geology and mineral resources of the northern territory€¦ · australian continent. its dominant...

Ahmad M and Munson TJ (compilers)

Northern Territory Geological SurveySpecial Publication 5

Chapter 2: Geological framework

Geology and mineral resourcesof the Northern Territory

BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCE: Ahmad M and Scrimgeour IR, 2013. Chapter 2: Geological framework: in Ahmad M and Munson TJ (compilers). ‘Geology and mineral resources of the Northern Territory’. Northern Territory Geological Survey, Special Publication 5.

DisclaimerWhile all care has been taken to ensure that information contained in this publication is true and correct at the time of publication, changes in circumstances after the time of publication may impact on the accuracy of its information. The Northern Territory of Australia gives no warranty or assurance, and makes no representation as to the accuracy of any information or advice contained in this publication, or that it is suitable for your intended use. You should not rely upon information in this publication for the purpose of making any serious business or investment decisions without obtaining independent and/or professional advice in relation to your particular situation. The Northern Territory of Australia disclaims any liability or responsibility or duty of care towards any person for loss or damage caused by any use of, or reliance on the information contained in this publication.

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Geological framework

Fisher and Warren (1975) subdivided the continent into four orogenic provinces, each forming basement to succeeding ‘platform cover’ successions. Plumb (1979) introduced the term North Australian Craton (NAC) for the large basement terrane that covers the northern two thirds of the NT as well

‘Central Australian Mobile Belts’ as representing the region between the NAC and the Gawler Craton of South Australia. This subdivision has been followed by a number of NTGS publications. In a seminal paper on the tectonic evolution of Proterozoic Australia, Myers et al (1996) followed a similar nomenclature, dividing Precambrian Australia into the West Australian Craton (WAC), North Australian Craton (NAC) and South Australian Craton (SAC). Myers et al proposed that the NAC was separated from other cratons by the ‘Central Australian Terranes’, which included the Arunta Region and Musgrave Province. Fraser et al (2007) and Cawood and Korsch (2008) also divided the Precambrian component of Australia into these three cratons (NAC, SAC and WAC), separated by the Paterson, Musgrave and Albany-Fraser orogens (Figure 2.1). However, they included the Aileron Province of the Arunta Region within the NAC and did not

the NAC is used in this volume.

INTRODUCTION

The Northern Territory comprises about 13% of the Australian continent. Its dominant tectonic element is the Palaeoproterozoic North Australian Craton, which extends across much of northern Australia. Localised Neoarchaean inliers within the craton indicate the likely presence of widespread Archaean basement. Orogenic domains within the craton are overlain by widespread and locally thick Palaeo–Mesoproterozoic sedimentary basins. The North Australian Craton passes south into late Palaeoproterozoic to Mesoproterozoic terranes of the Warumpi and Musgrave provinces. Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic sedimentary basins cover large areas of the Territory, forming shallow platform cover in the north, and thicker and more deformed sedimentary successions in the south. Large areas of the Territory are also covered by a veneer of Mesozoic and/or

The Northern Territory in the context of the Australian continent

Numerous models have been proposed for the province-based subdivision and tectonic evolution of the Australian continent.

Current as of January 2013

Palaeo–Mesoproterozoic basins

Neoproterozoic–Phanerozoic

Palaeo–Mesoproterozoic orogens

Archaean

18°

12°

111° 117° 123° 129° 135° 141° 147° 153°

24°

30°

42°

36°

0 250 500 km

GeorgetownInlier

CoenInlier

YilgarnCraton

Albany-FraserOrogen

KimberleyBasin

McArthurBasin

GawlerCraton

TERRA

Curnamona Province

MusgraveProvince

TennantRegion

Tanami

BirrinduduBasin

MurphyProvince

RegionMount

IsaInlier

AileronProvince

WarumpiProvince

Pine CreekOrogen

Halls CreekOrogen

KingLeopoldOrogen

A13-002.ai

Craton boundariesState boundary

NORTH

AUSTRALIAN

SOUTHAUSTRALIAN

CRATON

AUSTRALIAN CRATON

PatersonOrogen

PilbaraCratonGascoyne

Province

AUSTRALIS

OROGENCRATON

WEST

McArthurBasin

Figure 2.1rocks. Geological regions after Hutchison (2012); craton boundaries after Cawood and Korsch (2008).

Chapter 2: GEOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK M Ahmad and IR Scrimgeour

Geology and mineral resources of the Northern Territory Special publication 5


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The North Australian Craton (Plumb 1979, Myers et al 1996, Cawood 2005, Cawood and Korsch 2008) underlies around 80% of the Northern Territory. It extends into Western Australia, where it includes the Halls Creek and King Leopold orogens and Kimberley Basin, and into Queensland where it includes the Mount Isa, Georgetown and Coen inliers. The NAC is bounded in the south and southwest by more juvenile Proterozoic terranes in the Musgrave, Warumpi and Paterson orogens, and to the east by the Terra Australis Orogen (Figure 2.2), which incorporates the Tasman, Ross and Tuhua orogens of Australia, Antarctica and New Zealand, respectively. In the north, it extends to the coastline and underlies at least part of the adjoining continental shelf (Cawood and Korsch 2008). The NAC is characterised by late Palaeoproterozoic metasedimentary and igneous rocks (with ages most commonly in the range 1870–1800 Ma), overlying rarely exposed Neoarchaean basement. The NAC shares numerous characteristics with the South Australian Craton, including a similar timing for a number of magmatic and tectonic events. This has led a number of authors to suggest that the two cratons were linked during at least some of their Archaean to Palaeoproterozoic evolution (Betts et al 2002, Giles et al 2004, Betts and Giles 2006, Payne et al 2009). Cawood and Korsch (2008) proposed the term Diamantina Craton for the combined North and South Australian cratons, which they considered to have been conjoined until after 1500 Ma.

To the east of the North Australian Craton, the Terra Australis Orogen consists of Neoproterozoic rift and continental margin successions and accretionary Palaeozoic convergent plate margin assemblages (Cawood and Korsch 2008). These successions are linked to intracratonic basins that accumulated over Proterozoic cratons such as the NAC (eg Neoproterozoic–early Palaeozoic Centralian Superbasin, Palaeozoic successions of the Amadeus, Georgina and Ngalia basins, and late Palaeozoic–early Mesozoic Pedirka Basin). During a major marine transgression in the Mesozoic, large areas of Australia, including much of the Territory, were covered by shallow platform and marginal shelf deposits (eg Great Australian and Westralian superbasins), with localised deeper depocentres.

GEOLOGICAL REGIONS AND PROVINCES OF THE NORTHERN TERRITORY

Figure 2.3 is a map of the geological regions of the Northern Territory and adjacent areas of neighbouring states. The geological regions outline the two-dimensional surface extent of the geological provinces of the Northern Territory.

three-dimensional bodies of rock with distinct geological characteristics and ages, which are separated from other provinces by major structures and/or unconformities. In most cases, the name for a geological region is the same as the province exposed in that region (eg Musgrave Province). However, two regions (Arunta and Tennant)

constituent provinces. In general, the nomenclature for orogenic domains uses the terms ‘Province’ or ‘Orogen’ whereas relatively unmetamorphosed sedimentary basins are given the term ‘Basin’. An exception to this is the ‘Lawn Hill Platform’ in the eastern NT, most of which is in

nomenclature of the NT’s geological regions have been made in this volume. The former ‘Victoria-Birrindudu Basin’ is now split into the Birrindudu, Fitzmaurice and Victoria basins. The Murphy and Carrara Range inliers

the Arnhem and Mirarrmina inliers are included within

Centralian Superbasin of Walter et al (1995) is renamed the Centralian A Superbasin, and an overlying, previously unnamed early Palaeozoic superbasin that developed after

as the Centralian B Superbasin. Cambrian igneous and minor associated sedimentary rocks of the Kalkarindji Large Igneous Province are included as a new geological region (Kalkarindji Province). Following Ambrose et al (2012), Triassic strata of the ‘Simpson Basin’ (or ‘Simpson Desert Basin’) are included within the Pedirka Basin and the name ‘Simpson Basin’ is abandoned. Cretaceous strata of the former ‘Dunmarra Basin’ (‘Inland Belt’ of Skwarko 1966) are incorporated as an onshore component of the Carpentaria Basin.

Subdivision of the Proterozoic in the Northern Territory

D’Addario et algeological map of the NT that included a chronometric scale. The Precambrian subdivisions used in this map were Archaean (>2.3 Ga), Lower Proterozoic (2.3–1.8 Ga), Carpentarian (1.8–1.4 Ga) and Adelaidian (1.4–0.57 Ga). Following recommendations by the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS), the Precambrian timescale has since been divided (see Gradstein et al 2004) into Archaean (>2500 Ma), Palaeoproterozoic (2500–1600 Ma), Mesoproterozoic (1600–1000 Ma) and Neoproterozoic (1000–542 Ma). These replaced the terms Lower Middle (1700–1000 Ma) and Upper Proterozoic (1000–570 Ma). All Northern Territory maps published prior to 1993 used one of the other of these earlier now-superseded subdivisions.

India

Australia

Antarctica

AfricaSouth America

Palaeo-Pacific Ocean

A13-003.ai

Cratonic regions

Terra Australis Orogen

Figure 2.2. Schematic palinspastic reconstruction of Gondwana

Cawood 2005).


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0 250 500 kmTennantCreek

LouisaBasin

Mesozoic-Cenozoic Early CambrianKalkarindji Province

Road Rail

Palaeo-Mesoproterozoicbasins

Palaeo-Mesoproterozoicorogens Archaean

State boundary Locality

Neoproterozoic-Palaeozoic

Lawn HillPlatform

SouthNicholson

Basin

Lawn HillPlatform

MurphyProvince

NT

QLD

NTSA

QLDSA

Birrindudu Basin

Alice Springs

Darwin

(Arckaringa Basin)

OfficerBasin

Musgrave Province

EromangaBasin

EromangaBasin

(Warburton Basin)

(Warburton Basin)

CarpentariaBasin

(PedirkaBasin)

PedirkaBasin

AileronProvince

(CooperBasin)

Halls Creek

Kununurra

Nhulunbuy

Alyangula

Tennant Creek

Mount Isa

Jabiru

Katherine

Wyndham

Carr-BoydBasin

BonaparteBasin

Bonaparte Basin

OrdBasin

OrdBasin

WolfeBasin

WolfeBasin

RedRockBasin Victoria

Basin

VictoriaBasin

CanningBasin

TanamiRegion

KimberleyBasin

Speewah Basin

Bastian Basin

Murraba Basin

BirrinduduBasin

TanamiRegionTanamiRegion

REGION

Daly Basin

DalyBasin

Birrindudu Basin

FitzmauriceBasin

129°127°

TANAMI

HallsCreek

Orogen

HallsCreek

Orogen

WolfeBasin

TomkinsonProvince

Canning Basin

Canning Basin

DavenportProvince

IrindinaProvince

WisoBasin

GeorginaBasin

GeorginaBasin

GeorginaBasin

South NicholsonBasin

MOUNT

Pine CreekOrogen

Money Shoal Basin

CarpentariaBasin

CarpentariaBasin

Carpentaria Basin

McArthurBasin

Arafura BasinArnhem Province

WarramungaProvince

WA

NT

WA

SA

133° 135° 137° 139 °131°

19°

17°

15°

13°

11°

21°

23°

25°

27°

TENNANT

REGION

ARUNTA

REGION

Ngalia Basin

Amadeus Basin

Warumpi Province

Murraba Basin Aileron Province

Amadeus Basin

Amadeus Basin

Amadeus Basin

Eromanga Basin

A12-003.ai

INLIER

ISA

Leichhardt River FaultTrough, Ewan Block,

Myally Shelf

EasternSuccessionKalkadoon-

Leichhardt Belt

Basins (under cover): (Warburton Basin); (other – as labelled)(Pedirka Basin); (Amadeus Basin)

Yulara

?

Figure 2.3. Geological regions of the Northern Territory and surrounding areas; Cenozoic basins and some small outliers/inliers omitted. Map of Cenozoic basins is provided in . Subsurface extent of major basins (Amadeus, Warburton, Pedirka, Arckaringa, Cooper basins) in southeast shown with dashed outlines. NT geological regions derived from NTGS 1:2.5M GIS

(2009), Geoscience Australia (GA) Geological Regions National Geoscience Dataset and interpretation of TMI image of western Queensland

http://www.sarig.dmitre.sa.gov.au/) and from GA Geological Regions National Geoscience Dataset. Margins of subsurface Pedirka Basin compiled from Ambrose (2006), Middleton et al (2007), Central Petroleum Ltd (ASX announcement 22 April 2009) and SARIG.



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The revised IUGS Precambrian subdivision does not agree particularly well with the major chronostratigraphic subdivisions of the Precambrian of the Northern Territory. For example, the Palaeoproterozoic includes both the Pine Creek Orogen and a large part of the McArthur Basin succession. For this reason, the Proterozoic of the Northern Territory was divided into ten informal packages (LP1–LP10) for use in the revised Geological Map of the Northern Territory (Ahmad 2000, 2001). These packages are based on major regional unconformities that more effectively subdivide the Territory’s Proterozoic geology. This schema continues to be used for the current 1:2.5M-scale geological map and is referred to intermittently throughout this volume.

The Phanerozoic subdivisions used in D’Addario et al (1976) followed standard chronostratigraphic nomenclature and these remain virtually unchanged, although there have

availability of new and more precise geochronological data.

Geological regions

Large swathes of the Northern Territory are dominated by Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic orogens and basins, but the oldest rocks are localised outcrop tracts of Neoarchaean (2670–2500 Ma) granite and gneiss (Figure 2.3). Palaeoproterozoic orogens of the North Australian Craton form widespread and prospective basement [eg Pine Creek Orogen (PCO), Aileron Province, Tanami Region, Tennant Region], with protolith ages most commonly in the range 1870–1730 Ma. Further south, the Warumpi and Musgrave provinces represent more juvenile crust with ages of 1690–1070 Ma.

Widespread Palaeo–Mesoproterozoic basins (eg McArthur, Birrindudu and South Nicholson basins, Tomkinson and Davenport provinces of the Tennant Region) overlie much of the North Australian Craton and are locally connected beneath covering rocks of younger basins. Neoproterozoic to Palaeozoic basins were linked in onshore areas of the NT for much of their history as the Centralian Superbasin, but were substantially affected and structurally dismembered by mid to late Palaeozoic intraplate tectonics in central Australia. The Kalkarindji

event in the late early Cambrian over much of the northern part of the Territory and adjacent states. Mesozoic to Cenozoic basins form widespread cover successions and are relatively undeformed. Pericratonic basins of this age extend offshore to the north of the Territory to the margins of the Australia-India Plate.

A time-space plot showing the broad stratigraphic relationships between the Palaeo–Mesoproterozoic geological provinces of the NT is presented in .

stratigraphic relationships between the Neoproterozoic–late Palaeozoic basins are shown in Centralian Superbasin:

and 22.6, and stratigraphic relationships between the late Palaeozoic–early Mesozoic basins are in

. Detailed chronostratigraphic charts are also provided for each of the NT’s Phanerozoic basins.

The subheadings used below correspond with the subdivisions on the NT Geological Regions map (Figure 2.3).

Archaean inliers

A number of inliers of late Neoarchaean granite and felsic gneiss, and minor metasedimentary rocks outcrop as poorly exposed inliers in the PCO and Tanami Region (see Archaean). These rocks have protolith ages in the range 2670–2500 Ma (Hollis et al 2009). They form the basement to overlying Palaeoproterozoic strata and have been the source for much of the detritus in these successions. This

Neoarchaean population of detrital zircons in dated sedimentary rocks from most provinces of the North Australian Craton.


Palaeo–Mesoproterozoic orogens include both the orogenic domains of the Northern Australian Craton and the younger terranes of the Warumpi and Musgrave provinces. The orogenic domains of the NAC include the Pine Creek Orogen, Arnhem Province, Murphy Province, Warramunga Province, Halls Creek Orogen, Tanami Region and Aileron Province. Metamorphic grade is most commonly greenschist facies, although higher-grade rocks, locally up to granulite facies, occur in some areas, particularly in the Aileron Province, PCO and Arnhem Province. Rocks of early Palaeoproterozoic age are currently only known in the PCO, where they form the 2030–2000 Ma Woodcutters Supergroup, which includes sandstone, shale, mudstone and carbonate rocks (Ahmad and McCready 2001, Worden et al 2008b). Throughout the remainder of the orogenic domains of the NAC, most sedimentation, magmatism and deformation occurred in the interval

the early Mesoproterozoic. This more complex evolution for the Aileron Province has been attributed to its proximity to the southern margin of the craton, which is interpreted to have been active at the time (Scrimgeour 2006).

The timing of sedimentation and volcanism varies throughout the NAC ( ). In the PCO, deposition

Cosmo Supergroup occurred at 1865–1860 Ma, broadly synchronous with deposition in the Warramunga Province (Warramunga Formation) and Murphy Province (Murphy Metamorphics). The Cahill Formation and Nourlangie Schist in the eastern PCO were deposited slightly earlier, at about 1870 Ma (Hollis and Glass 2012). In comparison, the turbiditic successions of the Tanami Region and Aileron Province (Killi Killi and Lander Rock formations) are likely to have been deposited at 1845–1835 Ma, at a similar time to shallower marine sandstone and felsic volcanic rocks of the lower Ooradidgee group of the Tennant Region (Claoué-Long et al 2008a, b). At 1825–1810 Ma, deposition of

(Ware Group) and Tennant Region (upper Ooradidgee


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Geological fram

ework

Roper Group

BASINS FITZMAURICE

Litchfield Central Nimbuwah

Mount Rigg Group Nathan Group

Habgood/Balma groups

ParsonsRange Group

DonydjiGroup

Murphy Metamorphics

BirrinduduGroup

Carrara RangeGroup

Tanami Group

Ware GroupOoradidgee Group

Lander RockFormation

MaddernsYard MC

OpparinnaMetamorphics

StrangwaysMC

Ledan Schist

?

?

TomkinsonCreek Group

Hatches CreekGroup

Iwupataka MC

Yaya MC WalungurruVolcanics

24

23

22

21

18

17

16

14

1511

13 1312

1210

9

8

76

5

4

3

2

1

20

19

Warramunga Formation

Stafford

Tanami

Murphy

Stafford

Tennant

RRG

Strangways

Yambah

Chewings

Leibig

TawallahGroup

TolmerGroup

Edith River/El Sherana

CahillFormation

Groote Eylandt Group

GrindallFormation

Cliffdale VolcanicsNimbuwah

Katherine RiverGroup

Marboo FmCosmo Supergroup

Woodcutters Supergroup

Whitewater

McNamara/Fickling groups

McArthurGroup

LimbunyaGroup

NamerinniGroup

FitzmauriceGroup

SouthNicholson

GroupRennerGroupTijunna,

Bullita andWattie groups

ARNHEM MURPHY TANAMI WARRAMUNGAAILERON

North/West South/East Yaya KintoreHaasts Bluff

WARUMPIMUSGRAVEHALLS CREEK

(NT)

BIRRINDUDU(North)

BIRRINDUDU(South) TOMKINSON DAVENPORT

SOUTHNICHOLSON/LAWN HILL

PINE CREEK OROGEN

Northwest Northeast South

McARTHUR BASIN

OROGENS

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

2000 ?

Deformation and metamorphism Magmatic eventA13-004.ai

Palaeo–Mesoproterozoic basinsPalaeo–Mesoproterozoic orogens

?

?

?

?

? ? ?

metamorphism at greenschist facies or above. For simplicity, numerous unconformities and hiatuses within the sedimentary basins are not represented. For some stratigraphic intervals which include numerous groups or units, the unit name shown is a selected example only (eg. Ledan Schist). Major magmatic events: 1. Bow River Granite, 2. Allia Creek Suite and equivalents, 3. Cullen Supersuite, 4. Nimbuwah Complex, 5. Giddy Suite, 6. Bradshaw Complex, 7. Nicholson Granite Complex, 8. Grimwade, Birthday and Frederick Suites, 9. Tennant Creek Supersuite, 10. Treasure Suite, 11. Devils Suite, 12. 1820-1790 Ma magmatism (eg Anmatjira Orthogneiss), 13. 1780-1760 Ma magmatism (eg Carrington Suite), 14. 1760-1740 Ma magmatism (eg Bruna Granitic Gneiss), 15. Windajong Granite, 16. 1730-1710

magmatic rocks (eg Illili Suite), 23. Tinki and Ininti granites, 24. Musgravian gneiss. Abbreviations: MC – Metamorphic Complex, Fm. – Formation, RRG – Reynolds Range Group.



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Group). Younger metamorphosed basin packages, with ages in the range 1810–1740 Ma occur in the Aileron Province, and include rocks interpreted to have been formed in back-arc settings (Scrimgeour 2006).

et al (2004) as a series of faults that separate the Aileron and Warumpi provinces; these have been collectively termed the Central Australian Suture. South of this structure, the Warumpi Province comprises greenschist- to granulite-facies metasedimentary and meta-igneous rocks, with ages in the range 1690–1600 Ma. It has been subdivided into three domains that have differing protolith ages and structural and metamorphic histories: the amphibolite-facies Haasts Bluff Domain in the south and east, the granulite-facies Yaya Domain in the north, and the greenschist-facies Kintore Domain in the west. The province has been interpreted as an exotic terrane that accreted onto the NAC at around 1640 Ma (Scrimgeour et al 2005).

In the southwestern Northern Territory, the Mesoproterozoic Musgrave Province represents relatively juvenile continental crust in comparison with the NAC. The main elements of the Musgrave Province within the NT are felsic gneisses with ages in the range 1600–1540 Ma, voluminous granites with ages of 1200–1140 Ma, and rift-related sedimentary and bimodal magmatic rocks with ages

et al 2004). In a general sense, the timing of the dominant phases

of Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic granitic magmatism youngs in a southerly direction across the Northern Territory, from 1865–1850 Ma in the north, through 1850–1840 Ma in the Warramunga Province, 1820–1790 Ma in the Tanami Region and northern Aileron Province, 1780–1750 Ma in the southern Aileron Province and 1690–1630 Ma in the Warumpi Province, to 1200–1140 Ma in the Musgrave Province in the south.


Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic basins of northern Australia (Figure 2.3) include the McArthur, Birrindudu, South Nicholson and Fitzmaurice basins, the Tomkinson and Davenport provinces and the Lawn Hill Platform. These basins were termed the ‘North Australian Platform Cover’ by Plumb et al (1981). With the exception of the Davenport Province and Fitzmaurice Basin, they are relatively weakly deformed, but have localised areas of higher deformation in fault zones. Metamorphic grade is generally sub-greenschist facies.

The McArthur, South Nicholson and Birrindudu basins, and Tomkinson Province are all interpreted to be part of a single, large unnamed superbasin that is linked at depth beneath the overlying Georgina, Wiso, Daly and Carpentaria basins. These linked Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic basins also have correlatives in the Mount Isa Inlier in Queensland (Southgate et al 2000). The basal succession of the basins is dominated by sandstone and volcanic rocks and has an age in the range 1800–1710 Ma (LP6 subdivision of Ahmad 2000). It is represented by the Redbank and Goyder packages (Rawlings 1999) in the McArthur Basin, the Tomkinson Creek Group in the Tomkinson Province, and by the Tolmer and Birrindudu groups in the Birrindudu Basin ( ).

This is overlain by a another interval of stromatolitic and evaporitic carbonate rocks, sandstone and shale, comprising the Glyde Package, and Namerinni and Limbunya groups in each basin respectively, which were deposited at about 1650–1630 Ma (LP7). The Fickling and McNamara groups in the Lawn Hill Platform are correlatives of this package. An overlying succession is regionally extensive and includes stromatolitic carbonate rocks and sandstone deposited in sag basins, including the 1620–1580 Ma Favenc Package in the McArthur Basin (LP8) and the Wattie and Bullita groups in the Birrindudu Basin. The LP7 and LP8 successions are correlated with the Isa Superbasin of the Mount Isa Inlier in Queensland (Southgate et al 2000). A overlying succession of predominantly shallow marine sandstones was deposited in epicontinental basins at ca 1500–1400 Ma (LP9) and includes the Wilton Package (McArthur Basin), Renner Group (Tomkinson Province), South Nicholson Group (South Nicholson Basin) and Tijunna Group (Birrindudu Basin).

The Hatches Creek Group in the Davenport Province is correlated with the Tomkinson Creek Group of the Tomkinson

of equivalent age to the Hatches Creek Group extend into the Aileron Province and Tanami Region, where they are more highly deformed and metamorphosed.

The Fitzmaurice Basin contains a greater than 3 km-thick, Palaeo- to ?Mesoproterozoic, sandstone-dominated succession (Fitzmaurice Group) and is lithostratigraphically similar to the Carr Boyd Basin in adjacent regions of Western Australia.

Neoproterozoic–Palaeozoic

Unconformably overlying the Palaeo- to Mesoproterozoic terranes of the NT is the Neoproterozoic–early Palaeozoic

et al (1995), this superbasin included Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks of the Amadeus, Murraba, Ngalia,

Victoria basins (Figure 2.3). In this volume, the Centralian

the early Palaeozoic. The Neoproterozoic depositional system is renamed the Centralian A Superbasin, whereas a widespread Cambrian–Ordovician depositional system that followed the 580–530 Ma Petermann Orogeny and a short period of relative non-deposition in the early Cambrian, is named the Centralian B Superbasin.

300 000 km2) are covered by volcanic rocks and associated minor sedimentary rocks of the late early Cambrian (507 ± 4 Ma) Kalkarindji Province (Kalkarindji Large Igneous Province; Glass 2002, Glass and Phillips 2006). In the Northern Territory, this province includes the Kalkarindji Suite and associated minor sedimentary rocks. Airborne magnetic data shows the province to be

northern Wiso and northern and central Georgina basins.The Irindina Province (Scrimgeour 2004) forms part

of the Arunta Region and is a highly metamorphosed Neoproterozoic to Cambrian basin that includes correlatives of the Centralian Superbasin. The province contains a thick


2:7


metasedimentary succession (Harts Range Group) with

Irindina Province is interpreted to be a deep transtensional rift basin that formed within the Centralian Superbasin during the late Neoproterozoic to Cambrian, before being metamorphosed and exhumed in the early Palaeozoic (Mawby et al 1999, Maidment 2005, Buick et al 2005).

The mostly offshore Cambrian to Cenozoic Bonaparte Basin, along the northwestern margin of the NT, contains a thick onshore sedimentary succession that ranges in age from Cambrian to Permian; this was affected by syn-sedimentary faulting during the Devonian to Carboniferous. In the north of the NT, the Arafura Basin contains a thick, mostly offshore Neoproterozoic to Permian sedimentary succession, the older parts of which extend onshore to the east of Darwin. In the southwestern corner of the NT, the Late Carboniferous to Triassic Pedirka basin contains

swamp deposits. Pedirka Basin sedimentary rocks are correlated with those of the Permian–Triassic Cooper Basin in Queensland and South Australia, the Permian Arckaringa

Basin in South Australia and Western Australia.

Mesozoic–Cenozoic

Large areas of the Northern Territory are covered by a relatively thin veneer of Mesozoic to Cenozoic sedimentary rocks (Figure 2.3). The dominant onshore Mesozoic

and onshore Carpentaria Basin (which includes the former ‘Dunmarra Basin’), but there are also some onshore Mesozoic strata within the Bonaparte and Money Shoal basins. Onshore Cenozoic sedimentary rocks are mostly

the southeastern NT. Cenozoic deposits in central Australia reach depths of up to 250 m. Thicker Mesozoic–Cenozoic successions occur within the offshore Carpentaria, Money Shoal and Bonaparte basins.

Most of the Northern Territory has a well developed and the pedolith. The

principal intervals of the pedolith are the plasmic or arenose zones, mottled zone and the lateritic residuum (lateritic duricrust and lateritic gravel). The lateritic residuum is more common in the northern parts of the NT, whereas calcrete and silcrete are more common in the southern NT. The bulk of the Northern Territory landscape is relatively featureless, and large parts have been stable for long periods of time. From south to north, four surfaces of peneplanation have

Wave Hill and Koolpinyah surfaces. The ages of these surfaces range from pre-Cretaceous to mid-Cenozoic.

TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE NT

The Northern Territory has experienced a number of phases of tectonic activity during its progressive development from

are discussed in the following sections.

The Halls Creek and Pine Creek orogens and Arnhem, Murphy, Tanami and Warramunga provinces (Figure 2.3) underwent deformation and metamorphism in the period 1870–1830 Ma. The apparently similar timing of sedimentation, magmatism and deformation throughout much of the North Australian

et al (1987) to propose that the NAC was affected by a single tectonic event at 1880–1850 Ma, which they named the Barramundi Orogeny. Hancock

et al (1987) proposed an intraplate model for the development of the NAC at this time, which involved the local extension of pre-existing crust so as to form ensialic and intracratonic Palaeoproterozoic domains within the craton. The Barramundi Orogeny was considered to be characterised by an extensive and uniform suite of I-type granites and co-magmatic volcanic rocks that

from those associated with modern subduction-related magmatism. The Barramundi felsic igneous rocks were thought to have been derived by partial melting of a lower

et al 1987). More recent studies have shown that the former

‘Barramundi Orogeny’ was actually a series of spatially and temporally distinct events, with varying styles of tectonism, from extensional deformation (Carson et al 2008) to thrusting and crustal thickening (Hollis and Glass 2012). The timing of events originally attributed to the ‘Barramundi Orogeny’ is also now known to vary widely between different areas, within the range 1865–1800 Ma (Figure 2.3). The evolution of the North Australian Craton during this timeframe is now more commonly attributed to responses to plate margin tectonism, both proximal to the inferred margins and as intraplate responses within the craton (Myers et al 1996, Scrimgeour 2006, Cawood and Korsch 2008, Payne et al 2009). An example of a recent model for the late Palaeoproterozoic to early Mesoproterozoic tectonic evolution of Australia (Payne et al 2009) is shown in Figure 2.5.

In the PCO, the main phase of tectonism occurred in the period 1865–1850 Ma (Hollis and Glass 2012). The

involved the emplacement of granodioritic plutons and amphibolite-facies metamorphism, associated with west-directed thrusting and crustal thickening (Hollis and Glass 2012). This was coincident with felsic volcanism in

(Worden et al 2008a, b). At ca 1855 Ma, S-type granites were emplaced and high-T, low-P metamorphism occurred in the

et al 2008), possibly associated

Compressional deformation in the Central Domain of the PCO has not been directly dated, but is likely to also have occurred at about 1855 Ma. Deformation in the Halls Creek Orogen within the NT is attributed to the Hooper Orogeny at 1865–1850 Ma. In the Arnhem Province, an inferred syn-metamorphic granite has an age of ca 1867 Ma, which suggests that high-grade metamorphism in the province

et al 1997).



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A12-341a.ai

T

S

MI

Basin Inversion

GC

Strangways Event

GI

CP

Extension-related magmatism

and sedimentation

Orogenesis throughoutGawler-Adelie Craton

(Kimban Event)

T MI

Intermittentsedimentation

GC

GI

CP

Depositional hiatus

A/R/L

Subduction roll-backleading to Warumpi Province accretion

Continued sedimentation-Eastern Fold Belt

?

? ??

??

??

ca 1865 Ma sedimentation & volcanismfollowed by orogenesis and magmatism

Arc-

mag

mat

ism

ca 1865 Ma sedimentation & volcanismfollowed by magmatism

Orogenesis at ca 1890 Ma?

ca 1850 Ma sedimentation

Kim

berle

yPC PC

PC

MI

GC

TC

HC

?

?

?

1835 Ma Tanami Event &1810–1800 Ma Stafford Event.

Sedimentation and volcanism in intervening period

PC

TC TC

TC

TC

? ?

T

1840–1810 Ma sedimentation& volcanism

ca 1850–1845 Macoll. orogenesis

pre-1810 Ma sedimentation1810–1800 Ma Stafford Event

A

A A

A

A

MI

ca 1800 Ma onset of basin formation - Leichardt Superbasin

E–W extension

1810–1800 Ma sedimentation & volcanism

PC PC

TCT

1780–1770 Ma Yambah Event

A

MI

??

Subduction beneath WAC

Rudall Complexca 1780 Ma Collision

of WAC and NAC1800–1780 Ma sedimentdeposition & volcanism

Accretion of Kimberley/Tickalarato NAC 1835–1810 Ma

GC

GC

Extensional margin

TT

S

MI

Hiatus in sedimentation-Western Fold Belt - Mt Isa

Continued sedimentation-Eastern Fold Belt - NW–SE extension

GC

Sediment Deposition

CI

CI

CI

GI

CP

Underthrusting ofoceanic crust?

Areally restrictedCAT Suite

magmatism1768–1750 Ma

a (ca 1870–1845 Ma)

b (ca 1840–1800 Ma)

c (ca 1800–1770 Ma)

d (ca 1770–1730 Ma)

e (ca 1730–1690 Ma)

f (ca 1690–1650 Ma)

Arc/Rift fragments/

Laurentia

Figure 2.5. Proposed reconstruction model for the development and tectonic evolution of Australia in the period 1870–1550 Ma (adapted from Payne et al 2009). Note that Gawler Craton is in rotated position immediately south of Mount Isa Inlier, consistent with model of Betts and Giles (2006). Small black arrows in Gawler Craton and Arunta Region represent current north. Large white arrows represent potential plate movement directions [parts (g) and (h), legend and terrane abbreviations on next page].


2:9


and extrusive magmatism and east- or east-northeast-trending upright folding in the Warramunga Province. In the Murphy Province, deformation and low-grade metamorphism is likely to have been broadly synchronous

between the Murphy Metamorphics (maximum deposition age of 1853 Ma; Hollis et al 2009c) and the overlying ca 1851 Ma Cliffdale Volcanics.

with upright folding. It has been interpreted as an intraplate response to collisional deformation in the Halls Creek Orogen to the northwest in Western Australia (Crispe et al 2007, Figure 2.5b).

By 1810 Ma, large-scale tectonism had effectively ceased in the central and northern parts of the NAC within the Northern Territory. However, the southern part of the craton, particularly the Aileron Province, was affected by prolonged and complex tectonic activity during the period 1810–1700 Ma. This has

regime in the NAC, with the focus shifting to the southern

(Collins and Shaw 1995) is a tectonothermal and magmatic event that affected extensive areas of the Aileron Province, and it also impacted on the Tanami and Tennant regions. Current evidence suggests that it involved both extensional and compressional components, and its geological setting remains poorly understood. Across the northern and central Aileron Province, it is characterised by widespread felsic and

magmatism, and localised high-temperature, low-pressure metamorphism. In the Tanami Region, the event is associated with upright deformation and gold mineralisation, whereas in the Tennant Region, the correlative 1820–1800 Ma

extensional. In the eastern Aileron Province, a back-arc basin environment has been invoked at 1810–1800 Ma to account for widespread volcanism, volcaniclastic sedimentation

Strangways Metamorphic Complex (Scrimgeour 2006).

migration of magmatism within the Aileron Province, in association with localised deformation and high-grade

This event has been linked to the interpreted collision of the West Australian Craton with the NAC at this time (Bagas 2004, Figure 2.5c). Towards the southeastern margin of the province, periods of basin development (with volcaniclastic sedimentation) occurred between deformational events

magmatism continued through the period 1760–1740 Ma. A north-dipping subduction system south of the eastern Aileron Province during this time period has been proposed by numerous authors (Scott et al 2000, Betts and Giles 2006, Scrimgeour 2006), involving an evolving system of back-arcs and continental arcs. This is based in part on the arc-like geochemistry of 1768-1750 Ma “CAT Suite” magmatic rocks in the southeastern Aileron Province (Zhao 1994, Zhao and McCulloch 1995, Hoatson et al 2005, Whelan et al 2008, Figure 2.5d).

A protracted tectonothermal event, the 1730–1690 Ma

A12-341b.ai

Palaeo–Mesoproterozoic juvenile crust and collisional orogenic belts



Archaean crust

WW

MI

GC

GI

CP

St Peter Suite Magmatism1620–1600 Ma

Warumpi Accretion 1640–1620 Mafollowed by onset of outward growth

of Musgrave Province through subduction rollback

A/R/L

Sediment DepostionTT

MPGCGC

GI

CP

Orogenesis

Chewings Orogeny

1600–1550 Ma Subduction-related magmatism

1600–1580 Ma?Accretion of Coompana Block?

A/R/Lg (ca 1640–1600 Ma) h (ca 1600–1580 Ma)

A A

CI CIPC PC

TC TC

Figure 2.5. Proposed reconstruction model for the development and tectonic evolution of Australia in the period 1870–1550 Ma (continued from previous page). Terrane abbreviations: A = Arunta Region; CI = Coen Inlier; CP = Curnamona Province; GC = Gawler-Adelie

= Pine Creek Orogen; S = Strangways Metamorphic Complex; T = Tanami Region; TC = Tennant Region; W = Warumpi Province. Pale blue regions represent oceanic lithosphere; dashed black lines represent active plate boundaries; grey dashed lines represent inactive boundaries; dotted line represents extent of the Gawler–Adelie crust.



2:10

and felsic magmatism in the eastern Aileron Province (Claoué-Long et al 2008c), is associated with east–west compression, and is likely to have been associated with the

north, which resulting in upright folding in the Davenport Province. Although a number of authors (Scrimgeour

to an active southern margin of the NAC, Payne et al (2009) considered this event to have been associated with the accretion of proto-Australia to the Laurentian (North American) plate to the east of the NAC, at 1730–1720 Ma (Figure 2.5e).

At about 1690 Ma, there was another fundamental change

magmatism and deformation in the Aileron Province, and the commencement of magmatism in the Warumpi Province, which has been interpreted as a continental fragment that was outboard of the southern margin of the craton at the time (Scrimgeour et al 2005, Figure 2.5f). The localisation of 1690–1635 Ma magmatism within the Warumpi Province, rather than the Aileron Province to the north, is consistent with south-dipping subduction preceding accretion (Scrimgeour et al 2005), and this notion is supported by magnetotelluric imaging of the central Australian lithosphere (Selway et al 2007). The Liebig Orogeny (Scrimgeour et al 2005) is a major tectonothermal event that affected large areas of the Warumpi Province at

oblique accretion of the Warumpi Province onto the NAC (Scrimgeour et al 2005, Close et al 2005, Figure 2.5g).

burial and exhumation of metasedimentary rocks, the presence of a linear belt of calc-alkaline felsic magmatism, and a hairpin bend in the apparent polar wander path for northern Australia at the time.

Tectonism in the Aileron and Warumpi provinces during the period 1800–1600 Ma occurred synchronously with intraplate basin development in the central and northern NAC. This is indicated by apparent relationships between tectonic events in the Aileron Province and episodes of

including the McArthur and Birrindudu basins, and the

proposed a model of continent-scale extension, followed by thermal subsidence for the development of these basins, but more recent models interpret basin development and faulting as an intraplate response to convergent processes on the southern and eastern craton margins (Scott et al 2000, Southgate et al 2000, Giles et al 2002, Cawood and Korsch 2008, Payne et al 2009).

Mesoproterozoic tectonism

During the early Mesoproterozoic (1600–1550 Ma), large areas of the North and South Australian cratons were affected by episodes of tectonism and/or magmatism (Hand 2006, Figure 2.5h), including the Isan Orogeny in Mount Isa (Queensland), the Olarian Orogeny in the

Janan orogenies in the Georgetown and Yambo inliers

(Queensland), and widespread magmatism in the Gawler

Territory, this tectonism was manifested in the Chewings Orogeny, which resulted in south-directed thrusting and locally high-grade metamorphism in the Arunta Region.

juvenile felsic magmatic event in the Musgrave Province that has been interpreted to be arc-related (Wade et al 2006). This event has been interpreted by Wade et al

between the North and South Australian cratons at this time, although other authors (eg Payne et al 2009) have proposed that the intraplate orogenesis is consistent with being a response to north-dipping subduction under the Musgrave Province and/or accretion of a crustal fragment to the palaeo-southern margin of the Gawler Craton (Figure 2.5h).

The second major Mesoproterozoic tectonic event in the Northern Territory was the 1200–1160 Ma Musgrave Orogeny in the Musgrave Province, and associated

setting of these events remains poorly understood, although the event has long been considered to be associated with a large-scale belt of ‘Grenville-aged’ deformation through Australia and east Antarctica. Myers et al (1996) considered

NAC and SAC, but more recent studies (Wade et al 2008, Smithies et al 2011) have proposed an intraplate setting for this event. Smithies et al (2011) interpreted the Musgrave Orogeny to have been an extensional event, accompanied by a high geothermal gradient and extensive melting of the lower crust to form the granitoids of the Pitjantjatjara Supersuite. The Musgrave Orogeny was followed by the

trending intracontinental rift in the western Musgrave et al 2010,

Howard et al 2011), and the more extensive 1075 Ma Warakurna Large Igneous Province (Wingate et al 2004),

and southern Arunta Region.

The early–middle Neoproterozoic was a period of tectonic quiescence, with little evidence for major tectonic events. The initiation of the Centralian Superbasin at about 840 Ma preceded the breakup of the Neoproterozoic Rodinian Supercontinent in the mid Cryogenian, but was related to extension, rifting and crustal sagging (Lindsay 2002, Greene 2010) that may have been an early expression of this event. During the period 600–300 Ma, central Australia was affected by major intraplate tectonism, that dissected the Centralian Superbasin, exhumed rocks from deep crustal levels, and resulted in large amplitude east-trending gravity

Petermann Orogeny, was focused in the Musgrave Province at 580–530 Ma. It resulted in uplift and exhumation of the Musgrave Province from beneath the Centralian Superbasin and was associated with major south-dipping thrusts and detachment zones (Scrimgeour and Close 1999, Raimondo et al 2010).


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In the late early Cambrian (ca 507 Ma), a large part of northern Australia, central Western Australia and western South Australia was covered by variably thick and extensive basalts of the Kalkarindji Large Igneous Province (Glass 2002, Glass and Phillips 2006). This eruptive outpouring of vast amounts of subaerial basaltic lava was related to either a large-scale mantle plume, or possibly to catastrophic lithospheric delamination, accompanied by substantial

of the LIP immediately preceded broad regional subsidence and a marine transgression in the middle Cambrian that deposited Centralian B Superbasin sediments over extensive areas of central and northern Australia.

Australia underwent extensional deformation focused in a west-northwest-trending zone (coinciding with the ‘Larapintine Seaway’ of Webby 1978) that extended across what is now the Arunta Region; this may represent

of Australia. The extension led to the development of a deep transtensional rift basin, within which precursor Cambrian sediments of the Irindina Province were deposited. These and older Neoproterozoic sedimentary rocks of the province were metamorphosed at deep crustal levels within the rift basin during ongoing extension, as

et al 1999, Buick et al 2005).

The Alice Springs Orogeny was a major intraplate orogenic event that variably affected large areas of central Australia in the period 450–300 Ma and resulted in the exhumation of the Arunta Region from beneath the Centralian Superbasin (Collins and Teyssier 1989, Haines et al 2001, see Aileron Province). The orogeny was long-lived and there is increasing recognition of its episodic

450–440 Ma, 390–375 Ma, 365–360 Ma and 340–320 Ma (Haines et al 2001, Buick et al 2008). It commenced with inversion of the Irindina Province leading to juxtaposition of the Aileron and Irindina provinces in

a thick-skinned, bivergent, east-trending orogenic system during the Devonian (390–360 Ma Pertnjara-Brewer events) that exhumed large areas of the Arunta Region

Springs Orogeny was an east-southeast-trending, south-

zones of metamorphism up to amphibolite-facies grade in the Arunta Region, and the development of thrust complexes along the northern margins of the Amadeus and Ngalia basins. Further northward within the NAC, the Alice Springs Orogeny was related to localised fault reactivation, particularly in the Halls Creek Orogen and Fitzmaurice Basin.

Palaeozoic tectonism in northern basins

The two major Palaeozoic basins in the north of the NT are the lower Bonaparte and Arafura basins. The Bonaparte Basin is structurally complex and comprises a number of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic sub-basins and platform areas.

It was initiated in the Cambrian as the northernmost portion of the Centralian B Superbasin (Carlton Sub-basin in Western Australia). Later Palaeozoic development was via two phases of extension: an older Late Devonian to Mississippian phase formed the northwest-trending Petrel Sub-basin in the southeast of the basin; a younger

older northwesterly trend with a northeasterly structural grain and formed the proto-Vulcan Sub-basin and Malita Graben to the north (Geoscience Australia 2011).

The Arafura Basin was initiated in the Neoproterozoic

across much of the basin. The subsidence history of the basin was episodic and limited to four periods of basin-wide subsidence in the Neoproterozoic, middle

by long, relatively tectonically quiescent periods of

Goulburn Graben was formed in the Late Carboniferous

localised deformation in the Devonian and Carboniferous

associated with the Alice Springs Orogeny in central Australia (Struckmeyer 2006).

Mesozoic and Cenozoic deformation

Mesozoic and Cenozoic basins of the Northern Territory can be divided into: (a) intracratonic basins [eg upper

basins]; (b) plate margin basins (eg upper Bonaparte, Money Shoal basins); (c) small intermontane Cenozoic basins in the central southern NT (eg Hale, Ti-Tree, Waite basins);

addition, locally thick Cenozoic deposits are widespread across the NT in the form of coastal, alluvial, lacustrine, paludal, colluvial, aeolian and evaporitic sediments that

relatively unmetamorphosed and are not associated with

have accumulated distal volcaniclastic sediments. Most

only gently folded. Faults in onshore basins are commonly reactivated older structures. However, offshore basins

of plate tectonic processes (Figure 2.6), including Jurassic graben development in the northern Bonaparte Basin and

Money Shoal basins to the south of the Timor Trough.

and depocentres from underlying Palaeozoic basins and basement. Although these intracratonic basins developed in an area that was relatively distant from active plate boundaries, their initiation and subsequent development may have been related to long-lived plate convergence between eastern Gondwana and the Panthalassan Ocean

Orogen and Cretaceous Whitsunday Volcanic Province, as



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15 Ma

10 Ma25 Ma

10 Ma

-50°

ba

dc

fe

Northern edge of greater India

India

Antarctica

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PacificOcean

Papua NewGuinea

160 Ma: late Jurassic(Oxfordian)

84 Ma: late Cretaceous(Campanian/Santonian)

10 Ma: late Miocene

0 Ma: Holocene

118 Ma: early Cretaceous(Aptian)

49 Ma: middle Eocene

WhitsundayVolcanicProvince

Lord

Howe

Rise

New

Zealand

Plateau

Exotic terrane and date of docking15 Ma 10 Ma25 Ma

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NEW ZEALAND

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120°110° 140°130° 160°150°

L

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P

Fracture zoneSpreading ridgeAbandonedSpreading ridge Subduction zone

Palaeo latitude

Drainage fromland >1 km

Magmatic arc-30° v

Rift-valley complex

Emergent, shoreline

Continent–ocean boundary

v

v

vv

v

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vvvv

v

vvv

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-70°

-20°

Figure 2.6Veevers et al a) Late Jurassic (160 Ma): early stages of breakup of Gondwana Supercontinent commences with rifting to west of Browse Basin in WA. (bGondwana forms proto-Indian Ocean. Whitsunday Volcanic Province in east is a silicic-dominated large igneous province, related to break-up of eastern Gondwana (Bryan et al 2000). Rift valley complex develops between Australia and Antarctica. (c) Late Cretaceous

Defunct mid-ocean ridge (MOR) in Indian Ocean is replaced by active MOR further west. (de) Late Miocene (10 Ma):

Guinea. Timor area to southwest is in recessive part of Australia-India Plate margin so that subduction commenced later in mid-Pliocene (ca 3Ma; Veevers 1984). (f) Holocene (0 Ma): Current state of plate divergence to south of Australia and convergence to north. Complex


2:13


well as a number of sedimentary basins inboard of these terranes in eastern Australia. During the Cretaceous, the

Whitsunday volcanic arc, located to the east of the present-day Qld coastline (Figure 2.6), supplied substantial volcaniclastic sediments to the basin (Bryan et al 1997,

in these basins were the result of east–west compressional tectonism in response to the rotational stress applied to the Australia-India Plate by its oblique convergence with the

formed as a gentle intracratonic downwarp in the Jurassic

Basin, which overlies older sedimentary basins, this basin developed upon an erosional surface of deformed Proterozoic rocks. The margins of the basin were locally faulted in the Late Cretaceous, but the succession is otherwise little deformed.

Mesozoic–Cenozoic plate margin basins include the upper Bonaparte and Money Shoal basins, which extend to the north of Australia as far as the Timor Trough. In the Bonaparte Basin, Late Triassic compression, which caused uplift and erosion in a number of areas, was followed by Jurassic extension that accompanied the breakup of Gondwana (O’Brien et al commenced in the Browse Basin to the west the Bonaparte Basin at this time (Figure 2.6), and the Vulcan Sub-basin, Sahul Syncline, and Malita and Calder grabens developed as major depocentres. Convergence of the Australia-India Plate and Southeast Asian microplates in the Miocene to

Australian continental margin into the newly formed Timor Trough (Veevers 1984) and widespread fault reactivation across the western Bonaparte Basin.

Cenozoic basins in the Alice Springs area in the central southern NT are elongate intermontane types, at least some

Basin extends over large areas of the southeastern Northern Territory, northeastern South Australia, southwestern Queensland and some of northwestern New South Wales. It is one of the world’s largest internal drainage systems and covers about 1.2 million km2, which is almost one-sixth of Australia (Callen et al 1995).

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