geog undergrad learning styles

8/6/2019 Geog Undergrad Learning Styles

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Learning Styles among Geography Undergraduates: An International ComparisonAuthor(s): Mick Healey, Pauline Kneale, John BradbeerSource: Area, Vol. 37, No. 1 (Mar., 2005), pp. 30-42Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute ofBritish Geographers)

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Area (2005) 37.1, 30-42

Learning styles among geography undergraduates:an international comparison

Mick Healey*, Pauline Kneale** and John Bradbeertwith other members of the INLTLearning Styles and Concepts Group'

*School of Environment, University of Gloucestershire, FrancisHall Close, Swindon Road, Cheltenham,Gloucestershire GL50 4AZEmail:[email protected]

**School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JTEmail: [email protected]

tSchool of Education and Continuing Studies, University of Portsmouth, 141 High Street,Portsmouth, P01 2HY

Email: [email protected] manuscript received 18 August 2004

Growing diversity is focusing attention on the range of different student learning styles.This study assesses whether geographers have a predominant learning style and whetherthis varies between and within countries. The findings are based on over 900 geographystudents from 12 universities in Australia, New Zealand, the UK and the US, whocompleted Kolb's Learning Style Inventory (LSI).The implications for curriculum designand student learning strategies are discussed. It is suggested that departments should aimto produce balanced learners with a full range of learning capacities rather than simply

matching teaching to existing learning styles.

Key words: learning and teaching styles, experiential learning model, Kolb's Learning StyleInventory (LSI),assessment, geography undergraduates

IntroductionAs numbers of students entering higher education growand the diversity of the student population becomesgreater in social background, ethnicity, disability andprevious educational and lifeexperience, the challengeof how best to provide appropriate and fulfillinglearning experiences for all has become more important. Greater awareness of the issue has beenencouraged by the increased attention given to initialand continuing professional development of teachersin higher education (Healey 2003). These two trends

have stimulated an increased interest in the topicof variations in student learning styles, that is, the

differences in the way individuals learn. Issues ofequity arise where the mixture of teaching stylesand assessment methods used in a department areout of alignment with the range of learning stylesamong the students taking the programmes.

Research into learning styles has been active forat least the last four decades and there has been amarked upturn in interest in the last few years. Anindication of this is given by three extensive reviewsof the topic that were all published in mid-2004(Cassidy 2004; Coffield et al. 2004; Desmedt and

Valcke 2004). However, up until now there have beenno systematic studies published in the geographicalliteratureon learning styles, although Kolb's experiential

ISSN 0004-0894 ? Royal Geographical Society (with The Institute of British Geographers) 2005


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Learning styles among geography undergraduates 31learning theory has attracted some attention, at leastin the UK (e.g. Healey 1998; Jenkins 1998; Bradbeer1999; Burkill et al. 2000; Healey and Jenkins 2000;Healey and Roberts 2004). The origins for this studyarose out of the conclusion from Healey and Jenkins'review that:

... the characteristic learning style of geographystudents remain unclear. It is important that weestablish whether geography students in highereducation in the early twenty-first century have apredominant learning style and whether this variesbetween countries . .. (2000, 193)

Hence the research focuses on two questions:* Do geography undergraduates have a predominant

learning style early in their studies?* Is there a geography of learning styles?

This study reports on the findings from 12 universitydepartments inAustralia, New Zealand, the UK andthe US. Kolb's (1984) experiential learning theoryprovides the theoretical context for the study. Kolbis recognized as launching themodern learning style

movement (Coffield et al. 2004) and is the mostcited author in the learning style literature (Desmedtand Valke 2004).

Hartmann (1995), using Kolb's categorization, makeslinks between learning styles and the teachingpreferences of students:* Concrete experience is for those who enjoy being

involved in a new experience and who might feelmost comfortable with practical laboratory analysis,field work, working from observations and othervisual stimuli including art and film.

* Reflective observation is preferred by those whoare comfortable watching others or developingobservations about their own experience. Logs,journals and mindstorming are helpful.

* Abstract conceptualization is about creatingtheories to explain observations and for these participants lectures, papers and argument by analogyare appreciated.

* Active experimentation involves activities such asusing theories to solve problems and tomake decisions and may include simulation exercises, casestudies and the opportunity towork on projects.

The results of the survey are discussed in the light ofinformation from the literature about the preferredteaching and learning preferences of students. Theimplications of the findings for curriculum design

and student learning strategies are discussed. Knowing the learning styles of student cohorts gives theteacher the opportunity to use a variety of style

materials thatmatch and challenge students' learning preferences (Felder 1993, 1996).

The nature and relevance of learningstylesThere is a large, and unfortunately at times confusing,literature on student learning (Coffield et al. 2004).Some referto learning style, others to learning approach,learning strategy and learning orientation. Often thesame construct is described in different terms andthe same term can be used to refer to quite differentconstructs. As Sadler-Smith reports '. . . the term"learning style" is a potentially misleading portmanteau term for a rag-bag of disparate and evenunrelated constructs' (1999, 160). However, in aseries of extensive reviews of the field (Riding andCheema 1991; Sadler-Smith 1996; Rayner and Riding1997; Curry 2000; Rayner 2000a; Rayner 2000b;Riding 2000; Riding and Rayner 1998; Coffield et al.2004), a consensus emerges that learning style shouldbe defined in terms of a distinctive and habitual wayan individual acquires knowledge, skills or attitudesand that, in adults, it is a relatively stable trait.

One of themost influentialwriters on learning stylesis David Kolb. His Experiential Learning Theory

Bibliography contains 1863 entries from 1971 to 2004(Kolb and Kolb 2004). His cycle of experientiallearning (Kolb 1981) is shown in Figure 1. Kolbtheorizes that effective learning involves four keyelements: concrete experience (CE), reflective observation (RO), abstract conceptualization (AC) and activeexperimentation (AE).Learners ideally move througheach stage in turn, and transform their experienceinto knowledge. According to Kolb, learning requiresabilities that are polar opposites. People tend toperceive new information in either a concrete orabstract dimension (CE-AC) and process or transformthat information either through activity or reflection(AE-RO) (Smith and Kolb 1986). The combinationof these two axes gives the four learning styles Kolb(1984) describes - diverger, assimilator, convergerand accommodator - each of which has differentcharacteristics (Figure 2).2

Kolb and Fry (1975, 35-6) argued that for peopleto learn effectively they should ideally be able ineach of the four areas. However, they acknowledgethat individuals tend to be more skilled in someareas and less comfortable in others. They suggest


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32 Healey et al.Concrete ExperienceCE

Accommodator Diverger

Active Experimentation Reflection andAE ObservationRO

Converger Assimilator

AbstractConceptualisationACFigure 1 The experiential learningmodel and associated learning styles (fromKolb 1981, 1984)

ACCOMMODATOR DIVERGERActive Experimentation and Concrete Concrete Experience and ReflectiveExperience (AE& CE) Observation (CE & RO)

Can carry out plans Imaginative and good at generatingInterested in action and results ideas

Adapts to immediate circumstances Can view situations frommany anglesTrial and error approach Open to experienceSets objectives and schedules Recognizes problemsLikes a practical, experiential approach Investigates

Senses opportunitiesPrefers towatch than act, and usesimagination to solve problems

CONVERGER ASSIMILATORAbstract Conceptualization and Active Reflective Observation and AbstractExperimentation (AC & AE) Conceptualization (RO & AC)

Good at practical applications Able to theorizeMakes decisions Compares alternativesFocuses effort Defines problemsEvaluates plans Establishes criteriaSelects from alternatives Formulates hypothesesSolves problems Takes a concise logical approachPrefers technical tasks Prefers a good explanation to a hands

on experienceFigure 2 Characteristics of Kolb's Learning Styles (adapted fromKolb 1984, 86; Gibbs 1988, 20)

that unconsciously individuals will play to their personal strengths developing one area at the expenseof another. For example, Smith and Kolb (1986)suggested that students who are strong convergers

would perform well inwritten examinations where

there is a single right answer to a question. Theyattributed this to the converger's preference forusing hypothetico-deductive reasoning.

Learning styles are considered to affect the waysin which teachers teach. Generally teachers are


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Learning styles among geography undergraduates 33thought to prefer to teach in the style that accords

with their own learning preferences, presumablybecause they found that style of learning effective forthemselves. Where this is in tune with their learnersthat should be successful; but where a learner prefers an alternative approach their learning may beless rich and need more support. A teacher'slearning style can influence students' perceptionsof their teachers. For example, Bueno (1999) showsthat assimilator engineering and sciences professorstend to obtain more favourable evaluations thanthe other professors, particularly those with divergerand accommodator strengths. Felder states:

Students whose learning styles are compatible withthe teaching style of a course instructor tend to retaininformation longer, apply it more effectively, andhave more positive post-course attitudes toward thesubject than do their counterparts who experiencelearning and teaching style mismatches. (1993, 286)

One of the advantages of using Kolb's LearningStyle Inventory (LSI) s that there are comparative dataavailable on disciplinary variations from previousresearch (e.g. Kolb 1981). Moreover, it is simple forstudents to self-complete, as the LSI(of 1985) consistsof just 12 statements (Kolb 1985).3 This contrasts withthe 80 statements used in Honey and Mumford's(1992) Learning Style Questionnaire.

Although the revised LSI (1985), used in this study,appears to have improved re-test reliability, the construct validity (i.e. the existence of the two dimensions

AC-CE and RO-AE) of the LSIhas been challenged(Coffield et a!. 2004). Nevertheless, Loo (1997) arguesthat using itwith students helps them to improvetheir learning effectiveness in different learning situations and Smith and Kolb state that the intendedpurpose of the instrument is 'an individual's self development' (1986, 5) and is 'especially useful whenused by teachers and learners to develop a sharedunderstanding of the educational venture' (1986, 7).Situating geographyKolb argues that different disciplines process, experience and produce knowledge in distinctive waysand so can be seen as operating with distinctivelearning style. Learnerswill tend to gravitate towardsa discipline where their learning style is in accord

with the type of knowledge production prevalentwithin it. Educational experience shapes learningstyles. Kolb argues 'people choose fields that areconsistent with their learning styles and are further

shaped to fit the learning norms of their field oncethey are in it' (1984, 88). Equally, if learning style inadolescents ismore fluid than within adults, then itis likely to be influenced by the mode of knowledge

production favoured in the discipline being studied.Congruence of individual learning style and disciplinary knowledge type is likely to lead to academicsuccess in that discipline and to greater satisfactionfrom learning. One possible impact of wideningstudent participation in higher education is thatmorestudents arrive at university with personal learningstyle less finely attuned to the knowledge structuresthey have chosen to study.

There is considerable evidence that learning stylesvary by discipline (Heffler 2001; Dalrymple 2002;Dee et a!. 2002; Pungente et a!. 2002; Siepen and

Westrup 2002). Kolb collected extensive data onlearning styles of undergraduates and academicstaff in the US and used the results to classify thedisciplines (Figure 3). For Kolb, geography is anassimilative discipline, favouring abstract conceptualization and reflective observation and tends toattract people with an assimilative learning style.By contrast, in an Australian study of changes inlearning styles of undergraduates, Nulty and Barrett(1996) drew on the earlier work of Cullen et al.(1994) and concluded that geography students werepredominantly accommodators (Figure 4). Intuitively,given the significance of fieldwork and practicallaboratory work in the curriculum, the accom

modator style may appear the more likely learningstyle for geographers. Bradbeer (1999) predicts thatthe British picture for geography would probably becloser to theAustralian than to the American. Physicalgeography may fall in the harder science group andhuman geography on the softer side of the socialscience-science divide (Becher 1989).

Healey and Jenkins (2000) identify this questionof learning style preferences amongst geographersas an unresolved issue. Perhaps fuzziness is to beexpected. Given the diversity of geography as adiscipline, the real differences in national traditionsof learning and teaching and in university geography,and the decade or more that elapsed between Kolb's

work and that of Nulty and Barrett, a major aim ofthis paper is to investigate national differences inKolb learning style among geography undergraduates.

Sampling methodology and analysisColleagues in geography in 12 higher educationinstitutions agreed to participate in this international


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34 Healey et al.

Concrete (Humanitiesimportant)0

0 Dramatic arts

10 * French* SpanishHistory.* * German

* Art * English20 *Music

* Journalism0 Speech ~ * 0 Philosophy* Social Work * Speech LibraryScience30

* LawEducational Psychology . * NursingEducation * 40 * SociologY * Political * Home Economics

Administration Architecture Psychology . *Anthropology ScienceEducation .

Medicine* * Physical Education

90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10Active Reflective

(Faculty Consulting) *Geography (No Consulting)60* Zoology

Business70 * Botany

Physiology. * Agriculure / Forestry* Economics * Bacteriology* Biochemistry

Ecology . 80

* Chemistry

*Civil Engineering Electrical go * MathematicsChemical Engineering * EngineeringMechanical Engineering . * Physics

Abstract (Mathematicsimportant)Figure 3 Concrete/Abstract andActive/Reflective orientations of academic fields (fromKolb 1984, 127)

project. Three universities inAustralia, New Zealand,the US and the UK participated. All the colleaguesare members of the INLT(International Network forLearning and Teaching Geography inHigher Education).

Although not a random sample of institutions, the

participating universities represent a range oftypes of university. The procedures were pilotedand refined in an initial trial at the University of

Gloucestershire and then sent to the participants(Table 1). One paper from the study on the learning


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Learning styles among geography undergraduates 35

Concrete - Active Cluster Concrete - Reflective ClusterAccommodator Diverger

Commerce EnglishDemography HistoryEducation LinguisticsEnvironmental Studies PhilosophyGeography SociologyPolitical SciencePublic Policy

Transitional ClusterBiological Sciences

Abstract - Active Cluster Abstract - Reflective ClusterConverger Assimilator

Applied Economics AstromonyApplied Physics ChemistryArt History ClassicsComputing Earth SciencesDemography EconomicsEngineering MathematicsForestry PhysicsLaw Theoretical Physics

Medical Research

Figure 4 Kolb's learning styles and disciplinary groups (cited inNulty and Barrett 1996;adapted fromCullen et al. 1994)

styles of geography students at Auckland has alreadybeen published (Milicich et al. 2003).

The students are not all at the same stage in theirgeographical experience - though most are in theearly stages of studying geography at university,pre-university experience varies. This may be anissue, as there are indications from a longitudinalstudy that the response to the LSI changes with time(Vermunt and Minnaert 2003). This may be due toincreased exposure to university-style teaching, butthey do not look at this in a subject context. Nultyand Barrett (1996), looking in detail at students studying business, chemistry, Japanese and computerscience, show students' learning styles changingbetween the first and third years.

Do geography undergraduates have apredominant learning style early in theirstudies?Over 900 students completed Kolb's (1985) revisedLSI in 2001-2. Taking the data as a whole, Table 2shows that 45 per cent of the students are in theassimilator category. In Kolb's terms this suggeststhat slightly less than half of geography classes are

populated with people who prefer organizing materials,testing theories and ideas, designing experiments,analysing quantitative data and building conceptualmodels. A quarter of the class are convergers, happyto experiment with new ideas, choosing the bestsolution, setting goals, making decisions and creatingnew ways of thinking and doing. The divergers,17 per cent of the group, are sensitive to people'sfeelings and values, comfortable with gathering information, listening with an open mind and imagining the implications of ambiguous situations.The smallest group, the accommodators (14%), arecharacterized by those most at ease when seekingand exploiting opportunities, committing themselvesto objectives, influencing and leading others, gettingpersonally involved and dealing with people (Kolb1984, 96).

Using the Chi-Square test confirms that overallthere are significantly greater numbers of respondentsin the assimilator class (Table 3). Although there isno significant difference in the learning styles of maleand female geography students, there isevidence thatmore diverger and accommodator learning styles arefound among students aged 21 and over than amongyounger students.


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36 Healey et al.

Table 1 The characteristics of each of the student groups completing the Learning Style InventoryUniversity Year of When the Priorgeography experience Number of

respondents questionnaire was responsesadministered

University of Year 1 Weeks 2-3, Most had studied geography atA-level 58Gloucestershire, semester 1UKUniversity of Year 1 Weeks 1-2, All have school geography to 18 years 145Leeds, UK semester 1University of Year 1 Week 2, Majority had studied geography at A-level 81Portsmouth, UK semester 1SouthWest Texas, Years 2 and 3 Semester 1 1or 2 years university geography; at least 25US 1year of school geographyUniversity of Year 2 Weeks 3-4, 1 or 2 years university geography and 58Oregon, US semester 1 school experienceTexas A&M, US Year 2 Week 1, 1or 2 years university geography; 40- 65semester 1 50% have school geographyAustralian National Year 1 End of year 1 50% have at least 4 years school 24University, experience; 50% have no schoolAustralia backgroundCurtin University, Year 1 First fewweeks, About half have school geography 30Australia semester 1 experience in the two years before

university; 50% have school experienceto 16 years

Macquarie Year 2 Week 1, Firstyear of university geography; most 65University, semester 1 have school experienceAustraliaUniversity of Year 1 Firstuniversity 85% have pre-university geography 152Auckland, New classes experienceZealandUniversity of Year 1 Week 3, Most have pre-university geography 129Canterbury, New semester 1 experienceZealandUniversity of Year 1, all Weeks 1-2 Most have pre-university geography 100

Waikato, New human semester 1Zealand geographers

Table 2 Preferred learning styles of geography undergraduatesDivergers Assimilators Convergers Accommodators All students

No % No % No % No % No %All countries 158 17 416 45 224 24 134 14 932 100Australia 22 18 57 48 25 21 15 13 119 100New Zealand 67 18 150 39 98 26 66 17 381 100UK 28 10 147 52 77 27 32 11 284 100US 41 28 62 42 24 16 21 14 148 100


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Table 3 Chi Square tabulation results

Chi Square tabulation i2 Probability Accept/reject HoAll learning styles All universities 77.3 0.000 RejectAll learning styles Gender 7.6 0.055 AcceptAll learning styles Age 15.4 0.017 RejectAll learning styles All countries 35.2 0.000 RejectAll learning stylesAustralian universities 14.4 0.026 RejectAll learning styles New Zealand universities 21.2 0.002 RejectAll learning styles UK universities 3.6 0.073 AcceptAll learning styles US universities 3.3 0.770 Accept

70 7 Assimilator* Converger60 - | I DivergerLI Accommodator50

40

*3020

._.u

20 510

0~~~~ 2 ~~~ ~~. c a


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38 Healey et al.

in nine of the 12 universities they are the smallestpercentage. In the UK and US universities, the assimilators dominate with between 39 per cent and55 per cent of the students. Convergers are thesecond strongest group in the UK, while divergersare the second strongest in the US.

Australian National University, Curtin and WaikatoUniversity are interesting for having a more evenspread of learning styles. TheWaikato cohort exhibitedthe lowest percentage of assimilators, the highestpercentage of accommodators, and one of the highestpercentages of divergers. This may reflect the factthat it is composed entirely of human geographerson social science majors, as most of the socialscience disciplines are characterized by a predomin

ance of accommodator and diverger learning styles(Figures 3 and 4).

DiscussionIn exploring Kolb's (1984) learning styles there areimplications for both teachers and learners (Andersonand Adams 1992; Svinicki and Dixon 1994). Kolbsuggests that preferred learning abilities will drawstudents to particular subject studies that play totheir learning strengths and inwhich they then enjoyrelative success (Figure 6). The corollary of this foracademic teachers is that teaching delivery shouldbe mindful of the learning preferences of studentsand encourage them to explore and strengthen the

CEACCOMMODATOR DIVERGER

Independent discovery Why questionsDissertations and projects, practical exercises; Views concrete situations frommanysolves problems in an intuitive trial-and- perspectives; enjoys discussions; imagining;errormanner; influencing and leading others sensitive to people's feelings

Learning by doing and applying for relevance Learning by experience, discussion andTeacher as evaluator, resource and to encourage reflection

self-discovery Teacher as motivatorAssessment by projects and practical reports Assessment by discursive and reflectiveand presentations essays and presentations drawing on

experienceFieldworkLaboratoriesExamplesVideosRole play

Case studies MindstormingAE Personal research Journals RO

Problem solving Learning LogsSimulations Self and peer assessment

ObservationLecturesSet tutorial exercisesArgument by analogyModel buildingTheory readings

Learning by deduction and practice Learning by thinking, synthesizing andTeacher as facilitator and role model on how to do it developing conceptsAssessment by problem solving, multiple choice Teacher as communicator of information

question tests and analytical essays and Assessment by essays and presentationspresentations emphasizing theory and integration

Computer mediated learning; decisionmaking Likes organizing disparate informationexercises, problems with right answers, into an integrated explanation, testingpractical application of ideas ideas and theories

Relevance and how questions Accurate, structured teachingCONVERGER ASSIMILATOR

ACFigure 6 Teaching, learning and assessment activities matched to learning styles


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Learning styles among geography undergraduates 39other areas. While learning is a matter of personalexperience, an individual's reaction to that experience and ability to draw lessons from it is variable,depending on their skills. For example, a teacherwho is a strong diverger has a set of ideas abouthow learning happens, based on personal experienceand a personal educational comfort zone.4 A classthat is largely made up of student assimilators mayfind the approach of such a teacher following adiverger teaching style less useful, the exercises lesshelpful and the entire experience more stressfulthan the same material handled by a teacher whohas an assimilator style. For example, a teacher whoismost comfortable with theory and ideas may talk

and write fluently to the advantage of similar stylelearners, but lose those students who need concreteexamples and hands on experimentation to fullyenjoy and understand the ideas. A variety of stylesthroughout a course should help all learners.

There isevidence that student learning isenhancedas more of the learning stages are used (Stice 1987).This confirms Kolb's argument that teachers need toencourage students to engage with all four stages ofthe learning cycle. Indeed, Kolb suggests that thereare potential long-term benefits where there is anintentional mismatch between learning style andteaching style on the grounds that:

The aim is tomake the student self-renewing and selfdirected; to focus on integrative development wherethe person is highly developed in each of the fourlearningmodes; active, reflective,abstractand concrete.

Here, the student is taught to experience the tensionand conflict among these orientations, for it is fromthese tensions thatcreativity springs. (1984, 203)

It is interesting to speculate as to whether schoolstudents choose university courses tomatch their skillsand comfort zone. Lynch et al. (1998), surveyingmedical students, found divergers to be just 8 percent of the class and cites other studies of medicalstudentswith low diverger rates.This suggests medicalstudents self-select as people who are happiest whenpresented with sound theories to consider (assimilators), and the practical application of concepts andtheories (convergers) and are least happy whenoffered the chance to observe and gather researchfrom a broad range of areas (divergers). Geographycan be thought of as offering a broad, generaleducation covering a breadth of academic materialscombined with hands on field and laboratory studies.It is therefore interesting that some 69 per cent ofthe geographers sampled (assimilators and convergers)

are in their learning comfort zone when dealingwith logical theories and the application of conceptsand ideas. The smallest group, accommodators, arecomfortable when offered the opportunity for handson experience, which suggests that the majority ofstudents need support and encouragement to engagewell with field and personal research activities. Thatis not to say that students will not enjoy field classes,

and the social aspects of this type of work, but thatthe quality of personal investigative research, whetheralone or in groups, is not in the comfort zone of themajority of geography students. Students may be very

'happy' on a fieldclass, but not necessarily workingto the highest standard. Healey and Jenkins (2000)give examples of using the Kolb cycle as a frameworkfor organizing practicals and fieldclass experiencesto take participants right round the Kolb learningcycle and address all four of the learning styles.

Clearly, geography teachers in higher educationneed to expect that there will always be people inclass who are less happy with whatever approach istaken. The current research suggests that the majorityof students will need more support and guidancetowork effectively in an accommodator mode. Thishas practical implications for transition to moreindependent learning as student numbers increase.

The same argument applies to supporting studentsundertaking an honours dissertation or project. Ifthis is to be self-driven, experimental, field orlaboratory based, then this activity is primarily inthe comfort zone of accommodators, who in theirentry years were just 14 per cent of the cohort.

In setting a piece of work a teacher has to decideon the degree of challenge that is appropriate, thebaseline support required, but still leave scope forbrilliant extended responses. This is no easy task.Kolb's theory suggests that individuals will find sometasks easier than others, so creating activities thatinvolve a range of style of learning and challengesin assessment would be fair. For example, Lynchet a!. (1998) have shown multiple-choice questiontests favour convergers and assimilators. There arebroader issues on assessment than cannot be considered here, but this suggests that staff shouldrecognize the need to challenge and extend students'learning by devising a range of learning opportunities and assessment tasks that favour different styles.

Some suggestions are made in Figure 6. Staff needto ensure that students engage with all four learningstyles (Gibbs 1988).

Three caveats should be put on this research.First, the findings describe predominant learning


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40 Healey et al.styles, 'not immutable personality traits' (Fielding1994, 403). The danger of labelling students needsto be avoided. Secondly, the lack of consensus inthe literature on the most effective instruments for

measuring learning styles suggests that a range ofinstruments should be used. For example, Entwistle's

Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students(ASSIST),which distinguishes between surface, deepand strategic learners, has been reviewed favourablyby Coffield et al. (2004). Richardson concluded that'learning style inventories show little overlap with

questionnaires designed to measure approaches tostudying in higher education' (2000, 173). Thirdly,learning styles emphasize an individualized, decontextualized concept of learning, which ignoresdifferences between learners that stem from social class,race and gender (Reynolds 1997). We will do a disservice to our students ifwe ignore the socioeconomicand cultural contexts of their lives and the institutions

where they seek to learn (Coffield et al. 2004).Despite these caveats, making learning styles

explicit is a useful change agent. Smith (2002)argues that an important benefit of using Kolb withclasses is in raising student awareness of their ownposition. Inworking with groups, it is our experiencethat students who have this awareness are betterprepared to appreciate the different approaches ofothers, are better able to understand why somepeople appear to be more comfortable and capablein particular roles and can appreciate why sometasks appear more difficult and need more time.Being aware of one's learning strengths 'should notbe seen as a remedial or compensatory issue' (Smith2002, 69). It is about helping students to be moreaware of their strengths and approaches and thereforeto become more independent learners. A student

who ismade aware of the Kolb cycle's implicationsof different activities may be encouraged to makean additional effort in areas which previously he orshe has found difficult or simply dismissed as 'notforme'. A similar argument points to the need forstaff to be aware of their teaching styles and be sensitive to the varying needs of students taking theircourses. Such explicit recognition of 'difference' fitswell with the trend towards individualization oflearning in higher education and the recognition ofthe 'other' in geographical research.

ConclusionsOur original research questions involved exploringwhether the views of Cullen et al. (1994) or Kolb

(1984) on the predominant learning styles of geographers was the more accurate, and investigatingwhether learning styles varied internationally. Theresults show unequivocally that in all four countriesexamined, assimilators are the dominant group.There are international differences, but these areof a second order and mainly reflect the differencein proportion of students in the UK and the US

whose predominant learning styles are divergers.InAustralia and New Zealand there are significant intranational variations between the universitiesstudied.

This is the first time a large data set on thelearning styles of students studying geography inhigher education has been collected, analysed andpublished. Several questions arise for future researchincluding:* Do the learning styles of geographers change

during their degree courses?* By the time they graduate, do physical geo

graphers have distinct learning styles from humangeographers?

* Do the learning styles of geographers innon-Westerncountries differ from those inAnglo-America andAustralasia?

* What are the predominant learning styles of university geography staff?5

* How can variations between and within countriesbe explained?

The research reported here has important implicationsfor teaching, learning, assessment and programmedesign. Clearly all geography classes contain studentswith a diversity of learning styles and teachersneed to recognize that any set task is not equallychallenging to all. Ifdepartments are to challengeand develop all students equally, then they need toensure that across their programmes they vary theirteaching methods, the learning opportunities theyfacilitate and the assessment methods they use(Figure 6). The aim should be to produce balancedlearners with a full range of learning capacities,rather than simply matching teaching to existinglearning styles.

AcknowledgementsWe would like to thank all our students who participated

in the research and two anonymous referees for theirhelpful comments.


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Notes1 The members of the International Network for the Learning

and Teaching of Geography in Higher Education (INLT)Learning Styles Group who were involved in data collection and discussion.are:Australia - Australian National University: Richard Baker;Curtin University: Roy Jones, Alan Pilgrim; MacquarieUniversity:KevinMcCracken.UK- University of Gloucestershire:Mick Healey, AndrewBradley; University of Leeds: Pauline Kneale; University ofPortsmouth:JohnBradbeer.New Zealand - University of Auckland: Richard LeHeron, Christina Stringer,Melanie Milicich; Universityof Canterbury: Eric Pawson; Waikato University: JohnCampbell.US - South West Texas University: Michael Solem; TexasA&M University: Robert Bednarz;University of Oregon:SusanHardwick.

2 Kolb (1984, 77, 78) used the terms: diverger - 'because aperson of this type performs better in situations that call forgeneration of alternative ideas and implications'; assimilator - because of the strength of 'assimilating disparateobservations into an integrated explanation'; converger -because of the like for situations 'where there is a singlecorrect answer or solution'; accommodator - because itsuits 'those situations where one must adapt oneself tochanging immediatecircumstances'.

3 A copy of Kolb's LearningStyles Inventory revised1985)is printed in Loo (1999, 219). One of the sentences which

well captures the gist of the four different learning stylesasks: 'I learn by: a) feeling b) watching c) thinking d)doing'. A forced ranking system is used inwhich respondents are asked to rank the four possible answers from 1(least applicable) to 4 (most applicable). The sums ofthe scores on the four elements of the 12 statements areused to identify the respondents position of the ActiveReflective axis (AE-RO) and the Concrete-Abstract axis(AC-CE) using Figure 2 in Healey and Jenkins (2000,188).

4 A comfort zone describes a position where someone feelsconfident and not threatened by a situation.

5 Intriguingly,Healey found in an unpublished surveyundertaken in 2003 that the overall distribution of learningstyles of 26 US new geography faculty - Assimilators 14(54%), Convergers 5 (19%), Accommodators 2 (8%) and

Divergers 5 (19%) - closely resembled that of early undergraduate students found in this study, though there wereslightlymore assimilators and slightly fewer divergerscompared with US undergraduates.

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