geog1 1sem 1term

applications

There are many applications and subdivisions

of Geography. These include:

Population Geography

Historical Geography

Biogeography

Geomorphology

Exciting applications

Geographic Information Systems

Remote Sensing

gis

are integrated, spatial, data-handling programmes which will collect, store, and

retrieve spatial data from the real world.

any system that collects, stores, analyses, and displays data that are tied to

location.

Remote sensing

The gathering and recording of information about the earth’s surface by

methods which do not involve actual contact with the surface under

consideration.

approaches

approaches

1. Two General Approaches

2. Physical and Human Geography

3. The Four Traditions of Geography

4. A Synthesized Approach

5. Others

1. Two general approachesa. localization > geographical pattern > explanation

b. process > geographical change > explanation

approaches

example of localization > geographical pattern > explanation

PHOTOGRAPHS OF A PLACE, E.G. AERIAL OR PANORAMIC PHOTOS

(adaptation from Holt-Jensen 2008)

example of localization > geographical pattern > explanation

REDUCTION OF PHOTOGRAPHS TO MAPS(adaptation from Holt-Jensen 2008)

2. Physical-Human Geography Divide

a. Physical Geography

- geomorphology, climatology, hydrology, geography of

soils, vegetational geography, zoo geography

b. Human Geography

- cultural geography, population geography, urban

geography, economic geography, political geography

approaches

The internal structure of geography. (Haggett 2001)

3. Four Geographical Traditions

a. spatial geometry and movement

b. area studies regions

c. man-land human and environmental impacts

d. earth sciences physical geography

approaches

4. Synthesized Approach

Haggett (1972/1983, 2001) suggested a framework that divides

the subject of geography in the way it analyses its problems

a. Spatial analysis localizations, patterns

b. Ecological analysis human and env’t

c. Regional complex analysis a combination

of the two above

approaches

The internal structure of geography. (Haggett 2001)

colonialism

The acquisition and colonization by a nation of other territories and their

peoples. In this respect, colonialism is as old as society. The term took on a

more specific meaning in the late nineteenth century when colonists saw it as

the extension of ‘civilization’ from Europe to the ‘inferior’ peoples of

‘backward’ societies.

imperialism

The control of one or a number of countries by a dominant nation. This control

may be political, economic, or both, and indicates a degree of dependence in

the subordinate nation.

Cultural turn

The increased focus, from 1990s onwards, on culture as a geographical agent

and product. This critical perspective stresses that the categories used to

describe the social, economic, and political aspects of human groups are

socially constructed. The cultural turn values vernacular and ethnic

geographies as much as ‘scientific’ geographies, and considers among others,

codes and systems of signs, and the building and inheritance of identities and

landscapes.

related to postmodernism, postcolonialism, poststructuralism.

postmodernism

A philosophical stance which claims that it is impossible to make grand

statements-meta narratives-about the structures of society or about historic

causation, because everything we perceive, express, and interpret is influenced

by our gender, class, and culture; knowledge is partial and situated, and no one

interpretation is superior to another.

Postmodernism has confirmed in geographers the recognition that space, place,

and scale are social constructs, not external givens.

postcolonialism

Stemming from the work of F. Fanon and Edward Said, the examination of the

impact, and legacy, of the European conquest, colonization, and dominance of

non-European cultures, lands, and peoples, together with the analysis of the

ideas of European superiority inherent in European colonization.

Ethnocentricity

giving priority to one’s own ethnic group.

making assumptions about other societies which are based on the norms of

one’s own society. This may result in the development of global models or

theories which are based, for example, on Western conditions.

masculinism

The assumption that the world is, and should be,

shaped mainly by men for men.

Masculinist geography

There are those who argue that, before the 1960s, this is all geography was,

and those who argue that masculinist geographies are overdue.

Feminist geography

a geography which questions the patriarchal and hierarchical assumptions on

which geography is based, and emphasizes the oppression of women and the

gender inequality between men and women especially expressed in gendered

space – from the masculine spaces of mines to City finance houses, to the

feminized spaces of primary schools and garment factories.

Determinism

The view that human actions are stimulated and governed by some outside

agency like the environment or the economy. Individuals have no choice in

regulating their actions, which may be predicted from the external stimuli

which triggered them. This view is currently rejected.

possibilism

A view of the environment as a range of opportunities from which the

individual may choose. This choice is based on the individual’s needs and

norms. It grants that the range of choices may be limited by the environment,

but allows choices to be made, rather than thinking on deterministic lines.

Probabilism

Possibilism sees individuals or groups making choices within the scope of the

environment. Probabilism suggests that some choices are a good deal more

likely than others.

Mental map

Of the up campusPoints of interest

Famous places

Places you remember

Indicate the top of the page

Don’t forget your name and section

Plate 1

geographers

geographers

In the general sense, we are all geographers.

In a stricter sense, those who study and employ geographical concepts.

NOTABLE GEOGRAPHERS

Immanuel Kant

Alexander von Humboldt

Karl Ritter

Friedrich Ratzel

Ellen Churchill Semple

IMMANUEL KANT

Geography is knowledge organized

around space

Alexander von humboldt

Altitudinal zonation

Karl ritter

Father of regional geography

Friedrich ratzel

Lebensraum - living space for states

Ellen semple

Influenced by environmental

determinism

Environmental determinism

A belief that people’s actions are determined by their environments.

This belief is rejected today.

environmentalism

A social movement, a philosophy

Conservation of environment, improvement of the state of the environment

Paul vidal de la blache

Genre de vie - lifestyle as reflection of physical

and social imprints on the landscape

Richard hartshorne

Region as basic unit of analysis

For geography

Carl sauer

Cultural landscape

According to carl sauer

Culture is the agent.

Landscape is the medium.

Cultural landscape is the product.

Torsten hAgerstrand

Time geography or

Time-space geography

Yi-fu tuan

Place = space + meaning

Fred schaefer

Proponent of the spatial tradition

Interpreting

Places and

landscapes

outline

landscape as a human system

the aesthetics of landscape

place making/place marketing

coded spaces

postmodern spaces

remember

Different people perceive the environment differently.

Landscape is a text written by individuals and groups possessing culture and

Experiences.

Signs are codes that exists within a landscape and are those that draw our

attention to them away from others.

Why and how do

our mental maps change?

Landscape as a human system

Landscapes possess human imprints on the environment.

LANDSCAPE

An area, the appearance of an area, or the gathering of objects which produce

that appearance.

landschaft

A German concept of landscape which attempted to classify landscapes,

usually distinguishing between the natural and the cultural landscape.

Landscape as a human system

types

ordinary landscapes (vernacular landscapes)

symbolic landscapes

derelict landscapes

Ordinary landscape

The everyday landscapes that people create in the course of their lives

Symbolic landscape

representations of particular values or aspirations that the builders and

financiers of those landscapes want to impart to a larger public

Derelict landscapes

landscapes that have experienced abandonment, misuse, disinvestment, or

vandalism.

Humanistic approach

Places the individual-especially individual values, meaning systems,

intentions, and conscious acts-at the center of analysis

Landscape is a text

and is written with a code

Landscape as text

The idea that landscapes can be read and written by groups and individual.

aesthetic

culturally determined standard of beauty and good taste.

Landscapes have a power

to induce awe or wonder

sublime

A landscape so impressive that it inspires awe or wonder.

Place making/place marketing

territoriality

sense of place

experience, meaning, and cognitive images

images and behavior

territoriality

The persistent attachment of individuals or peoples to a specific location or

territory

ethology

The scientific study of the formation and evolution of human customs and

beliefs.

proxemics

The study of the social and cultural meanings that people give to personal

space.


All social organizations and individuals have formal or informal territorial limits. We

claim geographic spaces to be under our influence or control.

Territoriality is also defined as any attempt to fulfill socially produced needs for

identity, defence, and stimulation.

Territoriality for social interaction

Territoriality for regulation of access to people and resources

Territoriality for provision of a focus and symbol of group membership an identity

Sense of place

Feelings evoked among people as a result of the experiences and memories

that they associate with a place and the symbolism they attach to it.

Pause and think

of your own senses of place for different places.


experience, meaning, and cognitive images

The real world > information > senses > perception > brain and personality >

cognition > culture > transformed cognitive image


Kevin Lynch, in his work “The Image of the City”, researched on what

elements people have in their cognitive images.

paths channels of movement

edges barriers

districts areas you enter and leave

nodes strategic points for travel

landmarks physical reference points


images and behavior

Environments are “learned” through experience. Meanwhile, cognitive images,

once generated, influence behavior. People’s values and feelings work with

cognitive images to influence behavior in e.g. shopping.

risk-taking and sentimental feelings.

Coded spaces

We must learn how to recognize the signs and symbols that go into the making

of landscape.

Semiotics

The practice of writing and reading signs

As for malls as coded spaces,

how do we read them?

Sacred space

an area recognized by individuals or groups as worthy of special attention as a

site of special religious experiences or events. Different peoples apportion

different amounts of space to sacredness.

Postmodern spaces

A shift since the 1980s was observed involving changes in cultural sensibilities

which include avant garde and popular culture. This shift was from modernism

to postmodernism

modernism

A forward-looking view of the world that emphasizes reason, scientific

rationality, creativity, novelty, and progress.

postmodernism

A view of the world that emphasizes on openness to a range of perspectives in

social inquiry, artistic expression, and political empowerment.

Postmodern spaces

Postmodernism abandons Modernism’s emphasis on economic and scientific

progress, arguing the Modernism’s failure to deliver such progress is indicative

of its flaws. Because of this, Postmodernism also rejects the value of grand

universal theories. For some, Postmodernism is living for the moment.

Postmodernism is consumption-oriented.

Globalization and postmodernism converge in consumption. Examples are

ethnic cuisines.

Is cyber space

a geographical space?

About cyberspace

There are virtual stores, virtual meeting places, etc. The culture propagated by

the Internet is very much core-oriented. There is also the issue of the

personality or publicity of the cyberspace of individuals.

summary

behavior, knowledge, and human environments

landscape as a human system

the aesthetics of landscape

place making/place marketing

coded spaces

postmodern spaces

Introduction to geography

popular notions

relevance

basic concepts

Environmental determinism

A belief that people’s actions are determined by their environments.

This belief is rejected today.

At a casual meeting of friends

one asks a geographer,

“what do geographers do?”

Popular notions

memorizing place facts

locating states and cities

having encyclopedic knowledge

writing travel descriptions

drawing maps

Popular notions: Reasons

Chorology

Cosmography

geographical societies

geography

as a science of synthesis.

relevance

Are geographers jacks of all trades and masters of none?

relevance

Geographers alone study places.

geography

“does not border on the systematic sciences, overlapping them in common

parts on a common plane, but is on a transverse plane cutting through them.”

(Hartshorne 1939)

geography

“is a mother discipline from which other disciplines have emerged.

(Ackerman 1958)

This outward-looking perspective

is its raison d'etre.

(Capelle 1979)

The main question of geography

Why and how the what is where?

Relevance: on the side

global warming and climate change

globalization

concepts

space

place

location

scale

distance

direction

interaction

movement

space

the extent of an area, usually expressed in terms of the earth’s surface. From

this meaning derives the term spatial; and spatial relationships are at the heart

of geography

absolute space

relative space

*temporal change of space (D. Massey)

place

a particular point on the earth’s surface; an identifiable centre produced from

human and social interactions and thereafter endowed with meaning.

Place is space plus meaning

“Space lies open ... it is like a blank sheet on which meaning may be imposed.

Enclosed and humanized space is place.”

(Yi-Fu Tuan)

location

absolute location – is expressed with reference to an arbitraty grid system as it

appears on a map

relative location – is concerned with a feature as it relates to other features.

nominal location – place name.

scale

a level of representation and pertains to cartography. It is the ratio between

map distance and ground distance. E.g. 1:250,000

the scale of an investigation or study, such as local, regional, or national.

distance

absolute – measured in meters, inches, etc.

relative – measured in time, cost, effort, etc.

topological – measured in number of steps. concerned with sequences.

direction

pertains to north, south, east, and west. Also, a geographic feature may have a

direction towards an object. Direction is synonymous with orientation, e.g.

north-south orientation.

interaction

also known as spatial interaction, this is the action between two points, upon

one another.

complementarity

An expression of mutual dependency based on an ability to produce goods in

one area which are needed in another.

A state of two points wherein one point has a demand and the other possesses

the corresponding supply.

transferability

The capacity of a good to be transported.

The value of a good which determines its propensity to be transported or

transferred.

low-transferability versus high-transferability goods (e.g. hay versus sports cars)

Intervening opportunity

Any substitute for the entity demanded between two points, which have

complementarity.

movement

the transfer of people, goods, services, finance, matter, energy, and information

from one point to another.

For interaction/movement to occur

There must be complementarity between the two points.

The transferability of the entity to be transferred is greater

than the cost of transport.

There must be no intervening opportunities between the two points.

Mapping

cultural

identities

outline

culture as process

building cultural complexes

cultural systems

cultural nationalism

culture and identity

culture and the environment

globalization and cultural change

remember

Geographers are concerned about how place and space shape culture

and vice versa.

Culture has been profoundly affected by globalization.

Culture as process

This reminds us that spaces, places, and landscapes are continually subjected

to different forms of culture. These spaces, places, and landscapes also shape

culture.

culture

a shared set of meanings that are lived through the material and symbolic

practices of everyday life.

Cultural geography

The study of the ways in which space, place, and landscape shape culture at

the same time that culture shapes shapes space, place,a nd landscape

Building cultural complexes

Carl Sauer, and the Berkeley School, have been interested in the concept of

cultural landscapes.

Historical geography was an approach used by British geographers

Genre de vie, a particular way of life of a particular culture, was the focus of

French geographers.

Cultural landscape

A characteristic and tangible outcome of the complex interactions between a

human and a natural environment.

Historical geography

The geography of the past.

Sauer’s equation

Culture is the agent, the natural area is the medium,

the cultural landscape is the result.

Genre de vie

A functionally organized way of life that is seen to be characteristic of a

particular cultural group.

Cultural trait

A single aspect of the complex of routine practices that constitute a particular

cultural group,

Cultural region

The area within which a particular cultural system prevails.

Cultural systems

These systems unite even people with diverse attributes. Cultural systems

include those that pertain to:

geography and religion

geography and language

Cultural system

A collection of interacting elements that, taken together, shape a group’s

collective identity.

religion

belief system and a set of practices that recognize the existence of a power

higher than humans.

diaspora

a spatial dispersion of a previously homogeneous group

language

A means of communicating ideas or feelings by means of a conventionalized

system of signs, gestures, marks, or articulate vocal sounds

dialects

Regional variations form standard language. In terms of accent, vocabulary,

and grammar.

Language family

A collection of individual languages believed to be related in their prehistoric

origin.

Language branch

A collection of languages that possess a definite common origin but have split

into individual languages

Language group

A collection of several individual languages that are part of a language brach,

share a common origin, and have similar grammar and vocabulary.

Cultural hearth

The geographical origin or source of innovations, ideas, or ideologies. A

termed coined by geographer Carl Sauer).

Cultural nationalism

Some nations are fighting other cultural influences by isolationism, active

legislation, and other efforts.

Cultural nationalism

An effort to protect regional and national cultures from the homogenizing

impacts of globalization.

Culture and identity

sexual geographies

ethnicity

gender and class

sexuality

The set of practices and identities that a given culture considers related to each

other and to those things it considers sexual acts and desires

ethnicity

A socially created system of rules about who belongs and who does not belong

to a particular group based on actual or perceived commonality.

According to Smith, an ethnic group possess these six characteristics:

an identifying name, common myth of descent, shared history, distinctive and

shared culture, placement, relatively indivisible self-worth.

race

A problematic classification of human beings based on skin colour and other

physical characteristics.

gender

category reflecting the social differences between men and women rather than

the anatomical differences that are related to sex.

Culture and environment

cultural ecology

political ecology

Cultural ecology

the study of the relationship between a cultural group and its natural

environment.

Cultural adaptation

the use of complex strategies by human groups to live successfully as part of a

natural system.

Political ecology

an approach to cultural geography that studies human-environment

relationships through the relationships of patterns of resource use to political

and economic forces.

Globalization and cultural

change

Globalization is creating impact on the multiplicity of culture groups in the

world.

There are common traits between inhabitants of the fast world.

Final question

Is there a global culture?

summary

culture as process

building cultural complexes

cultural systems

cultural nationalism

culture and identity

culture and the environment

globalization and cultural change

maps

definition

types

challenges

maps

are representations of the world on a two-dimensional surface.

Types of maps

general

thematic

General maps

display the major features of an area of the Earth’s surface.

e.g. topographic, road maps

Topographic maps

display the longstanding and more permanent features of the Earth’s surface

such as buildings, highways, political boundaries, contour lines, mountains and

rivers.

MA

PS

topographic

Thematic maps

are designed to represent the spatial dimensions of particular conditions,

processes, or events.

types: dot, choropleth, isoline, located charts, topological, cartogram

MA

PS

dot

MA

PS

choropleth

MA

PS

isoline

MA

PS

Located charts

MA

PS

topological

MA

PS

cartogram

cartogram

A map transformation based on a scale other than a true scale, e.g. population

or income.

challenges

propaganda

watermark

generalization

projection

design

MA

PS

propaganda

MA

PS

generalization

When making generalizations for a map

Which features are to be included?

Which features are to omitted?

Which features are to be a bit displaced?

How accurate are the shapes?

Map projection

a systematic rendering on a flat surface of the geographical coordinates of the

features found on Earth’s surface.

types: equidistant, conformal, azimuthal, equal-area

variables to consider: distance, area, shape, direction

MA

PS

Equidistant: polyconic

MA

PS

Conformal: mercator

MA

PS

Azimuthal: lambert

MA

PS

Azimuthal

MA

PS

Equal area: mollweide

MA

PS

dymaxion

More basic

concepts

site

the physical attributes of a location – its terrain, soil, vegetation, and water

sources, for example

situation

the location of a place relative to other places and human activities: its

accessibility to routes, for example, or its nearness to population centres.

Cognitive distance

The distance that people perceive to exist in a given situation

Friction of distance

The deterrent or inhibiting effect of distance on human activity.

Distance-decay function

The rate at which a particular activity or process diminishes

with increasing distance.

utility

The usefulness of a specific place or location to a particular person or group.

People seek to maximize the net utility of location.

Nearness principle

a concept by Richard Morrill that states that people will seek to

1.Maximize the overall utility of places at minimum effort.

2. Maximize connections among places at minimum cost

3.Locate related activities as close together as possible.

Topological space

the connections between, or connectivity of, particular points in space

Cognitive space

space defined and measured in terms of the nature and degree of people’s

values, feelings, beliefs, and perceptions about locations, districts, and regions.

Terra incognita

unknown areas.

Place-making

Any activity, deliberate or unintentional, that enables space to acquire meaning.

Connectivity

The number of connections available to a point or network.

Connectivity

alpha index – the ration of the actual number of circuits in a network to the

maximum possible number of circuits in that network. It is given as:

α = (e-v+p/2v-5) x 100, wherein,

e = number of edges/lines

v = number of vertices/nodes

p = number of subgraphs

Connectivity

beta index – a simple measure of connectivity relating the number of edges to

the number of nodes.

β = e/v, wherein,


v = number of vertices/nodes

Connectivity

gamma index – the measure of the connectivity in a network.

γ = e/1.5n(n-1), wherein,


n = number of nodes/vertices

The index ranges from 0 (no connection between nodes) to 1.0 (the maximum

number of connections, with direct links between all the nodes.

Connectivity

König number– the number of steps between a given point and the

topologically farthest point from it.

accessibility

the ease of approach to one location from other locations. Physical accessibility

is where a resource is within reach. Social accessibility is where the individual

has the means to reach the resource or location.

can be measured by an accessibility matrix. Enough math. The method for

deriving an accessibility matrix should be next time.

Mobility

the ability to move. It may also be used to describe any kind

of spatial movement.

Spatial diffusion

The way that things spread through space and over time. It is characterized by a

s-curve. Three types are expansion, relocation, and hierarchical.

expansion diffusion – diffusion from a centre without phenomena leaving the

centre.

relocation diffusion – diffusion from a centre with phenomena leaving the

centre.

hierarchical diffusion – diffusion that passes through a regular sequence of

orders, without necessarily spreading to places in between.

region

Any tract of the earth’s surface with either natural or man-made characteristics

which mark it off as being different from the areas around it.

Types: formal/single-factor, multi-factor, vernacular

Formal/single-factor region

regions that are based on one measurable attribute. A region marked by

relative uniformity of characteristics, such as the Scottish Highlands. The

variations within the region are less than variations between the region and

other areas.

nodal-region – a region based on nodes and movement.

Multi-factor region

regions that are based on two or more attributes.

functional region – a type of region characterized by its function such as a

city-region or a drainage basin.

Vernacular region

is the local region as identified by the region’s own inhabitants.

Nature, society,

And technology

outline

nature as a concept

Earth and early humans

European expansion and globalization

human action and recent environmental change

remember

Nature, society, and technology constitute a complex relationship.

It is important to understand the many social ideas of nature.

Social relationships with nature have developed over the course

of human history.

The globalization of the world economy has meant that environmental

problems are also global in their scope. In response, new ways of

understanding have emerged.

Nature as a concept

Environmental thinkers, including a number of geographers, are beginning to

advocate the need to consider nature not as something that sits apart from

humans, but as inseparable from society.

natur e

a social creation as well as the physical universe that includes human beings.

society

sum of the inventions, institutions, and relationships created and reproduced

by human beings across particular places and times.

technology

physical objects or artifacts, activities or processes, and knowledge

or know-how.

Nature as a concept

The relationship of nature, society, and technology

The formula I = PAT

where in,

I = impact on Earth‟s resources

P = Population

A = Affluence

T = Technology

Does higher means better?

or is it the other way around?

Nature as a concept

Technologies can affect the environment in a threefold way:

1. The harvesting of resources

2. The manufacture of goods and services

3. The consumption of goods and services

Nature as a concept

religious perspectives on nature:

Judeo-Christian

Taoist

Buddhist

Islamic

Animistic

You saw a cow in the sunken garden

What would be the first thing to think of if you think

Judeo-Christian?

Taoist?

Buddhist?

Islamic?

Animistic?

J udeo-chr istian perspective on natur e

The view that nature was crated by God and is subject to God and is subject to

God in the same way that a child is subject to parents.

taoist pers pective on nature

The view that nature should be valued for its own sake, not for how it might be

exploited.

B uddhist perspective on nature

The view that nothing exists in and of itself, and everything is part of a natural,

complex, and dynamic totality of mutuality and interdependence.

Is la mic perspective on natur e

The view that the heavens and Earth were made for human purposes.

a nimistic pers pective on nature

The view that natural phenomena – both animals and inanimate-possess an

indwelling spirit or consciousness.

Poss ib le a nswers

Judeo-Christian “How about a beef patty for a burger?”

Taoist “The cow is important in itself.”

Buddhist “The cow and I are one.”

Islamic “I obey therefore I don‟t abuse the cow.”

Animistic “The cow is conscious that I want to have him for a burger,

that he is important, that I don‟t want to abuse him and that

we are one.”

Nature as a concept

environmental philosophies and political views of nature:

romanticism

transcendentalism

conservationism

preservationism

environmental ethics

ecofeminism

You saw a cow in the sunken garden

What would be the first thing to think of if you think using

romanticism?

transcendentalism?

conservationism?

preservationism?

environmental ethics?

ecofeminism?

roma nticism

The philosophy that emphasizes interdependence and relatedness between

humans and nature.

tra nscendentalism

A philosophy whereby a person attempts to rise above nature and the

limitations of the body to the point where the spirit dominates the flesh.

cons ervationism

The view that natural resources should be used wisely and that society‟s

effects on the natural world should represent stewardship, not exploitation.

pr es ervationism

An approach to nature advocating that certain habitats, species, and resources

should remain off-limits to human use, regardless of whether the use maintains

or depletes the resource in question.

Environmental ethics

A philosophical perspective on nature that prescribes moral principles as

guidance for our treatment of it.

ecofeminism

The view that patriarchal ideology is at the centre of our present

environmental malaise.

Poss ib le a nswers

romanticism “Respect the cow.”

transcendentalism “Rise above the cow.”

conservationism “Too much cow is too much.”

preservationism “Don‟t touch the cow.”

environmental ethics “The cow has rights too.”

ecofeminism “Cows are for men.”


paleolithic impacts

neolithic peoples and domestication

early settlements and their environmental impacts

Pa leolithic impacts

Neolithic peoples a nd domestication

Ea r ly s ettlements a nd environmental impacts

Pa leolithic per iod

The period when chipped-stone tools first began to be used.

Clovis point

A flaked, bifaced projectile whose length is more than twice its width. This

implement increased the likelihood of a kill.

s iltation

The buildup of sand and clay in a natural or artificial waterway.

defor estation

The removal of trees from a forested area without adequate replanting.

European expansion and

globalization

initial internal expansion

overseas colonial expansion

Virgin soil epidemics

conditions in which the population at risk has no natural immunity or previous

exposure to the disease within the lifetime of the oldest member of the group

Columb ia n exchange

interaction between the Old World, originating with the voyages of Columbus

Cor n: from old world or new world?

potato

ba na na

tomato

va nilla

coffee

a nswers

New World Old World

corn banana

tomato onion

potato wheat

vanilla coffee

Demographic colla pse

phenomenon of near genocide of indigenous populations

Ecologica l imperialism

introduction of exotic plants and animals into new ecosystems.

Human action and recent

Environmental change

energy

climate change

land use and land cover

effect on flora and fauna

Acid ra in

The wet deposition of acids on Earth created by the natural cleansing

properties of the atmosphere.

des ertification

The degradation of land cover and damage to the soil and water in grasslands

and arid and semi-arid lands

Globa l cha nge

Combination of political, economic, social, historical, and environmental

problems at the world scale

Environmental j ustice

Movement reflecting a growing political consciousness, largely among the

world‟s poor, that their immediate environs are far more toxic than those in

wealthier neighborhoods.

What should we do then?

to protect the environment and pursue our human interests?



sustainable development

Article 9 of the UN Declaration of Human Rights states that all people „should

promote sustainable development all over the world to assure dignity, freedom,

security and justice for all people.‟

Susta inable development

a type of development that „meets the needs of the present without

compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.‟



sustainable development

There are problems with definitions, howerver. The term „future generations‟

specifies no time limit. Which practices are „socially desirable?‟ What is the

extent of „environmental change.‟ There is also the perceived necessity of

trade-offs.

summary

nature as a concept


European expansion and globalization

human action and recent environmental change

Physical and

human

geography

Physical geography

The branch of geography which deals with the natural features of the earth’s

surface.

can include geomorphology, meteorology, climatology, biogeography, and

hydrology.

An integrated view of earth

using Physical geography

Earth-Sun relationship

the earth as a system

spheres

major earth systems

major features

landforms

climate

vegetation and soils

Earth-sun relationship

The sun is the primary source of energy for the earth.

The spatial relationship of the earth to the sun is of vital importance to life on

the planet.

perihelion

aphelion

equinox

solstice

perihelion

The closest point on the Earth’s orbit relative to the Sun. January 3.

Aphelion

The farthest point on the Earth’s orbit relative to the Sun. July 4.

equinox

A day when daytime and nighttime are of equal length. Equinoxes occur twice

a year.

spring equinox – 21 March

autumn equinox – 22 September

solstice

A day when the overhead sun is furthest from the equator. Solstices occur

twice in a year.

summer solstice – 21 June

winter solstice – 21 December

summer solstice is when daytime is longest in the Northern Hemisphere

winter solstice is when daytime is shortest in the Southern Hemisphere


dates

January 3 perihelion

March 21 spring equinox

June 21 summer solstice

July 4 aphelion

September 22 autumn equinox

December 21 winter solstice


seasonal zones

tropical Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn

temperate

polar Arctic, Antarctic

Earth as a system

Earth is an ecosphere, a system composed of the atmosphere, hydrosphere,

biosphere, and lithosphere. It is a self-contained system with radiation as input

and output.

System

any set of interrelated factors. A system has components, structure, behaviour,

interconnectivity, functions.

two types:

open matter and energy circulate in and out of the system

closed only energy circulates in and out of the system

What type of system is the earth?

Is it an open or a closed system? Why?

spheres

These spheres function as the components of the Earth system, the ecosphere:

atmosphere

hydrosphere

biosphere

lithosphere

atmosphere

The layer of air surrounding the Earth, with an average composition, by

volume, of 79% nitrogen, 20% oxygen, and 1% of other gases.

hydrosphere

All the water on, or close to, the surface of the earth. Some 97% of this water

is in the earth’s seas and oceans; of the rest, about 75% is in ice caps and –

sheets, about 25% in surface drainage and groundwater, and about 0.03% in

the atmosphere.

biosphere

The zone where life is found.

lithosphere

simple: the rest of the earth, including molten and hardened rock.

strict.: the earth’s crust, and that upper layer of the mantle which lies above

the asthenosphere.

When talking about earth’s major spheres, we shall use the simple definition.

Lithosphere divisions

Using the simple definition of the lithosphere, it can be divided according to:

composition crust, mantle, core

physical properties lithosphere (strict), plastic asthenosphere,

mesosphere, outer core, inner core

Major earth systems

The ecosphere, or the Earth system, can be subdivided into two systems, which

consists of the four spheres/components stated beforehand:

the hydrologic system hydrosphere, atmosphere. (flows)

the tectonic system lithosphere, biosphere. (fixeds)

The hydrologic system

is the complex cycle through which water moves from the oceans, to the

atmosphere, over the land, and back to the oceans again. Water in the

hydrologic system – moving as surface runoff, groundwater, glaciers, waves,

and currents – erodes, transports, and deposits surface rock material.

Hydrologic subsystems

larger scale ocean circulation, atmospheric circulation

smaller scale: river systems

glacial

groundwater

shoreline

eolian

Ocean surface currents

Atmospheric cells

The tectonic system

involves the movement of the lithosphere which is broken into a mosaic of

separate plates. These plates move independently, separating, colliding, and

sliding past one another. The margins of the plates are the sites of considerable

geologic activity such as seafloor spreading, continental rifting, mountain

building, volcanism, and earthquakes.

Tectonic subsystems

divergent plate boundaries

transform plate boundaries

convergent plate boundaries

within-plate tectonics and mantle plumes

major components: continental and oceanic plates

plates

Major features

continents and continental shelves

oceans

ocean basins

continent

One of the main continuous bodies of land on the earth’s surface. Commonly,

seven continents are recognized: Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe,

North America, and South America.

Continents are composed of shields, stable platforms, and folded mountains.

Continental shelf

The gently sloping submarine fringe of a continent. This is ended by a steep

continental slope which occurs at around 150m below sea level.

oceans

The largest bodies of water on earth. Commonly, the oceans are the Pacific,

Indian, Atlantic, and Arctic Oceans.

Ocean basin

A continuous solid structure under the oceans. Ocean basins are composed of

the oceanic ridge, the abyssal floor, seamounts, trenches, and continental

margins.

landform

A physical feature of the earth’s surface, such as a meander or a volcano.

Landform s: processes

processes

internal plate movement, vulcanism, diastrophism

external weathering, erosion, deposition

Plate movement

the term for large crustal movements, such as those associated with plate

tectonics and sea-floor spreading.

vulcanism

the movement of molten rock in the mantle outward toward the surface of the

earth. Two types are intrusive and extrusive volcanism.

diastrophism

crustal movement on a smaller scale than plate movement. It includes local or

regional warping, folding, and faulting of the crust.

weathering

The breakdown, but not the removal, of rocks.

erosion

The removal of part of the land surface by wind, water, gravity, or ice.

deposition

the dropping of material which has been picked up and transported by wind,

water, or ice.

climate

a summary of mean weather conditions over a time period, usually based on

thirty years of records. Climates are largely determined by location with

respect to land- and sea-masses, to large-scale patterns in the general

circulation of the atmosphere, latitude, altitude, and to local geographical

features.

weather

current, rather than average, atmospheric conditions. Weather variables include

humidity, temperature, sunshine hours, cloud cover, visibility, and precipitation

(fog, rain, snow, sleet, and frost).

Climate categories

Koeppen’s Five Major Climate Categories

A tropical Moist hot all-year low latitudes

B dry desert/steppe low-mid latitudes

C moist, mild winter subtropical mid latitudes

D moist, severe winter continental mid-high latitudes

E polar always cold

H undifferentiated highlands

Vegetation regions

regions that are largely influenced by climate and soils

forest and woodland

shrubland

grassland

desert

tundra

mountains and ice caps

Soil regions

regions that are largely influenced by climate and vegetation

alfisols oxisols

aridisols spodosols

entisols ultisols

histosols vertisols

Inceptisols mountains and ice caps

mollisols

oxisols

Human geography

a generalized term for those areas of geography not dealing exclusively with

the physical landscape or with technical matters such as remote sensing. It is

concerned with the relationships between man’s activities and the physical

environment, with spatial analysis, and with those processes which lead to

areal differentiation. The term covers a number of fields. These fields include

Agricultural geography

Behavioral geography

Cultural geography

Economic geography

Industrial geography

Political geography

Regional geography

Social geography

Urban geography

These and other fields

are the subjects of our next seven meetings.

Regional

geography

Regional geography

The study in geography of regions and of their distinctive qualities. A

precondition of this study is the recognition of a region, its naming, and the

delimitation of its boundaries.

World region

A functional region of groups of countries which are in proximity to one

another and that possess factors that are common across the given countries

and perform specific functions within the world region.

There are seven continents

Really?

Regions

can be interconnected.

An activity!

plate 3

WORLD REGIONS

USA and Canada Africa

Europe The Middle East

The Russian Domain South Asia

Japan Southeast Asia

Australia and New Zealand East Asia

Middle America The Pacific Islands

South America The Polar Regions

regionalism

A move to foster or protect an indigenous culture in a particular region. This

may be a formal move, made by the state as it creates administrative or

planning regions, or an informal move for some degree of independence

arising from a gut felling, based on territory, of a minority group.

The changing

world

outline

The Changing World

Pre-Modern Geographic Change

A New World Geography

Organizing the Periphery

Globalization

The changing world

Origins

Growth

Core, Semiperiphery, Periphery

The changing world

The modern world-system was first established over a long period from the

fifteenth to the mid-seventeenth centuries. It began in fifteenth-century

Europe. Exploration, shipbuilding, and navigation caused economic, social and

cultural expansion in from European to non-European areas.

A highly structured relationship between places and regions was created. This

is due to reasons such as competition among states.

The changing world

Core regions emerged. These regions previously participated using military

means. Presently, they wield much political and economic influence.

Those places which were unsuccessful became peripheral countries.

Within the global core, there are regional cores, semiperipheries, and

peripheries. Regional cores are made up of local cores and peripheries.

World-system

An interdependent system of countries linked by economic and political

competition.

External arena

Regions of the world not yet absorbed into the modern world-system.

States

Independent political units with territorial boundaries that are internationally

recognized by other political units.

Core regions

Regions that dominate trade, control the most advanced technologies, and

have high levels of productivity within diversified economies.

Peripheral regions

Regions with undeveloped or narrowly specialized economies with low levels

of productivity.

Semiperipheral regions

Regions that are able to exploit peripheral regions but are themselves exploited

and dominated by core regions.

Pre-modern

Geographic change

Hearth Areas

The Growth of Early Empires

The Geography of the Pre-Modern World

Pre-modern

Geographic change

Systematically differentiated human geographies began with mini-systems.

Swidden cultivation was practiced thereafter.

Hearth areas emerged where there was plenty of resources:

1. The Middle East.

2. South Asia.

3. The Americas

Pre-modern

Geographic change

The growth of early empires happened when higher population densities,

changes is social organization, craft production, and trade brought about by the

first agricultural revolution happened. The social economy of the world-

empires were redistributive-tributary.

Famous world empires – Egypt, Greece, China, Byzantium, and Rome.

Pre-modern

Geographic change

Urbanization and colonization were important contributions of the world-

empires to an evolving world system.

The law of diminishing returns was an influence for expansion of the world-

empires. The legacy of the world-empires is still on our landscapes today.

Pre-modern

Geographic change

The geography of the pre-modern world was comprised of the sparsely-

populated interiors, the nomadic areas, and the hearths of sedentary

agricultural production.

The more developed areas were connected through trade.

Mini-system

A society with a single cultural base and a reciprocal social economy.

Slash-and-burn system

System of cultivation in which plants are cropped close to the round, left to

dry for a period, and then ignited.

World-empire

Mini-systems that have been absorbed into a common political system while

retaining their fundamental cultural differences.

Law of diminishing returns

The tendency for productivity to decline, after a certain point, with the

continued application of capital and/or labour to a given resource base.

hinterland

The sphere of economic influence of a town or city

a new world geography

European Overseas Expansion

Industrialization and Geographic Change

Internal Development of the Core Regions


Aside from the gathering of gold and silver, plantations were also the means

by which Europeans solidified their position in the center of the emerging

modern world-system.

Dependency of the periphery on the core emerged while the core regions

developed within in terms of banking, import substitution, among others.


New production technologies based on harnessing energy such a s coal

New transportation technologies such as rail, and steam ship.

Deliberate exercise of colonization and imperialism.

Leadership cycles emerged and hegemony ensued.


Leadership cycles:

1. Portuguese

2. Dutch

3. British

4. United States


The internal growth of the core regions is exemplified by the modernization of

farming equipment and the growing complexity of internal transportation

systems

plantations

Large landholdings that usually specialize in the production of one particular

crop for market.

Import substitution

The process by which domestic producers provide goods or services that

formerly were bought from foreign producers.

Leadership cycles

Periods of international power established by individual states through

economic, political, and military competition.

hegemony

Domination over the world economy exercised by one national state in a

particular historical epoch through a combination of economic, military,

financial, and cultural means.

Staples trap

An over-reliance on the export of staples makes an economy (national or

regional) vulnerable to fluctuations in world prices and without alternatives

when resource depletion occurs.

Staples thesis

A proposition arguing that the export of Canada’s natural resources, or staples,

had a pervasive impact on this country, one consequence being that Canada

became locked into dependency as a resource hinterland for more advanced

economies.

Organizing the periphery

The International Division of Labor

Imperialism


Colonies specialized when there was:

1. Established demand in the industrial core

2. Comparative advantage in their production of a good

3. No competition of products within core countries

The result was that countries were organized around narrow specializations.

The keyword was dependency.


Imperialism, in the process of organizing the core, was alongside free trade

and investment. Scramble for territorial and commercial domination was

developed. The core countries engaged in pre-emptive geographical

expansionism in order to protect their established interests and to limit the

opportunities of others through military supervision, administrative control,

and economic regulations.

Africa was carved in to a patchwork of colonies and protectorates in just 34

years, from 1880 to 1914, with little regard for either physical geography or

the pre-existing human geographies.


Subaltern theory examines the ways in which the periphery is marginalized by

the colonizing centre. The centre engages in a process of “othering” in which

the experiences of the margin are seen as irrelevant.

For example, the image of the “Orient” is created by the West and is imposed

on the Asian lands.

The remedy suggested was to view the centre from the margin.

Division of labor

The specialization of different people, regions, or countries in particular kinds

of economic activities

Comparative advantage

Principle whereby places and regions specialize in activities for which they

have the greatest advantage in productivity relative to other regions or for

which they have the least disadvantage.

Subaltern theory

A theory examining the ways in which the colonized margin is culturally

dominated by the colonizing centre

globalization

Three Worlds

A New International Division of Labor

The Fast World and the Slow World

globalization

The imperial world order began to disintegrate shortly after World War II.

The resulting order were three worlds:

1. First World United States and the world-system core

2. Second World Soviet Union, China, and their satellite countries

3. Third World Most of the periphery and independent.

globalization

Transnational corporations and commodity chains became more common and

became main drivers of economies of nations.

A new internationl division of labor was accompanied by three other factors of

globalization:

an internationalization of finance

a new technology system

a homogenization of international consumer markets.

globalization

Notable results of globalization:

1. commodity chains, consumerism, pop culture, English language

2. environmental degradation

3. growth of globally oriented groups

4. differences in the world economy

5. mingling, clashing, and the emergence of cultures and pathways to

economic and cultural development

globalization

The Fast World and the Slow World means that the core is now a close-knit

triad of the geographical raid of the geographical centres of North America, the

European Union of Western Europe, and Japan. In 1999, the fifth of the

world’s population living in the highest-income countries had

74 percent of world income (the bottom fifth had just 1 percent)

82 percent of the world export markets (the bottom fifth had just 1 percent)

74 percent of world telephone lines, today’s basic means of communication

(the bottom fifth had just 1.5 percent).

Neo-colonialism

Economic and political strategies by which powerful states in core economies

indirectly maintain or extend their influence over other areas or people.

Transnational corporations

Companies with investments and activities that span international boundaries

and with subsidiary companies, factories, offices, or facilities in several

countries.

Commodity chains

Networks of labor and production processes beginning with the extraction or

production of raw materials and ending with the delivery of a finished

commodity.

Producer services

Services that enhance the productivity or efficiency of other firms’ activities or

that enable them to maintain specialized roles.

Spatial justice

The fairness of the distribution of society’s burdens and benefits, takingi nto

account spatial variations in people’s needs and in their contribution to the

production of wealth and social well-being.

Fast world

People, places, and regions directly involved, as producers and consumers, in

transnational industry, modern telecommunications, materialistic consumption,

and international news and entertainment.

Slow world

People, places, and regions whose participation in transnational industry,

modern telecommunications, materialistic consumption, and international

news and entertainment is limited.

Digital divide

Inequality of access to telecommunications and information technology,

particularly the Internet.

GLOBAL MODELSVance ModelRimmer ModelTaaffe, Morrill and Gould Model

DEFINITION AND BASICS

VANCE MODELNorth America and Europe: First World CountriesUSA-United Kingdom; Canada-France


VANCE ACCUMULATION OF WEALTH IN EUROPE LEADS TO EXPLORATION

ONE-WAY TRADEVANCE

SETTLEMENT AND CONSUMPTION OF MANUFACTUREVANCE

INTERNAL TRADE AND MANUFACTURINGVANCE

RIMMER MODELTransport networks are products of interests and efforts for political, cultural, and economic dominance

First World and Southeast Asian CountriesSpain-Philippines, The Netherlands -Indonesia


RIMMER PRECOLONIAL PHASE

RIMMER EARLY COLONIAL PHASE

RIMMER HIGH COLONIAL PHASE

RIMMER POST COLONIAL PHASE

TAAFFE, MORRILL & GOULDTransport network change from a period of pre-colonial underdevelopment, through a period of external political intervention, to the period of political independence.

First World Countries and African CountriesGhana, Nigeria


TM&G SCATTERED PORTS

PENETRATIONLINES AND PORT CONCENTRATIONTM&G

DEVELOPMENT OF FEEDERSTM&G

BEGINNINGS OF INTERCONNECTIONTM&G

COMPLETE INTERCONNECTIONTM&G

EMERGENCE OF HIGH PRIORITY “MAIN STREETS”TM&G

summary

The Changing World

Pre-Modern Geographic Change

A New World Geography

Organizing the Periphery

Globalization

the geographer’s

toolbox

A general geographical process of study

data collection

data analysis

geographic

pertains to space.

geographical

pertains to the field of Geography or to the focus of the field.

Inside the box

A pen and paper

A camera

A GPS unit

A map

A voice recorder

Global positioning system

A set of software, units, people, satellites, and stations that are used for

gathering location data.

The geography

Of economic

development

outline

what “economic development” means

everything in its place: principles of location

pathways to development

globalization and local economic development

Meaning of economic dev’T

Statistical measures are used to measure economic development, but for

human geographers and other social scientists, the term “economic

development” is used to refer to processes of change involving the nature and

composition of the economy of a particular region as well as increases in the

overall prosperity of the region.

Pause, what do you see

when development “arrives” in a place?


These processes can involve three types of changes:

1. Changes in the structure of the region’s economy.

2. Changes in forms of economic organization within the region.

3. Changes in the availability and use of technology within the region.


the unevenness of economic development

Geographically, the single most important feature of economic development is

that it is uneven. The core regions within the world-system – currently, the tri-

polar core of North America , Europe, and Japan – have the most diversified

economies, the most advanced technologies, the highest levels of productivity,

and the highest levels of prosperity. Other countries and regions – the

periphery and semiperiphery of the world-system – are often referred to as

developing or less-developed.

Gross domestic product (GDP)

An estimate of the total value of all materials, foodstuffs, goods, and services

that are produced by a country in a particular year.

Gross national product (GNP)

Similar to GDP, but in addition includes the value of income from abroad.


global core-periphery patterns

GDP and GNP can be problematic because they are based on each nation’s

currency. On the other hand, purchasing power parity (PPP), measures how

much of a common “market basket” of goods and services each currency can

purchase locally, including goods and services that are not traded

internationally. The purchasing power of core, semiperiphery, and periphery

countries are different from each other.


development and gender equality

Women, in general, have lower employment and wage rates than men.

However, women are playing a central and increasing role in processes of

development and change in the global economy. Women tend to work longer

hours than men.


regional patterns

Inequality in economic development often has a regional dimension. Initial

conditions are a crucial determinant of regional economic performance. Scarce

resources, a history of neglect, lack of investment, and concentrations of low-

skilled people all combine to explain the lagging performance of certain areas.

Such regional patterns exist at different scales.


resources and technology

Patterns of economic development are the result of many different factors. One

of the most important is the availability of key resources such as cultivable

land, energy sources, and valuable minerals. Unevenly distributed across the

world, however, are both key resources and just as important, the combinations

of energy and minerals crucial to economic development. A lack of natural

resources can, of course, be remedied through international trade.


resources and technology

Politics and technology are tied to resources.

Technology systems

clusters of interrelated energy, transportation, and production technologies that

dominate economic activity fro several decades at a time. These technology

systems have changed in 50-year intervals since the 1790, in the period of the

industrial revolution.


the economic structure of countries and regions

The economic structure of much of the world is dominated by the primary

sector. In contrast, the primary sector of the world’s core regions is typically

small, occupying only 5 to 10 percent of the labor force.

Primary activities

Economic activities that are concerned directly with the natural resources of

any kind.

Secondary activities

Economic activities that process, transform, fabricate, or assemble the raw

materials derived from primary activities, or that reassemble, refinish, or

package manufactured goods.

Tertiary activities

Economic activities involving the sale and exchange of goods and services.

Quaternary activities

Economic activities that deal with the handling and processing of knowledge

and information.


stages of development and geographical divisions of labor

Variations in economic structure – according to primary, secondary, tertiary, or

quaternary activities – reflect geographical divisions of labor. Geographical

divisions of labor are national, regional, and locally based economic

specializations that have evolved with the growth of the world-system of trade

and politics.


Rostow’s model of economic development

traditional society limited tech; static society

preconditions for take-off commerce, agriculture, extraction

take-off manufacturing

drive to maturity wider industrial and commercial base

high mass consumption exploitation of comparative

advantages in international trade

Principles of location

Principles of Commercial and Industrial Location

material inputs

labor

processing costs

pull of market

transfer costs

government policies

behavioral considerations


economic interdependence: agglomeration effects

In the real world, the various factors of commercial and industrial location all

operate within complex webs of functional interdependence. These webs

include relationships of industries, stores, and offices. Among these

relationships are principles of agglomeration.

Agglomeration effects

cost advantages that accrue to individual firms because of their location among

functionally related activities.

External economies

cost savings that result from circumstances beyond a firm’s own organization

and methods of production.

Ancillary activities

activities such as maintenance, repair, security, and haulage services that serve

a variety of industries.

Localization economies

cost savings that accrue to particular industries as a result of clustering

together at a specific location.

These cost savings come from flows of information and from sharing of a pool

of labor, specialize subcontractors, suppliers, research institutions, distribution

agents, lawyers, etc.


economic interdependence: agglomeration effects

Sources of external economies are external economies of scale, agglomeration

for information, and fixed social capital. External economies are often referred

to as urbanization economies.

Economies of scale

cost savings that accrue to particular industries as a result of clustering

together at a specific location.

Infrastructure, fixed social capital

The underlying framework of services and amenities needed to facilitate

productive activity.

Urbanization economies

External economies that accrue to producers because of the package of

infrastructure, ancillary activities, labor, and markets typically associated with

urban settings.

Agglomeration effects

How do we produce them?

Pathways to development

Patterns of economic development are the product of principles of lcoation and

economic interdependence, but they are historical in origin and cumulative in

nature.

Geographical path advantage

The historical relationship between the present activities associated with a

place and the past experiences of that place.

Initial advantage

The critical importance of an early start in economic development, a special

case of external economies.


How are regional economic cores created? Regional cores of economic

development – such as cities or central business districts – are created

cumulatively, following some initial advantage, through the operation of

several of the basic principles of economic geography.

creation and location of an economic activity > backward linkages > forward

linkages > ancillary industries

Cumulative causation characterizes such developments. This up-spiral of local

growth would tend to attract people – enterprising young people, usually – and

investment funds from other areas.

Backward linkages

develop as new firms arrive to provide the growing industry with components,

supplies, specialized services, or facilities.

Forward linkages

develop as new firms arrive to take the finished products of the growing

industry and use them as inputs to their own production and distribution.

Cumulative causation

A spiral build-up of advantages that occurs in specific geographic settings as a

result of the development of external economies, agglomeration effects, and

localization economies.

Backwash effects

the negative impacts on a region (or regions) of the economic growth of some

other region.


How core-periphery patterns are modified

If cumulative causation and backwash effects are the only processes the

change economic geography, then the world should be polarized. Spread

effects balance the other two effects. Import substitution also cause cumulative

causation in peripheral regions. There are also agglomeration diseconomies,

deindustrialization, creative destruction, government intervention, and growth

poles. Government intervention acts through planning.

Spread effects

the positive impacts on a region (or regions) of the economic growth of some

other region.

Agglomeration diseconomies

the negative economic effects of urbanization and the local concentration of

industry.

deindustrialization

a relative decline in industrial employment in core regions.

Creative destruction

the withdrawal of investments fro activities (and regions) that yield low rates

of profit in order to reinvest in new activities (and new places).

Growth poles

economic activities that are deliberately organized around one or more high-

growth industries. Related are technopoles. Italian and US growth-pole efforts

have been disappointing. In practice, governments oten fail to invest in the

right industries, and nearly always fail to invest heavily enough to kick-start

the process of cumulative causation.

Globalization and local

economic development

The globalization of the world economy exposed local economic conditions to

external influences and linked local economies and individuals into a system

of interdependence.

the global assembly line (conglomerate corporations, EPZs)

the global office (electronic offices and decentralization, clusters of specialized

offices, offshore financial centers)

tourism and economic development

Conglomerate corporations

companies that have diversified into a variety of different economic activities,

usually through a process of mergers and acquisitions.

summary

what “economic development” means

everything in its place: principles of location

pathways to development

globalization and local economic development

The politics of

Territory and

space

outline

the development of political geography

geopolitics and the world order

The two-way street of politics and geography

Political geography

The geographical analysis of political studies. It is concerned, among other

things, with the spatial expression of political ideals and consequences of

decision-making by a political identity.

Development of pol geog

Political geography was influenced by the people-land tradition and

environmental determinism

State growth and change was emphasized.

This new emphasis was called geopolitics.

Geopolitics

The State’s power to control space or territory and shape the foreign policy of

individual States and international political relations.

state

A territorial unit with clearly defined and internationally accepted boundaries,

having an independent existence and being responsible for its own legal

system.


Friedrich Ratzel: the State is like an organism

1. The space of the State grows with the expansion of the population having

the same culture.

2. Territorial growth follows other aspects of development.

3. A State grows by absorbing smaller units.

4. The frontier is the peripheral organ of the State that reflects the strength

and growth of the State; hence it is not permanent.


Friedrich Ratzel: the State is like an organism

5. States in the course of their growth seek to absorb politically valuable

territory

6. The impetus for growth comes to a primitive State from a more highly

developed civilization.

7. The trend toward territorial growth is contagious and increases in the

process of transmission.


Boundaries and Frontiers

Boundaries are important phenomena because they allow territoriality to be

defined and channeled. The creation of boundaries is, therefore, an important

element in place making.

Because boundaries define territories, boundaries are inclusionary and

exclusionary.

territory

The delimited area over which a State exercises control and which is

recognized by other states.

The word ‘territory’ can also be used to describe informal areas of jurisdiction.


frontier regions

Frontier regions occur where boundaries are very weakly developed. They

involve zones of underdeveloped territoriality, areas that are distinctive for

their marginality rather than for their belonging.


boundary formation

Formal boundaries tend to follow natural barriers such as rivers, mountainn

ranges, and oceans. Where no natural features occur, formal boundaries tend to

be fixed along the easiest and most practical cartographic device: a straight

line. Formal boundaries detour for a number of reasons. After primary

divisions have been established, internal boundaries are demarcated.

Territories delimited by formal boundaries are known as de jure spaces or

regions. De jure territories are often used as the basic units of analysis in

human geography for their significance and for convenience.

Geopolitics and the

world orderStates, as part of the world system, are one of the most powerful institutions

cultivating the process of globalization. The State effectively regulates,

supports, and legitimates the globalization of the economy.

globalization

The increase in volume, scale, and velocity of social (and environmental)

interactions. Globalization is not new, pre-dating colonialism.

On the side, according to p.j. taylor

The process of modern capitalist accumulation is experienced locally, justified

nationally, and organized globally.

nation

A group of people often sharing common elements of culture such as religion

or language, or a history or political identity.

Nation-state

An ideal from consisting of a homogeneous group of people governed by their

own State.

sovereignty

The exercise of State power over people and territory, recognized by other

States and codified by international law.

nationalism

has been coined to describe the feeling of belonging to a nation as well as the

belief that a nation has a natural right to determine its own affairs.

Centripetal forces

forces that strengthen and unify the State.

Centrifugal forces

forces that divide or tend to pull the state apart.

Geopolitics and the

world ordertypes of states

federal a form of government in which power is allocated to units

of local government within the country.

unitary a form of government in which power is concentrated in

the central government

confederation

A group of States united for a common purpose.

Geopolitics and the

world orderStates can also be though of as sets of institutions for the protection and

maintenance of society.

On the side, Ratzel did not think that the State is an organism, but only that it

acts like one.

Geopolitics was taken up and distorted by others to become nasty tools.

Geopolitics and the

World orderImperialism, colonialism, north/south divide

On the side, there is still neocolonialism. There is also an ongoing colonization

process in Antarctica.

North/south divide

The differentiation made between the colonizing States of the Northern

Hemisphere and the formerly colonized States of the Southern Hemisphere.

decolonization

The acquisition, by colonized peoples, of control over their own territory.

Geopolitics and the

World orderGeographers have historically played very central roles in the imperialist

efforts of European States. Royal geographical societies in England and

Scotland were explicitly formed to aid in the expansionary efforts of their

home countries.

heartland

A term suggested by Halford Mackinder (1904) to indicate the wealthy interior

of Eurasia. Mackinder maintained that whoever controlled the heartland would

eventually control the world as political units became larger and larger.

East/west divide

Communist and noncommunist countries, respectively.

Domino theory

If one country in a region chose or was forced to accept a communist political

and economic system, then neighboring countries would be irresistibly

susceptible to falling to communism.

International organization

group that includes two or more States seeking political and/or economic

cooperation with each other.

Supranational organizations

Collections of individual States with a common goal that may be economic

and/or political in nature and which diminish, to some extent, individual State

sovereignty in favor of the group interests of the membershp.

Is it possible

for world government to exist?

The two-way street of

Politics and geographyThe politics of geography is about the influence of geography on politics.

The geography of politics is about the influence of politics on geography.


Politics and geographythe politics of geography

regionalism and sectionalism

suburbs versus cities and rural versus urban (e.g. NIMBYism)

regionalism

a feeling of collective identity based on a population’s politico-territorial

identification within a State or across State boundaries.

sectionalism

extreme devotion to local interests and customs.


Politics and geographythe geography of politics

geographical systems of representation (territorial organizations,

reapportionment, redistricting, gerrymandering)

Territorial organization

a system of government formally structure by area, not by social groups.

reapportionment

The process of allocating electoral seats to geographical areas.

redistricting

The defining and redefining of territorial district boundaries.

gerrymandering

The practice of redistricting for partisan purposes.

Does identity precede territory

or is it the other way around?

remember

In political geography, a two-way process is observed: that which involves

politics to geography, and geography to politics

The where of politics is important in political geography

States are important in the relations of politics and geography.

Political geography involves phenomena from the household scale to the

global scale.

summary

the development of political geography

geopolitics and the world order

The two-way street of politics and geography

Urbanization

And Urban

structure

outline

urban geography and urbanization

some types of cities

history of urbanization

urban systems

urban growth and decline processes

urban structure and land use

urban form and design

urban trends and problems

Urban geography

The study of the site, evolution, morphology, spatial pattern, and classification

of towns.

Urban

of, living, or situated in a city or town. As no standard figures are given for the

size of cities and towns, this concept can be rather vague. An area may be

classified as urban by its role as a central place for a tributary area, providing

a range of shops, banks, and offices. A high density of population may also be

used as an indicator but the city may include large areas of low-density

housing.

Urban geog and urbanization

Urban areas of the world are the linchpins of human geographies.

In human economic and social organization, towns and cities have four

fundamental aspects:

1. mobilizing function

2. decision-making capacity

3. generative function

4. transformative capacity


scope of urban geography as a discipline

urban system, urban form, urban ecology, urbanism, types of cities, historical

development of cities, urban growth and decline processes, urban structure and

land use, urban form and design, urban trends and problems

Urban system

an interdependent set of urban settlements within a specified region.

Urban form

The physical structure and organization of cities.

Urban ecology

the social and demographic composition of city districts and neighborhoods.

urbanism

The way of life, attitudes, values, and patterns of behavior fostered by urban

settings.

urbanization

the increase in the proportion of the population residing in towns, brought

about by migration of rural populations into towns and cities, and/or the higher

urban levels of natural increase resulting from the greater proportion of people

of childbearing age in cities.(this, in turn, reflects patterns of migration).

Urbanization indicates a change of employment structure from agriculture and

cottage industries to mass production and service industries.


The things said in the previous page about urbanization backs up the view that

urbanization results from, rather than causes, social change. This is most

notable in the development of capitalism and its attendant industrialization. It

is said that the development of the landless labourer and the concentration of

wealth into a few hands encourages urbanization. Others argue that

urbanization is the inevitable result of economic growth, with the rise of

specialized craftsmen, merchants, and administrators. A further view streses

the importance of agglomeration economies; cities offer markets, labour,

comparative advantage.


Clark observes that the effects of globalization compound, rather than replace,

local processes or urban development. They introduce reasons for urban

growth and urbanisation which add to the traditional attractions of cities as

central places.

Urbanization is a relatively recent process in the Third World where it is even

more rapid than population growth and where the larges agglomerations are

growing most rapidly. The negative effects of urbanization include the loss of

agricultural land coupled with problems of urban food supply, the destruction

of habitats, and urban diseconomies.


ecclesiastical or university centers megalopolis

defensive strongholds the unintended metropolis

administrative centers frontier urban areas

gateway city the islamic city

shock city post-industrial city

colonial city edge city

megacity 100-mile city

world city primate city

History of urbanization

In broad terms, the earliest urbanization developed independently in the

various hearth areas of the first agricultural revolution.

Urbanization can be attributed to agricultural surplus and population pressure.

Most experts agree that changes in social organization were an important

precondition for urbanization. These changes include the emergence of

specialized skills, specialized classes, and the need for concentrated human

activity.

History of urbanization

Some urbanized areas declined or collapsed due to disasters, lack of labor, and

lack of social and economic infrastructure.

Eventually, local urban expansion, colonialism, imperialism, and

industrialization became primary forces behind urbanization.

Today’s urbanization involves some places that are more urbanized than others

and some places urbanizing faster than others.

A number of peripheral countries are experiencing high rates of urbanization.

Gateway city

city that serves as a link between one country or region and other because of

its physical situation.

Shock city

city that is seen as the embodiment of surprising and disturbing changes in

economic, social, and cultural life.

Colonial cities

Cities that were deliberately established or developed by administrative or

commercial centers by colonial or imperial powers.

Urban systems

Every town and city is part of one of the interlocking urban systems that link

regional-, national-, and international-scale human geographies in a complex

web of interdependence.

Central places are interconnected and form hierarchies. Low-order goods tend

to be located near each other. High-order goods tend to be located far from

each other. Spacing depends on range and threshold. High-order goods have

the greatest ranges and are therefore spaced far from each other. High-order

goods require large thresholds. Low-order goods require low-thresholds.

Central place

A settlement in which certain products and services are available to

consumers.

Central place theory

A theory that seeks to explain the relative size and spacing of towns and cities

as a function of people’s shopping behavior.

Range

the maximum distance that consumers will normally travel to obtain a

particular product or service.

threshold

the minimum market size required to make the sale of a particular product or

service profitable.

Urban systems

Urban systems also exhibit clear functional differences within such

hierarchies, yet another reflection of the interdependence of places.

Functional interdependence between urban areas results in a unique

relationship between the population size of cities and their rank within the

overall urban system.

Rank-size rule

a statistical regularity in city-size distributions of cities and regions.

primacy

condition in which the population of the largest city in an urban system is

disproportionately large in relation to the second- and third-largest cities in

that system.

Primacy in peripheral countries is usually a consequence of primate cities’

roles as imperial capitals and centers of administration, politics, and trade for

a much widerr urban system than their own domestic system.

centrality

the functional dominance of cities within an urban system. Cities do not need

to be both primate and to be possessing centrality.

Urban systems

world cities

the sites of the most of the leading global markets for a number of goods and

services.

The sites of clusters of specialized, high-order businesses that are international

in scope

The sites of concentrations of corporate headquarters

Urban systems

world cities

The sites of most of the leading nongovernmental organizations and

intergovernmental organizations

The sites of the most powerful and internationally influential media

organizations; news and information services; and culture industries

Urban systems

world cities

These characteristics work in synergy. A world city is an interface between the

global and the local. Three world cities dominate the global urban system:

New York, London, and Tokyo. There are second-tier and third-tier world

cities.

megacity

very large city characterized by both primacy and high centrality within its

national eonomy.

centrality

the functional dominance of cities within an urban system. Cities do not need

to be both primate and to be possessing centrality.

Growth and decline processes

growth

The growth of an urban area involves and economic base, basic functions,

nonbasic functions. The prosperity from basic functions is used in building

nonbasic functions. The whole process is of cumulative causation.

Economic base

set of manufacturing, processing, trading or services activities that serve

markets beyond the city.

Basic functions

Economic activities that provide income fromm sales to customers boyond

city limits.

Nonbasic functions

Economic activities that serve a city’s own population.

Growth and decline processes

decline

deindustrialization, decentralization, agglomeration diseconomies,

counterurbanization. These factors are involved in the refocusing of the forces

of cumulative causation.

Urban structure

and land use

basic types of land uses

agricultural, residential, commercial, industrial, institutional, recreational.

combinations of land uses

central business district, zone in transition, edge cities

urban land use and structure processes

gentrification, congregation, segregation

Central business district, cbd

central nucleus of commercial land uses in a city.

Zone in transition

area of mixed commercial and residential land uss surrounding the CBD.

Edge cities

nodal concentrations of shopping and office space that are situated on the outer

fringes of metropolitan areas, typically near major highway intersections.

gentrification

the invasion of older, centrally located working-class neighborhoods by

higher-income households seeking the character and convenience of less

expensive and well-located residences.

congregation

the territorial and residential clustering of specific groups or sub-groups of

people..

Minority group

population subgroups that are seen – or that see themselves as somehow

different from the general population.

segregation

the spatial separation of specific population subgroups within a wider

population.

Urban structure

and land use

results of congregation and/or segregation

enclaves

ghettos

colonies

enclaves

areas in which tendencies toward congregaion and discrimination are long-

standing, but dominated by internal cohesion and identity.

ghettos

areas that are also long-standing, but which are more the product of

discrimination than congregation.

colonies

areas that may result from congregation, discrimination, or both, but in

relatively weak and short-lasting ways.

Urban structure

and land use

space competition in American cities

accessibility and living space

function

social and ethnic group

corridors and sectors

Invasion and succession

a process of neighborhood change whereby one social or ethnic group

succeeds another.

Urban structure

and land use

urban structure models

concentric zone theory

sector theory

multiple-nuclei theory

Concentric zone theory

The theory, proposed by E.W. Burgess (1926), that urban land use may be

classified as a series of concentric zones.

Zone I is the CBD

Zone II is the zone in transition

Zone III is of the houses of the working class

Zone IV is a residential area for the better-off

Zone V is a residential area for the commuters

Sector theory

The view that housing areas in a city develop in sectors along the lines of

communication, from the CBD outwards.

High quality areas run along roads and also reflect the incidenc eof higher

ground. Industrial sectors develop along canals and railways, away from high

quality housing. Thus a high status residential area will spread out along the

lines of the sector by the addition of new belts of housing beyond the outer arc

of the city, these contrasts will be perpetuated as the city grows. This theory

was advanced by H. Hoyt (1939) as an alternative to Brgess’ concentric model,

and was based on residential rent patterns in the USA.

Multiple nuclei model

A model of town growth advanced by C.D. Harris and E.L. Ullman based on

the fact that many towns and nearly all large cities grow about many nuclei

rather than around a simple CBD.

Some of these nuclei are pre-existing settlements, others arise from

urbanization and external economies. Distinctive land-use zones deveelop

because some activities repel each other … New industrial areas develop in

suburban locations since they require easy access, and outlying business

districts may develop for the same reason.

Urban structure

and land use

comparative urban structure

European cities are typically the product of several major epochs of urrban

development. Colonial cities are those that were deliberately established or

developed as administrative or commercial centers by colonial or imperial

powers. Cities of the periphery have the experience of unprecedented rates of

growth driven by rural “push” – overpopulation and the lack of employment

opportunities in rural areas – rather than the “pull” of prospective jobsin towns

and cities. Traditional Islamic cities have a single most dominant feature,

which is the city’s principal mosque.

Urban form and design

symbolic landscapes

the Islamic city

planned urban design (feng shui, renaissance, baroque, Beaux Arts,

City Beautiful Movement, Modern Movement,

postmodern urban design

Urban trends and problems

trends

the unintended metropolis

frontier urbanization

the megacity

the 100-mile city

post-industrial cities

megalopolis

edge city

Urban trends and problems

Problems

poverty and neighborhood decay

unemployment and underemployment

slums of hope, slums of despair

transport and infrastructure problems

environmental degradation

governance and management

remember

Urban areas are linchpins of human geographies at various scales.

Urban areas are engines of economic development

The historical developments of cities are important

Core and periphery cities are different from and similar with each other.

Cities have unique characteristics such as centrality and primacy

Social and economic processes together shape a city

Urban landscapes are multilayered texts that can be read.

Problems beset urban areas.

summary

urban geography and urbanization


history of urbanization

urban systems

urban growth and decline processes

urban structure and land use

urban form and design

urban trends and problems

geog1 1sem 1term

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