandareathatdrainsintoariverorstream.

watervapor:waterasagas,likesteamormist.

wharf:alandingplacewhereshipscantieuptoloadorunload.

whirlpool:acurrentofwaterspinninginacircle.

RESOURCESBOOKSAnderson,Alan,GwenDiehn,andTerryKrautwurst.GeologyCrafts forKids:50NiftyProjects toExplore theMarvelsofPlanetEarth.NewYork:Sterling,1998.

Blobaum,Cindy andMichaelKline.GeologyRock 50Hands-OnActivities toExploretheEarth.Vermont:WilliamsonPublishingCompany,1999.

Carson,MaryKay.InsideHurricanes(InsideSeries).NewYork:Sterling,2010.

Challoner,Jack.Hurricane&Tornado(DKEyewitnessBooks).NewYork:DKChildren,2004.

Farndon,John.HowtheEarthWorks.NewYork:DorlingKindersleyPublishersLtd,1999.

Geore,Michael.Glaciers.Mankato,Minnesota:CreativeEducation,Inc.,1991.

Nadeau,Isaac.Glaciers.NewYork:PowerkidsPress,2006.

WEBSITES•www.maps.google.comSatelliteviewof theEasternCoastRegion.Clickon

theSatellitetabandscrolltowhereveryouwanttolook.Youcanzoominorout.

• www.nps.gov National Park Service main web site. Click on links to findspecificnationalparksandmonumentssuchasEvergladesNationalPark.

• www.42explore.com/mining.htm Cool information about mining, caves,hurricanes,MississippiRiver•pubs.usgs.gov/sim/2830/Beautiful,detailedmaps by the U.S. Geologic Society of the Appalachian Mountains andtectonicevents.

• mineralsciences.si.edu/tdpmap/ World Interactive Map of Volcanoes,Earthquakes, Impact Craters, and Plate Tectonics, by Smithsonian, USGS,andUSNavalResearchLaboratory.

•earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/Earthquakesinallstates.

• earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/kids/ U.S. Geological Survey (U.S.G.S.)EarthquakesforKidssite.

•www.energyquest.ca.gov/story/chapter08.html Information about coal, oil,andnaturalgas.

• www.eia.gov/kids/index.cfm Kids web site about renewable andnonrenewableenergysources.

• www.nature.nps.gov/geology/caves/index.htm Information on caves andkarsttopography,especiallyintheNationalParks.

• www.usatoday.com/weather/resources/askjack/archives-weather-extremes.htmQuestionsandAnswersaboutWeatherfacts.

•earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/view.php?id=15399A3-Dcut-awaymodelofHurricaneKatrina.Clickonthelinkforananimation.

•www.americanrivers.org/about-rivers/Factsaboutrivers,dams,riversongs,andmore.

•water.usgs.gov/WaterresourcesintheU.S.

• kids.nationalgeographic.com/kids/animals/creaturefeature/american-alligator/InformationandimagesonAmericanalligators.

• www.dep.state.fl.us/coastal/habitats/coral/ Information on Florida’s coralreefs.

INDEXA

activities

Cavern,60–61

CoriolisEffect,116

EarthquakeWaves,46

FoldedMountains,28–29

FrackingHose,45

Hurricane,74–75

Kettles,62

Lighthouse,114–115

NakedEggs,102–103

OilSpill,47

PillowBasalts,18–19

PressureDifferences,76

Raft,90

SweetWaterfall,89

WeatheringStation,30

Alabama,2,25,50,53,71,86–87,99,104,106

alligatorsandcrocodiles,1,3,84,94,96–97,99,111

animals,1,3,17,26,27,38,43–44,47,54–55,84,91,92,93,94,95–101,104,106,107–109,111,113

AppalachianMountains,1,5,12,14,16,20–23,24,29,39,49,50,66,78

AppalachianOrogeny,13–14,23

AppalachianTrail,4,24,67

Arkansas,2,25,34,99,100

AtlanticOcean,1,3,8–9,14,15,66,69,78,82,104–106.

SeealsoGulfofMexico

B

BaldHeadIsland,111

basalt,18,19,22

bayous,99–100

beaches,110.Seealsocoast/coastline

BlueRidgeMountains,16,21

boats,bargesandships,79,85,86

C

CapeHatteras,105,115

caves,37,50–55,61

ChesapeakeBay,1,4,49,82,104,107–109,110

climate,14,15,56,64–73,105.SeealsoiceandIceAges;temperature;weather

ClingmansDome,25,26,67

coal,31,37–39

coast/coastline,104–113,115,116

Connecticut,2,25,57,82,104

ConnecticutRiver,82

coralreefs,44,91,100–101,103,110

D

dams,84,87,88

DeepwaterHorizonoilspill,42–44

Delaware,2,25,48,104

E

earthlayers,4,6–7,9,11,32

earthquakes,6,8,10,31–37,46

ecosystems,3,91–101

environmentalissues,42–44,103,109

ErieCanal,79,80

erosionandweathering,6,11,12,14,15,21,23,24,29,30,50,51,54,81–82,89

Everglades,1,92–99

F

fireflies,3,27

fish,84,99–100,106,109

floods,4,87

Florida,1,2,25,48,50,53,65,66,92–99,100–101,104,105,106,110,112

Floridapanthers,94,97

fossilfuels,31,37–44,47

G

geography,1–4.Seealsobayous;caves;climate;coast/coastline;glaciers;lakes;mountains;plainsandplateaus;rivers;valleys;wetlands

geology,1–4.Seealsoearthquakes;platetectonics;rocks;volcanoes

Georgia,2,12,14,25,104,105

glaciers,14,15,24,55–56,57–59,63,81,107,112

GreatSmokyMountains,3,12,16,21,27

GulfofMexico,3,42–44,66,78,83–84,104,105,106

GulfStream,105–106,115,116

H

HudsonRiver,78–79

hurricanesandtropicalstorms,64,67–72,75,76,101,116

hydroelectricenergy,87,88

I

iceandIceAges,49,56–57,58.Seealsoglaciers

igneousrocks,17,22

iguanas,98,99

J

JamesRiver,82

K

Kentucky,2,10,21,25,34,39,50,53–55,86–87

L

lakes,14,53,93

lava,9,19,22.Seealsomagma

levees,72,85

lighthouses,112–113,115

limestone,50–51,53,54,61

liquefaction,37

loggerheadseaturtles,111

Louisiana,2,25,48,71–72,84,99,100,104,106

M

magma,8,9,10,11,15,17

Maine,2,25,57,58,65,66,104,105,107,112,113

MammothCave,50,53–55,61

manatees,97

mangroveforests,84,94,99

maps,2,24,34,36,39,44,49,57,68,71,77,83,104,105,106,108

Maryland,1,2,4,21,25,35,41,49,82,104,107–109,110

Massachusetts,2,21,25,35,57,82,104

metamorphicrocks,14,17,22,23,26

minerals,17,19,22,54,55,103

Mississippi,2,25,48,71,86–87,99,104,106

MississippiRiver,1,4,35,37,78,83–85,86,87,99

mountains,1,5,6,9,10,12,14,15,16,20–27,29,39,49,50,58,66,73,78.Seealso

volcanoes;specific

mountainsandranges

MountWashington,1,25,73

N

NationalParksandPreserves,16,22,24,26,27,92,94,97,101,113

NativeAmericans,24,55,86

naturalgas,31,37–38,40–42

naturalresources,31,37–44,47,87,88

NewHampshire,1,2,21,25,57,73,82,104

NewJersey,2,25,57,104,112

NewMadridSeismic

Zone,10,34–35,37

NewYork,2,12,21,25,41,50,57,58,59,78–79,81,104

NiagaraFalls/Niagara

River,80–82,89

Nor’easters,64,73

NorthCarolina,2,12,21,24,25,104,105,111,115

O

OhioRiver,83,86

oil,31,37–38,40–44,47

OldSowwhirlpool,107

orogeny,13–14,23

P

paleoliquefaction,37

Pangaea,13,14

panthers,Florida,94,97

Pennsylvania,2,21,25,39,40,41,57,82,86,87

Piedmontregion,16,21,50

plainsandplateaus,6,16,21,48–51

plants,17,26,38,91,92,93,94,95,98–99,101,104,106,107–109,110,111,113

platetectonics,5–17,29

PotomacRiver,82

pressure,6–7,9,17,23,30,38,41,43,45,67,76

pythons,98,99

R

rain,24,51,54,70–71,77,87.Seealsohurricanesandtropicalstorms

RhodeIsland,2,25,48,57,104

Richterscale,32,33

rivers,1,4,14,35,37,49,58,77–88,89,93,99,108.

Seealsospecificrivers

rocks,3–4,8,11–14,16,17,18,21–24,29,30,32,36–37,40,46,49,50–51,57–59,63,81–82,89.Seealsobasalt;coal;limestone

RockyMountains,9

Rodinia,12,18

S

salamanders,26,27

sedimentaryrocks,13,16,17,22,40,49,50

sinkholes,39,51,53

snow,55,64,73,77,87.SeealsoiceandIceAges;winterstorms

SouthCarolina,2,12,25,104,105

stalactites,stalagmites,speleothems,37,51–52,54

SusquehannaRiver,49,82,108

T

tectonics,plate,5–17,29

temperature,6,7,8,14,15,17,29,30,56,65–66,104,105.Seealsoclimate

Tennessee,2,10,12,21,25,26,34,50,67,86–87

TennesseeRiver,86–87

transportation,77,78–79,85,86

turtles,111

V

valleys,16,21

Vermont,2,21,25,57,82

Virginia,2,12,21,22,25,35–36,41,50,82,104

volcanoes,6,8,9,10,14,18,22.Seealsolava;magma

W

Washington,D.C.,35–36,82

waterfalls,80–82,89

weather,26,64–73.Seealsoclimate;hurricanesandtropicalstorms;iceandIceAges;rain;snow;winterstorms

WestVirginia,2,21,25,39,41,53,82

wetlands,1,84,91–100,110

WhiteMountains,1,21,25,73

wildlife.Seeanimals

winterstorms,64,72–73