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Outline of Contents

1. Ptolemaic model of Solar System 2. Heliocentric model of the solar system 3. Johannes Kepler 4. Joseph-Louis Lagrange

Lagrange points 5. Energy & Matter Dogma 6. E = mc 7. Electromagnetic Radiation 8. Time 9. General Theory of Relativity

Was General Theory of Relativity proved correct?

10. Special Theory of Relativity 11. Basics of Universe

Big Bang Theory Has Big Bang Theory proved as a fact? Rate of Expansion? Any important scientific observation of

big-bang theory? Hubble Constant Doppler Effect Doppler effect for light: Blue shift and

Red Shift 12. Black Holes

How Black Holes are detected? Types of Black Holes: How many black holes are known

today? Structure of a Black hole? What is Hawking Radiation? Size of the Black Holes - Schwarzschild

radius Properties of Black holes Density of Black Holes

13. Wormholes 14. Cosmic String 15. Dark matter

Dark Energy Composition of Dark Matter Implication of dark matter on shape of

universe 16. Galaxy

Types of Galaxies Hubble Sequence & Tuning Fork Diagram

Size of Galaxies Dwarf Galaxy Distribution of Galaxies Group of Galaxies Cluster of Galaxies Supercluster of Galaxies

17. Milky Way Where Milky Way finds place on Hubble

Tuning Fork Diagram? Location of Milky Way in Universe Location of Earth in Milky Way Size of Milky Way Movement of Earth within the Milky

Way Galaxy Can we see the whole Milky Way?

Neighbors of Milky Way Largest Galaxy in the Local Group Similarities between Andromeda and

Milky Way The super massive black hole in Milky

Way 18. Radio Galaxies 19. Large Magellanic Cloud

Supernova 1987 A 20. Small Magellanic Cloud 21. Quasi-stellar object or QSO 22. Interstellar medium

Density of Interstellar medium 23. Nebula

Types of nebulae Dark nebulae Reflection nebulae Emission nebulae

24. Quasar 25. Star

Closest stars to Earth Asterism Constellation Number of Constellations North Star South Star Brightest Star Sources of Light & Energy Composition of stars

Photosphere Chromospheres

Corona Sunspot Solar Flare Coronal Mass Ejection Solar Wind Impact of Solar activity on Earth

2. Stellar Evolution Wolf-Rayet Star T Tauri star Protostar Protoplanetary Disk Factors that influence, how stars will

evolve Supernova remnant Supernova Brown Dwarf Red Dwarf Red Giant White Dwarf

Chandrashekhar Limit Blue Giant Neutron Star Magnetar Pulsar X-Ray Star Binary Star

3. Sun Structure of Sun Composition of Sun





Mass of Sun Rotation of Sun

Implications of Suns Spin 4. Planetary System

Formation of Solar System Sized of Solar System Planetesimals Protoplanets Zones of Solar System

5. Planet International Astronomical Union Planetary Ring Inner Solar System Mercury Venus Mars

Polar Ice Caps on Mars Geological features of Mars Martian meteorite ALH84001

Gas Giants Jupiter:

Atmosphere of Jupiter: The Great Red Spot at Jupiter Magnetic Field of Jupiter Rings of Jupiter

Saturn Saturns Ring System

Uranus Neptune:

6. Moons Moons of Mars - Phobos and Deimos Moons of Jupiter- Jupiters moon Io Impact of Jupiter on its Io Io Torus Jupiters moon Europa Jupiters moon Ganymede Jupiters Moon Calisto Moons of Saturn Saturns moon Mimas Saturns moon Enceladus Saturns Moon Titan Moons of Uranus Moons of Neptune Neptunes moon Triton

7. Kuiper Belt Kuiper Belt Objectives Plutinos

8. Asteroids Asteroid belt Asteroids located other than Asteroid

Belt

Origin of Asteroids Number of Asteroids 2010TK7 : Earths Trojan Satellite

9. Comets Origin of Comets Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9

10. Earth Spin of Earth Foucaults pendulum Earths magnetic field Aurora Van Allen belts Neutrino

We and Neutrinos The Solar Neutrino Problem Source of Neutrinos

11. Cosmic Rays Source of Cosmic Rays:

12. Meteorite and meteors Meteorite Meteors Sources of Meteors and Meteorites Meteor Showers Types of Meteorites Discovery of DNA components in

meteorites 13. Moon

Our weight on moon Composition of moon Ecliptic Plane

Ecliptic Plane versus Earths Equatorial Plane

Seasons and motion of Earth Solstices Equinoxes

14. Eclipses Frequency of Eclipses Lunar Eclipse Solar Eclipse Frequency of Solar Eclipse at a particular

location on earth Why does the Moon block the Sun so

perfectly? 15. Historical Points in Astronomy

Apollo Programme INTELSAT Global Positioning System Skylab Space Station Mir Space Station Space Shuttle program





Ptolemaic model of Solar System

x Megale mathmatike systaxis The Almagest.

x Earth stands at the center of the universe, orbited by the Moon, the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn

x

Heliocentric model of the solar system

x

x

x De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium

x De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium

x

x x TheStarry Messenger, x A Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems Discourse onTwo New Sciences,

x

Johannes Kepler

x

x Mysterium Cosmographicum,

Keplers First Law planetary motionx

Keplers Second Law planetary motionx





Keplers Third Law planetary motionx

x

Joseph-Louis Lagrange

x

x

Lagrange points

Mechanique Analytique

Energy & Matter Dogma

x

x

E = mc

x Special Theory of Relativity

x

x

o

o

Electromagnetic Radiation

x

x





x x

Time

x

x x

Relationship of Space & Time

x spacetime.x

General Theory of Relativity

x dimple toward the objectx

x how why

Was General Theory of Relativity proved correct?

x

x

x

x

x

x

x





Special Theory of Relativity

x

x x Basics of Universe

x space, time, matter, and energy Age of Universe

x Size of Universe

x What is Cosmic Horizon ?

x Structure of Universe

x

x

Big Bang Theory

x x

Development of Big-Bang theory

x

x

x

x

x

x





x

Has Big Bang Theory proved as a fact?

x

x

x

Rate of Expansion?

x

x

Any important scientific observation of big-bang theory?

x x I

x

x

x

x

x

Hubble Constant

x





Doppler Effect

x x

x

x

x

Doppler effect light: Blue shift and Red Shift x

x x

Black Holes

x

x x

x

x

x How Black Holes are detected?

x

x

x Types of Black Holes:

x





x

x

x primordial black hole

How many black holes are known today?

x

Structure of a Black hole?

x singularity x

x event horizonThis is the place of no returnwhere the escape velocity for the black hole is the speed of light

x

What is Hawking Radiation?

x

x

x

x

x x

Size of the Black Holes - Schwarzschild radius

x

x

x Schwarzschild radiusx

o

Properties of Black holes

x Bx mass (weight), rotation (spin), and electric charge.





Density of Black Holes

x

x

Wormholes

x

x

Cosmic String

x

x x x x

x

Dark matter

x

x

x x Andromeda Galaxy were moving so

fast that for the stars to stay in the galaxy there had to be a tremendous amount of matter surrounding and enveloping the

entire galaxy like a giant cocoon. x

x

x 80 percent of the matter in the universe is dark matter.Dark Energy

x cosmological constant,

x

x





x density of this dark energy throughout the universe is much greater than the density of matterboth luminous matter and dark matter combined

x

x

x Composition of Dark Matter x

x Implication of dark matter on shape of universe

x x

x x

x

Galaxy

x and dark matterx

x Types of Galaxies

x x

x

Hubble Sequence

x Hubble sequence

tuning fork diagram. Large Magellanic Cloud Small Magellanic Cloud which are visible from Earths southern hemisphere.





Size of Galaxies

x

x

Dwarf Galaxy

x Large Magellanic Cloudgalaxy that orbits the Milky Way

Distribution of Galaxies

x x x

x

voids.Group of Galaxies

x x Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies are the two large galaxies in the Local Group Magellanic CloudsMessier 32,Messier 33,

x Cluster of Galaxies

x x

x

x The Milky Way galaxy is near, but not in, the Virgo cluster which itself is near the center of the Virgo supercluster

Supercluster of Galaxies

x x

x x The Milky Way galaxy is located on the outskirts of the Virgo supercluster.

Milky Way

x x

x

Where Milky Way finds place on Hubble Tuning Fork Diagram?

x Location of Milky Way in Universe

x





x Location of Earth in Milky Way

x one of the Milky Ways spiral armsx

Size of Milky Way

x x

Movement of Earth within the Milky Way Galaxy

x roughly circular orbit

x

Can we see the whole Milky Way?

x x

x Neighbors of Milky Way

x x

Largest Galaxy in the Local Group

x x Messier 31

Similarities between Andromeda and Milky Way

x T

x

The super massive black hole in Milky Way

x

x

x Radio Galaxies





x

x

x

Large Magellanic Cloud

x irregular

x Supernova 1987 A

x O

x

x Small Magellanic Cloud

x

x x

Quasi-stellar object or QSO

x

x

Interstellar medium

x x x

x

Density of Interstellar medium

x

x





x

x less dense than the best laboratory vacuum chambers

Nebula

x collection of interstellar mediumx

x

Types of nebulae

x x

Dark nebulae

x cold, high-density, opaque gas, as well as enough dust to quench the light from stars behind them

x Coal Sack NebulaReflection nebulae

x is lit by bright, nearby light sources

x To the human eye, reflection nebulae usually look bluish. This is because blue light is more effectively reflected in this way than red light.

Emission nebulae

x with a strong source of radiationusually a bright starx

x x x

Quasar

x quasi-stellar radio sourcex x Quasi-Stellar Object (QSO), whether or not it emits radio waves.

Star

x gas that produces energy at its core by nuclear fusion

x





Closest stars to Earth

x x

x

Asterism

x

x Big Dipper,Summer Triangle

Constellation

x x

x x

Number of Constellations

x

North Starx

x

x North Star was a dimmer star called Thuban

South Starx





Brightest Star

x

Sources of Light & Energy

x

Composition of stars

x S

x

Photospherex

x

x Chromospheres

x highly energetic plasma

x x

Corona

x

x

x

x

x stars core, radiative zone, convective zone, photosphere, chromosphere, corona

x





Sunspot

x umbrapenumbra,

x x

x

Solar Flare

x

x

Coronal Mass Ejection

x

x x

Solar Wind

x x

x

x x

x heliopause, where the influence of the solar wind dwindles to just about nothing

Impact of Solar activity on Earth

x Bx

x





x

Stellar Evolution

x

x main mature period of its life cycle

x main sequence

x

Wolf-Rayet Starx x

T Tauri starx x

Protostar

x x

Protoplanetary Disk

x

x

Factors that influence, how stars will evolve

x

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

x the bluer and hotter it is

Supernova remnant

x A

x





x

x

Supernova

x

x

x

x o

o

Brown Dwarfx x

x

x

Red Dwarf

x low-mass, main-sequence star

x Red Giant

x

x

x

x

x

White Dwarf

x





x

x x

x

x

Chandrashekhar Limit

x some stars not end their lives white dwarfs

x

x star higher than a certain mass limit will not end its life as a white dwarf

x

x

x

x upper mass limit is today called the Chandrasekhar limit Blue Giant

x high-mass stars on the main sequencex

Neutron Star

x x

x x

x

x A dime-sized sliver of neutron star material contains more mass than every man, woman, and child on Earth put together. If one dropped a chunk of neutron star material toward the ground, it would cut through our planet like it was not there; it would fall through the center of

our planet, emerge out the other side, and keep traveling back and forth through the middle of Earth for billions of years, turning our planet

into something like a big ball of Swiss cheese.

Magnetar

x A





x

x

Pulsar

x

x synchrotron radiation

x

x Crab Nebula pulsar

x -

X-Ray Star

x

x

Binary Star

x

x

x

o

o

o





Sun

x

x

x Structure of Sun

x

x x

x

Composition of Sun

x x

Mass of Sun

x x

Rotation of Sun

x

x differential rotation

Implications of Suns Spin

x x

Planetary System

x

x

Formation of Solar System:

x





x

x

x

x

Sized of Solar System

x

x Beyond Neptune is the Kuiper Belt, a thick, doughnut-shaped cloud of small icy bodies that extends to about eight billion miles (12 billion kilometers).

x Beyond that still is the Oort Cloud

Planetesimalsx

x

Protoplanets

x x

Zones of Solar System

x o o o o o

Planets

x that is not a star (that is, has no nuclear fusion going on in its core); that moves in orbit around a star; and is mostly round because its own gravitational pull has shaped it into, more or less, a sphere

x o hydrostatic equilibrium





o

o

o

International Astronomical Union

x x

x

x

x it must have cleared all other significantly sized bodies out of its orbital path or neighborhood, probably through collisions or gravitational interactions.dwarf planet,

x number of dwarf planets, including Pluto, Charon, Ceres, Eris.

Planetary Ring

x

x

Inner Solar System

x Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Marsx

x Earths moon, and the two moons of Mars: Phobos and Deimos

Mercury

x x That is so close to the Sun that Mercurys orbit is rather

tilted and stretched into a long elliptical shapex

x

x Caloris Basin





x sodium, potassium, helium, and hydrogenx

x

x THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Venus

x Venus is closer in distance to Earth than any other planet, and it has a similar size and composition.

x x rotates on its polar axis

backwards compared to Earth, so a Venus sunrise occurs in the west and sunset is in the eastx

x

x Interestingly, this is even hotter than Mercury, which is much closer to the Sun

x

x

x highly reflective cloud layers in its atmosphere

x

x Mars

x M

x

x x x

x

x even polar ice caps.





x

Polar Ice Caps on Mars

x

x

x mostly of frozen carbon dioxide, also known as dry ice.

x Mars, however, neither the ice nor the dry ice would melt to make water or liquid carbon dioxide when the temperatures go up; rather, they would sublimate, or turn directly into gas

Geological features of Mars

x

x The tallest mountain in the solar system, the extinct volcano Olympus Mons

x Vallis Marineris

x Hellas,

Martian meteorite ALH84001

x AAllan Hills region of Antarctica in 1984

x

x Spirit Opportunity, mineral structures nicknamed blueberries that only form when moisture is

present,

x

Gas Giants

x

x

Jupiter:

x

Several kinds of scientific evidence are used to determine where meteorites come from. These include the crystallization age of the meteorite, its chemical and physical composition, the effects that cosmic rays have had on it, and the composition and concentrations of gases trapped long ago in tiny fissures and bubbles in the meteorite.





x

x storms of incredible magnitude rage and swirl.

x Great Red Spotx

, it is likely that a thick layer of compressed hydrogen is present; the hydrogen in this layer probably acts like metal, and may be the cause of Jupiters intense magnetic field, which is five times greater than even that of the Sun.

x Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto

Atmosphere of Jupiter:

x Galileo

x water vapor, helium, hydrogen, carbon, sulfur, and neon, all in lower concentrations than were previously predicted Galileo

x

The Great Red Spot at Jupiter

x T x

x may derive its red color from sulfur or phosphorus, but this has not been conclusively shown x

x

x so much so that gas giants are often called Jovian planets.Magnetic Field of Jupiter

x x





x Van Allen belts are confined by lines of magnetic force that have naturally developed in Jupiters magnetic field

Rings of Jupiter

x

Saturn

x x

x

x generate Saturns powerful magnetic fieldx

x

x

Saturns Ring System

x

x x Encke Gapx

x

x

Uranusx

x

x Uranus gets its color because the methane in the atmosphere absorbs reddish light and reflects bluish-greenish light

x

x one end of Uranus faces the Sun for an entire half of its orbit, while the other end faces away during that time.

x Neptune:





x

x x x x

Moons

Moons of Mars - Phobos and Deimos

x T

x

x

Moons of Jupiter- Jupiters moon Io

x

x Voyager

Impact of Jupiter on its Io Io Torus

x Jx x x Jupiter spins so fast, and contains so much mass, that the magnetic field generated by it engulfs the nearby moons and bathes

them with ionization and charged particles.x

Jupiters moonEuropa: x x Galileo

Jupiters moon Ganymede

x Ganymede is the largest moon in the solar system,

Jupiters Moon Calisto

x x

Moons of Saturn

x





Saturns moon Mimas

x

x

Saturns moon Enceladus

x geysers of water shooting out from its surfacepresence of liquid water deep in its core

x

x -Saturns Moon Titan

x

x only moon in the solar system with a dense atmosphereit is even denser than the atmosphere of planet Earth

x Voyager 1,

x x Cassini Huygens

x

x

Moons of Uranus

x 27 known moons

x

x Oberon and Titania

x Miranda,x Voyager 2

Moons of Neptune

x Triton

x Nereid





x Voyager 2

Neptunes moon Triton

x Triton is the coldest known place in the solar system

x

x

x

Kuiper Beltx Kuiper-Edgeworth Belt

Kuiper Belt Objectsx x x

x KBOs are basically comets without tails

Plutinosx

x

Asteroidx x the largest asteroid, Ceres, is only about 930 kilometers across, and only ten

asteroids larger than 250 kilometers across are known to exist in the solar systemx made mostly of carbon-rich rock, some are made at least partially of iron and nickelx

x

Asteroid beltx orbit of Mars and the orbit of Jupiter

Largest KBOs in our solar system: (Diameter: km) x Eris 2300-2400 x Pluto 2,306 x Sedna 1,500 x Quaoar 1,260 x Charon 1,210 x Orcus 940 x Varuna 890 x Ixion 820 x Chaos 560 x Huya 500





x object-free zones called Kirkwood Gaps

x

Asteroids located other than Asteroid Belt

x Chiron, for example, which was discovered in 1977, orbits between Saturn and Uranus.

x Trojan asteroids

Origin of Asteroids

x

x

Number of Asteroids:

x

Comets

x snowy dirtballs or dirty snowballs highly elliptical orbits

x Sun, comets are simple, solid bodies; but when they get closer to the Sun, they warm up, causing the ice in the comets outer surface to vaporize.

x x

x

Origin of Comets

x Kuiper Belt or the Oort Cloud

x x

2010TK7 : Earths Trojan Satellite Recently, it has been discovered that Earth is not alone in its orbit around the Sun. There is a small Trojan asteroid 2010TK7 that sits in front of earth and leads it. This is the 1st Trojan Asteroid of Earth discovered using the WISE Telescope. It has now become the First known Trojan Asteroid in Earths Orbit. A Trojan asteroid shares an orbit with a larger planet or moon, but does not collide. So a Trojan has a particular position in a stable spot - either in front of a planet or behind it called Lagrangian points. Because the asteroid and planet are constantly on the same orbit, they can never collide.Trojan asteroids were anticipated in earth's orbit but never discovered yet. Nasa discovered the asteroid, which lies 80 million km from Earth, using its Widefield Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE) telescope. Astronomers have long thought that Earth did have Trojans but their discovery has proved elusive because they cant be seen in daylight.





Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9x The encounter between Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 and the planet Jupiter was the first collision between solar system bodies

ever directly observed by humans.x

Earth

x

x

x

x

x

Spin of Earthx result of angular momentum left over

during the formation process of Earth

x

x

x

Earths magnetic fieldx x This is caused primarily by the motion of electrical currents within Earth, probably through the liquid metallic part of Earths

core. Combined with Earths rotation, the core acts like an electric dynamo, or generator, creating a magnetic field.x

x The magnetic north and magnetic south poles of Earths magnetic field are

very close to the geographical north and south poles, which mark the axis of Earths rotation.x

x magnetic field of Earth is constantly changing, though very slowlymagnetic poles actually drift several kilometers each year, often in seemingly random directions

x Earths magnetic field can reverse directions the north magnetic pole becomes the south magnetic pole, and vice versa.

Foucaults pendulum x Jean-Bernard-Len Foucault (18191868) is known for his famous

pendulum and also for his invention of gyroscope, made the most accurate measurement of the speed of light up to that time, and instituted improvements in the design of telescopes. x Foucault was also the first person to use a camera to photograph

the Sun. x Foucaults pendulum was a simple, Earth-bound way of proving

that Earths rotation is real, and not an optical illusion caused by the Sun and stars revolving around it.





x magnetic field flips

x

Aurora

x x Aurorae are produced when charged particles from the Sun (usually solar wind particles, but sometimes coronal mass

ejections as well) enter Earths atmosphere. The particles are guided to the north and south magnetic poles by Earths

magnetic field. Along the way, these particles ionize some of the gas molecules they encounter by drawing away electrons

from those molecules. When the ionized gas and their electrons recombine, they glow in distinctive colors; and the glowing

gas undulates across the sky.

x

x Jupiter and Saturn

Van Allen beltsx

x widest above Earths equator and curving downward toward Earths surface near the

polar regions.x

x The lines lead away from Earths equator, and the particles shuffle back and forth between the two magnetic poles.

x The outer belt acquires particles from solar system a continuous stream of charged particles from the sun and solar flares leading to magnetic storms. The strong fluctuation in

the Earth's magnetic field is called magnetic storm. The overall level of magnetic storm activity varies with the

recurring 11-year solar activity cycle.

x

x Forbush effect.x x

Neutrinox

We and Neutrinos All of us and every square inch of Earths surface are being continuously bombarded by neutrinos from space. Billions of neutrinos slice through our body every second. Fortunately, neutrinos are so unlikely to interact with any matter including the atoms and molecules in the human bodythat the billions upon billions of neutrinos that hit us every second have no discernible effect at all. In fact, the odds that any neutrino striking Earth will interact with any atom in our planet at all is about one in a billion. Even when it does happen, the result is merely a tiny flash of harmless light.





x

x

x

x x

The Solar Neutrino Problem

x F

x Solar Neutrino Problem. can actually change their characteristics when they strike Earths atmosphere

x

Source of Neutrinos

x

Cosmic Rays

x x

x

Source of Cosmic Rays:

x from

x . Distant supernova explosions could account for some of them; another possibility is that many cosmic rays are charged particles that have been accelerated to enormous speeds by

interstellar magnetic fieldsx





Meteorite and meteors

Meteoritex that lands on Earth.x

Meteors

x but does not land on Earth

x Sources of Meteors and Meteoritesx the tiny remnants of comets left in Earths orbital path

over many, many yearsare pieces of asteroids and comets that somehow came apart from their parent bodies

Meteor Showers

x Every Year Perseid meteor shower

x Leonid meteor showerTypes of Meteorites

x stony and metallicx

o Vestoids

o Chondriteso pallasites

Discovery of DNA components in meteorites Carbonaceous chondrites or C chondrites are meteorites of 7 known and many unknown groups. Ureilite is a rare type of stony meteorite that has a unique mineralogical composition very different from that of other stony meteorites. Both of them are rich on organic material. x The notable carbonaceous chondrites are: Allende, Murchison, Orgueil, Ivuna, Murray, and Tagish Lake, while notable ureilites are the Novo Urei

and the Goalpara. x You must note that Goalpara is an Ureilite landed in town Goalpara of Assam in India.

Similarly, in 2008, a tiny asteroid 2008 TC3 entered Earth's atmosphere and exploded an estimated 37 kilometres above the Nubian Desert in Sudan. Fragments of this asteroid were recovered the following December and were found to be ureilite. It was reported that the scientists have discovered amino acids, the building blocks of life in this meteorite 2008 TC3 where none were expected taking into account the high temperatures reached in the explosion about 1000 C. Recently, a NASA-funded study was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. As per this study, the scientists used advanced mass spectrometry instruments to scan 11 organic-rich meteorites called carbonaceous chondrites and one ureilite. The study found three nucleobases purine, 6,8-diaminopurine and 2,6-diaminopurine that are widely distributed in carbonaceous chondrites. These nucleobases are rare or absent in terrestrial biology. These components of DNA, the building blocks of life on Earth, in meteorites, is a discovery that, as per these scientists, confirms the theory that at least some of the materials needed to make early life forms came to our planet from space.

Moon

x

x x





x x

x x x

x x

x x

x

x

x Our weight on moon

x T

x Composition of moon

x

x

x breccia

x

x

Maria Highlands

silica SiO2 45.40% 45.50%

alumina Al2O3 14.90% 24.00%

lime CaO 11.80% 15.90%

iron(II) oxide FeO 14.10% 5.90%

magnesia MgO 9.20% 7.50%

titanium dioxide TiO2 3.90% 0.60%

sodium oxide Na2O 0.60% 0.60%

Total 99.90% 100.00%





x

x

x

x

Ecliptic Plane

x x

Ecliptic Plane versus Earths Equatorial Plane

x

x

x

x

Seasons and motion of Earth

x x elliptical orbit is close enough to a perfect circle

x The reason for the seasons has to do with the angle at which sunlight strikes any particular place on Earth at any given time of year.

x

x

Solstices

x





x

x

Equinoxes

x

x

x

Eclipses

x x

Frequency of Eclipses

x relatively uncommon, because the plane of Earths orbit around the Sun (ecliptic plane) is not the same as the plane of the Moons orbit around Earth.

x

x Lunar Eclipse

x

x The reason is as follows:

Solar Eclipse

x

x central region called the umbra Under the penumbra, a partial solar eclipse occurs. Under the umbra, a total eclipse or an annular eclipse is seen.

Frequency of Solar Eclipse at a particular location on earth





x S

x

x

x

x Historical Points in Astronomy

x x T Saturn V

x

x Sputnik 1,

x Sputnik 1

x Sputnik 1 Vanguard, Explorer1,

x Luna 3 Vostok 1, Valentina Tereshkova

x

x x

Project Paperclipx Jupiter-C

Explorer 1. Saturn V,

x Sputnik 2 Laika, which unfortunately died in space because the Russian space program did not provide for the safe return of the spacecraft or its passenger.

Why does the Moon block the Sun so perfectly?

T





x Sputnik 5

x Sputnik 1, Echo, Echo II,

x Telstar, Relay, Telstar Telstar Relay

x Freedom 7

x

x Voskhod 2

x

x Columbia, Columbia Soyuz 11 tragedy

x T Soyuz 11, Salyut 1

x

Apollo Programme

x Apollo 11,

x

x





x Apollo 7, Apollo 8Apollo 9 Apollo 10

x Apollo 8

x Apollo 11

x Apollo 11 Sea of Tranquility

x

x

INTELSAT

x

x Early Bird,

x

Global Positioning System

x

x

x

Skylab Space Station

x Skylab Skylab Salyut

x Skylab

Mir Space Station

x Mir





x

x Mir Mir,

x Mir Mir, Mir,

x Mir

x Mir Mir

x Mir Mir

Space Shuttle programx

x

x TChallenger Space Shuttle x Columbia

geography 11p

Documents

milky way galaxy

location of milky way

types of black holes

star closest stars

radio galaxies

general theory of relativity

special theory of relativity

super massive black