genre-based text analysis: undergraduates' writing
TRANSCRIPT
GENRE-BASED TEXT ANALYSIS: UNDERGRADUATES' WRITING OF INFORMATION REPORTS
IRENE NGU TIEN TIEN
This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Education with Honours
(Teaching English as a Second Language)
Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
(2009)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to glorify and praise my Lord for hearing my prayers and needs. Thanks Lord for giving me strength, wisdom, determination and passion to conduct this research. Thanks Lord for accompanying me throughout the times of difficulties.
Secondly, I would like to give my highest gratitude and acknowledgement to my research supervisor, Madam Yvonne Michelle Campbell, who has given me a lot of guidance, information and ideas during the period of this study. Thank you for providing me with valuable information and encouragement as well as time to help and suggest useful ideas for my research.
Besides, I would like to thank my family members for helping through the year. Thank you for giving me your full support in terms of the financial and technical supports.
Not only that, I would like to give my sincere thanks to my friends for their motivation and spiritual support. Thank you for praying for my worries and difficulties throughout this research. Thank you for giving me information regarding the topic of my study.
Last but not least, I would like to thank the various authors or publishers as listed in the reference section, which have been referred to or quoted from extensively in this thesis, for the publications.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgement Table of Contents List of Tables List of Figures List of Charts List of Abbreviations Abstract Abstrak
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION
1.0 Chapter Preview 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Background of the Study 1.3 Research Problem 1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Study 1.5 Significance of the study 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms
1.6.1 Genre 1.6.1.1 Information report
1.6.2 Undergraduate 1.6.3 Schematic structure 1.6.4 Language feature
1.7 Scope of the study 1.8 Chapter Review
CHAPTER 2- REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 Chapter Preview 2.1 Writing 2.2 Academic Writing
2.2.1 What is academic writing? 2.2.1.1 Audience 2.2.1.2 Purpose 2.2.1.3 Organisation
2.2.2 Genres of academic writing 2.2.2.1 Instruction 2.2.2.2 Explanation
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2.2.2.3 Argument 17 2.2.2.4 Information report 18
2.2.2.6.1 Purpose 18 2.2.2.6.2 Schematic structure 19 2.2.2.6.3 Language features 20
2.2.2.6.3.1 Generalised subjects 20 2.2.2.6.3.2 Action verbs 20 2.2.2.6.3.3 Linking verbs 21 2.2.2.6.3.4 Timeless present tense 21 2.2.2.6.3.5 Formal and precise descriptive 21
language 2.2.2.6.3.6 Language for defining, classifying,
comparing and contrasting 22 2.2.2.6.3.7 Technical terms 22 2.2.2.6.3.8 Writing styles 23
2.3 Genre-Based Approach to Writing 23 2.3.1 Development of genre-based approach to literacy 23 2.3.2 Concept of scaffolding 25 2.3.3 The teaching-learning cycle 25 2.3.4 Empirical study 26
2.4 Summary 30
CHATER 3- METHODOLOGY
3.0 Chapter Preview 31 3.1 Research Design 31 3.2 Text Selected for Analysis 32 3.3 Instruments for Data Collection 34
3.3.1 Text analysis 34 3.4 Data Collection Procedures 36 3.5 Data Analysis 37 3.6 Limitations of the Study 38 3.7 Chapter Review 39
CHAPTER 4- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.0 Chapter Preview 40 4.1 Identification of Information Report Genre 41 4.2 Identification of Schematic Structure 51
4.2.1 Title 53 4.2.2 Main category 56 4.2.3 Definition, classification and generalisation 57 4.2.4 Subcategory 61 4.2.5 Subdivision 63
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4.2.6 Explanation, description, comparison, characteristic and example 65 4.2.7 Ending 69 4.2.8 Paragraphing 70 4.2.9 Subheading 72 4.2.10 Diagram 73
4.3 Identification of Language Features 75 4.3.1 Generalised subjects and technical vocabulary 76 4.3.2 Formal and objective writing styles 77 4.3.3 Language for defining, classifying, contrasting and comparing 78 4.3.4 Present tense, action verbs and linking verbs 79
4.4 Summary of Findings and Discussions 80 4.5 Chapter Review 81
CHAPTER 5- SUMMARY, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
5.0 Chapter Preview 82 5.1 Summary 82 5.1 Implications of the Study 86 5.2 Recommendations for Future Research 86 5.3 Conclusions 87
REFERENCES 88 APPENDICES 91
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LIST OF TABLES
1. Table 4.1 Construction of correct genre of text
Page 41
2. Table 4.2 52 Use of schematic structure of information report genre in 59 qualified sample texts
3. Table 4.3 75 Numbers of texts utilising the language features stated in 59 qualified sample texts
4. Table 4.4 76 Rate of appearance of the language features stated in 59 qualified sample texts
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LIST OF FIGURES
1. Figure 4.1(a) Script 011
2. Figure 4.1 (b) Script 011
3. Figure 4.1 (c) Script 011
4. Figure 4.2 (a) Script 001
5. Figure 4.2 (b) Script 001
6. Figure 4.2 (c) Script 001
7. Figure 4.3 Excerpt taken from Script 093
8. Figure 4.4 Excerpt taken from Script 01 1
9. Figure 4.5 Excerpt taken from Script 049
10. Figure 4.6 Excerpt taken from Script 065
11. Figure 4.7 Excerpt taken from Script 032
12. Figure 4.8 (a) Excerpt taken from Script 049
13. Figure 4.8 (b) Excerpt taken from Script 049
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43
4q
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59
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14. Figure 4.9 Excerpt taken from Script 024
15. Figure 4.10 Excerpt taken from Script 036
16. Figure 4.11 Excerpt taken from Script 066
17. Figure 4.12 Excerpt taken from Script 049
18. Figure 4.13 Excerpt taken from Script 011
19. Figure 4.14 Excerpt taken from Script 072
20. Figure 4.15 Excerpt taken from Script 022
21. Figure 4.16 Excerpt taken from Script 01 1
22. Figure 4.17 Excerpt taken from Script 039
23. Figure 4.18 Excerpt taken from Script 005
24. Figure 4.19 Excerpt taken from Script 055
25. Figure 4.20 Excerpt taken from Script 022
26. Figure 4.21 Excerpt taken from Script 066
27. Figure 4.22 Excerpt taken from Script 042
28. Figure 4.23 Excerpt taken from Script 055
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LIST OF CHARTS
1. Pie Chart 4.1 Rates of correct genre use
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LIST OF ABBREAVIATIONS
ARW Academic Reading and Writing
L2 Second language
MUET Malaysian University English Test
UNIMAS University Malaysia Sarawak
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ABSTRACT
GENRE-BASED TEXT ANALYSIS: UNDERGRADUATES' WRITING OF INFORMATION REPORTS
Irene Ngu Tien Tien
This study aims to analyse the undergraduates' writing of information reports. The
ability of tertiary undergraduates to acquire academic writing skills in fulfilment of assignment requirement is a great concern among lecturers and undergraduates. Production of quality academic writings requires understanding of the communicative functions of those writings. A case study was conducted to find out whether UNIMAS undergraduates, majoring in different disciplines over the university, were able to produce quality academic writings - information report, which comprise of appropriate use of schematic structures and language features as required by the
assignment questions after undergoing an intensive writing training in an English
generic course, English for Academic Reading and Writing (ARW). Selection of the sample texts was done where 100 written assignments of information report genre were collected from all undergraduates who attended ARW in the I` semester of Year 2008/2009. Genre analysis based on the theoretical framework of an information report developed by Derewianka (1992) was used for analysis and evaluation of the undergraduates' written works. The findings showed that some undergraduates were not competent in writing a good and correct information report. They were weak in differentiating information report genre from the other genres. Even though the writings produced were discovered to have the basic structures that seemed to look like an information report, they mixed the formal features of information report with the formal features of explanation, discussion and descriptive
genres. However, it was discovered that the targeted undergraduates who were able to
write in correct generic structure were competent in utilising the language features of information report genre although there were some minor grammatical errors in terms of choice of tenses used such as past and present tenses as well as the singular and plural forms of present tense. The research findings contribute to the syllabus design
and development of academic writing courses to tackle the undergraduates' specific needs and emphasise on the importance of genre analysis in revealing aspects of efficient academic writing skills.
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ABSTRAK
GENRE TEKS ANALISIS: HASIL KARYA TULISAN LAPORAN INFORMASI OL EH MAHASISWA-MAHASISWI
Irene Ngu Tien Tien
Kajian ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis hasil karya tulisan laporan informa. si para mahasiswa. Keupayaan pelajar-pelajar institusi tinggi untuk menguasai kemahiran
menulis secara akademik demi penyelesaian lugasan-tugasan yang diheri oleh pensyarah mendapat perhatian hangat daripada para pensyarah dan mahasiswa. Penghasilan karya tnulisan akademik yang berkualiti memerlukan pemahaman terhadap tujuan komunikasi karya tulisan tersebut.. Oleh ilu, satu kajian kes dijalankan untuk memerhati dan memeriksa sama ada para mahasiswa UNIMAS
yang mengambil mata pelajaran dalam disiplin-disiplin yang herluinan berkeupayaan untuk menghasilkan karya tulisan ilmiah - laporan iqlbrmasi yang berkualiti dan menonjolkan ciri-ciri struktur teks dan latahahasa yang sesuai sepertimana dikehendaki oleh tugasan yang diberi selepas mereka menjalani satu latihan menulis yang intensif' da/am salah satu kursus generic Inggeris, Engl. sih fi)r Academic Reading dan Writing (ARW). Pemilihan hagi teks sampel dihuat dengun
mengumpul 100 laporan iqlbrmasi yang dihasilkan oleh para mahaszswa yang menghadiri ARW da/am Semester 1, Tahun 2008/2009. Genre analisis ini udulah herdasarkan kerangka leori laporan informusi Derewianka (1992). Kerangka teori Derewianka digunakan zmluk manganalisis dan menilai tugasan-lugusun hertulis
paru mahasiswa tersehut. Pendapatan daripada analisasi yang dzjalankan
menunjukkan hahuwu seselengah mahasiswa adalah kurang cekap dulcun menghasilkan laporan iqlbrmasi yang haik dan hetul. Mereka adalah lemah du/um
memhezakun laporan iqlbrmasi dengan genre-genre yang lain. Walaupun kurve tulisan yang dihasilkan menunjukkan . struktur-struktur teks asas yang menverupai struktur-struktur teks hagi laporun informasi, telapi ciri-ciri
. 1brmal laporan
iqlbrmasi dicumpurudukkan dengan tetapi ciri-ciri forma/ genre penjelusan, perhincungun dun deskripsi. Walau hagaimanupun, pendapatan duripadu analisasi juga menunjukkan huhawu muhasiswa-mahusiswi ang herjava nzenghasislkan struktzn- teks laporun iqlbrmasi rang hetul udulah mahir dalam menggunakan tatabuhusa dulam menulis laporan informasi wczlaupun terdupat heherupu kesilupan
gramati.. Penemucn penvelidikan ini menvumhang kepada pemhangzznun sukutan pelajaran kursus-kursus tulisan ilmiuh hagi mengatasi keperluun
. spe. sijik paru nuzhasiswu dun menekankan kepentingan genre ana/isis dulum mendedahka» aspek kemahiran-kemahiran menulis dengan cekap.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.0 Chapter Preview
In this chapter, the subtopics included are the introduction towards language,
background of the study, research problem, aim and objectives of the study,
significance of the study, operational definition of terms and scope of the study as
well as the chapter review.
1.1 Introduction
Spoken and written languages are both important means of communication.
People use language to get things done, control other's behaviour, express
personal feelings and meanings, create interaction, learn and discover, create a
world of
imaginary, and communicate information (Halliday, 1985). However, there are times
when some communicative needs cannot be readily met by spoken language. In fact,
only written words are acceptable for communication; for instance, a formal letter of
complaint to a company or a person, a written letter of introduction to a corporation before a job interview and a written research report in the field of study.
One of the unique characteristics of a written work is the distance in terms of
time and place between the writer and readers. It means that readers who read a
written text most probably will not have the chances to get in touch with the writer of
that piece of text. Hence, they will not be able to ask the writer in person to clarify
any queries they have encountered while reading the text. As a result, communication breakdown will take place because of the contextual differences between the readers
and the writer.
In order to minimise misunderstanding, both the readers and the writer should
develop "shared knowledge of formal text features" (Johns, 1997, p. 29). They should
be made clear of who the writer and the audience are, what the communicative
purpose is, and which genre will fulfil this purpose (Henry & Roseberry, 1999).
Besides, it is also essential for the writer and the readers to "have a sense of text
form" (Johns, 1997, p. 29) as there are certain formal characteristics of a genre that
members of a community have come to expect, and features that enable them to read
and write confidently.
The ability to write well is not naturally acquired since humans are born. In fact,
writing is "usually learnt or culturally transmitted as a set of practices in formal
instructional settings or other environments" (Myles, 2002, p. I) through experience.
For instance, second language learners in colleges and workplace are expected to
write different kinds of texts based on their purposes of writing. They have to acquire
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proficiency in the use of language as well as writing strategies, techniques and skills
in order to produce good academic writings.
The responsibility to help the second language learners to write academically
lie on the teachers of those learners. However, it is great challenges to assist those
learners to "acquire good writing strategies, technique and skills" (Grant UC
Linguistics Minority Research Institute, 2004, p. 1). This is because some learners
attain very good language skills and can write perfect texts without grammatical
errors. However, their pieces of work may fail to achieve the purpose of writing as
the generic structure of the text produced is not of the expected one. Their intended
meanings cannot be conveyed effectively through their writings.
1.2 Background of the Study
In the late 1960s, the teaching of writing focused mainly on the techniques for
teaching writing. This focus led to the process writing approach where students work
through several stages of composing process and thus put meaning to the fore rather
than form (Jordan, 2007). The learners learn how to write on their own through steps
of discussion, tasks, drafting, feedback, revisions and editing before they come out
with the final product and students control over the direction of their writing (Jordan,
2007).
However, there was a shift from the process of writing to the nature of writing
in various situations since mid-1980s. People have come to realise that it is more
important to recognise the purpose, the audience and the occasion of writing instead
of the process of writing. Therefore, genre-based teaching approaches were imposed
to make learners aware that "understanding texts is not only as linguistic but also as
social, meaningful constructs" (Kay & Evans, 1998, p. 310). In this approach, samples
of a specific genre are introduced and some distinctive characteristics of the given
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genre such as schematic structures and language features are pointed out. Then, the
learners attempt to produce a similar text through imitation of the given genre.
Several numbers of studies on a wide range of text types have been carried out:
Bhatia on legal proceedings (cited in Mirador, 2000, p. 45); Swales on research
articles (cited in Mirador, 2000, p. 45); Henry and Roseberry (1996) on brief tourist
information and (2001) on a letter of application; Mirador (2000) on written feedback
in higher education; Crossley (2007) on cover letters. These studies were concerned
about the overall organisation or move analysis of a genre, strategies of a genre and
language and linguistics patterns of a genre as well as the implications for language
teaching.
From those studies, it raises awareness of the important of genre-based
approach to literacy. It is found out that genre text writing aim at helping writers to
socialise in context (Jordan, 2007), especially Malaysians who learn English as
second language. Shared communicative purpose and knowledge of formal text
features (Johns, 1997) help in familiarising the readers and writers with the "highly
structured and conventionalised" (Bhatia cited in John, 1997, p. 29) genres of texts.
And hence, they would be able to communicate effectively through genre text writing.
1.3 Research Problem
English learners especially undergraduates are expected to produce vast
amounts of academic writing of different genres; for example, while doing
assignments or writing laboratory reports. However, academic writing "requires
conscious effort and practice in composing, developing and analysing ideas" (Myles,
2002, p. 1). Therefore, it is very important for them to master the techniques,
strategies and skills to produce good academic writing so that they are able to convey
their meanings clearly forward to their intended readers, the instructors in particular.
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In this study, the type of text that was being looked into was the genre of information report. Information report basically is used to "provide information about
a class of things" (Derewianka, 2003, p. 137). The text samples by the undergraduates
were being analysed in terms of the schematic structure and language features of an information report. Those samples were being examined to find out the specific
purpose of writing and significant features of an information report.
1.4 Aim and Objectives of the Study
The aim of carrying out the current study was to analyse the undergraduates'
writing of information report genre among UNIMAS students who have taken up the
English generic course, namely English for Academic Reading and Writing (ARW).
The study was conducted to achieve the following objectives:
a To find out the correctness of information report genre construction by the
undergraduates; b To identify the schematic structure of the samples of information reports
written by the undergraduates;
c To examine the language features of the samples of information reports
written by the undergraduates.
1.5 Significance of the Study
This research study was carried out to analyse the schematic structure and
language features of the information reports written by the undergraduates. Since that
the undergraduates have already received intensive training on how to write an
information report, these samples actually acted as an assessment to reflect on the
students' performance - what they have learnt in the course regarding information
report writing.
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Therefore, the findings of this study was useful for the instructors to identify
the area of weaknesses among the undergraduates in constructing an information
report, which means to evaluate how much the undergraduates have acquired from
the lectures on information report writing. Then, they could help the undergraduates
by giving appropriate feedbacks that emphasise on their weak points and at the same
time strengthen their strong points.
Besides, this study was useful for the linguists or writing syllabus designers
who are interested in genre - approach to literacy. It provided them with information
on the potential problems that might arise in genre approach to teaching writing. And
hence, they might use the findings to modify the teaching approach and design
another better writing approach that could yield a more effective writing.
1.6 Operational Definition of Terms
1.6.1 Genre
Genre is "a staged, goal-oriented, purposeful activities in which speakers
engage as members of the society" (Martin cited in Kay & Evans, 1998, p. 308). On
the other hand, Swales (cited in Kay & Evans, 1998) stated that "a genre comprises a
class of communicative events, the members of which share some set of
communicative purpose" (p. 309). There are various genres of texts; for instance,
information report, narrative, descriptive, process, discussion and argumentative.
In this study, a genre meant written texts which were grouped together under a
category based on their shared communicative purpose and formal textual features
such as schematic structure and language features. The genre of written texts in this
study was information report produced as an assignment by the targeted
undergraduates in a local university setting.
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1.6.1.1 Information report
Information report is one genre of academic text which functions to "provide
information about a class of things" (Derewianka, 2003, p. 137). Information report
has its own distinctive formal text features that differentiate it from the other genres
of texts. Besides, this kind of text usually attempts to "bring order out of disorder"
(Nicholas & Nicholl, 2000, p. 123); for instance, classifying a whole group of
individuals or animals into subcategories such as types of students and types of
animals.
In this research, the information report chosen were sample texts retrieved from
a local academic setting. The undergraduates produced the information reports as an
assessment along the course. Then, their pieces of writing were collected and used as
raw data for analysis.
1.6.2 Undergraduate
Knowledgerush (1999 - 2003) stated that in most educational systems,
especially in institutions for higher education, such as university, undergraduates are
students in the years of post-secondary education up to the level of a Bachelor's
degree. In the United Kingdom, undergraduates refer to the first three or four years of
study towards a Bachelor's degree. However, in some other educational systems,
undergraduate education starts from post-secondary education up to the level of a
master's degree.
In this study, undergraduates were students who pursued their tertiary education
in a local university after completing their secondary study in Form Six, matriculation
or being diploma holders. They took up different disciplines and were in their first
three or four years of study towards a Bachelor's degree upon graduation.
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1.6.3 Schematic structure
Schematic structure is also known as generic structure. It is "a series of optional
and obligatory elements" (Hassan cited in Henry & Roseberry, 1999, p. 190) or moves
adopted by the communicators in a written or spoken discourse. Every stage in a text
has its unifying purpose that contributes to the overall communication purpose in the
context in which it occurs (Mirador, 2000).
In this context, schematic structure was the significant move that has to be
included in the written discourse of information report genre in order for this genre to
function effectively. The schematic structure of information report genre identified
and analysed were the title, main category, opening general statement in terms of
definition, classification or generalisation, facts about various aspects of the subject
(subcategories) with explanation, description, comparison, characteristics or
examples of each category and ending (Derewianka, 1992, pp. 52-53).
1.6.4 Language feature
Language feature refers to the lexical, syntax or grammatical choices in a text
(Derewianka, 2003; Johns, 1997). These choices are often purposeful and community
- driven; for example, historical and disciplinary reasons fbr using noun
compounding in sciences (Halliday & Martin cited in Johns, 1997).
In this study, the language meant the choice of language for defining,
classifying, comparing and contrasting such as is divided into, generalised subjects
such as car rather than Proton Saga, technical vocabulary and use of important
grammatical items such as timeless present tense like eat and drinks, action verbs like
grow as well as linking verbs like has and are in the sample texts analysed
(Derewianka, 1992, p. 53). These are among the language features that bring out the
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meanings and tell the purpose as well as distinguish the genre of the text, which is
information report, from the other genres.
1.7 Scope of the Study
This study covered the textual analysis of the information report genre in terms
of the purpose, schematic structure and language features among undergraduates from different disciplines, attending the same training in an English generic course,
Academic Reading and Writing in one semester.
However, it does not study the pieces of writing by students from the other
semesters and writings of the other genres such as argumentative, discussion,
descriptive and narrative.
1.8 Chapter Review
In this chapter, the subtopics discussed were introduction towards writing and
genre-based teaching approach, background of the genre-analysis study, research
problem, aim and objectives of the study, significance of the study, technical and
operational definition of variables and scope of the study.
In Chapter Two, more details are included to look at the genre-based text
analysis. Background of writing, academic writing, genres of texts and approach of
genre-based analysis such as genre-based approach are further discussed to support
the thesis.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.0 Chapter Preview
The topics embraced in this chapter are the concept on writing and academic
writing, genres of academic texts, especially information report or classification genre,
previous research done in this field of study and a summary of the whole chapter.
2.1 Writing
The practice of writing was claimed to be originated from ancient
Mesopotamians around 3000 B. C. E. In the early age, Mesopotamians were actively
involved in trading, business and farm affairs. At first, there was no proper system fir
them to record their transactions permanently. They scarcely relied on their limited
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memory for recordings. (Harappa Archeological Research Project, Courtesy Dept. of
Archeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan & Harappa. com, 1997-2008)
Nevertheless, around the 4'h millennium B. C., the complexity of trade and
administration outgrew the power of memory. Hence, a writing system was
developed and became a more dependable method of recording and presenting
transactions in a permanent form. In addition, it is believed that the transactional
affairs between Mesopotamia and other cultures such as ancient Egyptian or Indian
civilisations helped to spread the idea of writing. (Harappa Archeological Research
Project, Courtesy Dept. of Archeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan &
Harappa. com, 1997-2008)
However, recent discoveries denied ancient Mesopotamia's status as the origin
of writing. In 1998, a German archeologist discovered writing, which dated back to
3400 B. C., at the tomb of King Scorpion the First in Abydos, Egypt. Besides, in 1999,
American archeologists, who were digging at the ancient site of Harappa in Pakistan,
discovered writing that they claimed to date back to around 3500 B. C. These
evidences support the saying that claims writing to be existed a few hundred years
before the earliest known Mesopotamian writing. (liarappa Archeological Research
Project, Courtesy Dept. of Archeology and Museums, Govt. of Pakistan &
Harappa. com, 1997-2008)
Nonetheless, those discoveries were unable to conclusively prove that any one
of the civilisations has invented writing. As a result, it was concluded that writing
developed simultaneously and independently in a number of places. Indeed, these
might well be even earlier forms of writing to be found in the coming decades
(Ilarappa Archeological Research Project, Courtesy Dept. of Archeology and
Museums, Govt. of Pakistan & Ilarappa. com, 1997-2008).
II
Writing is a cultural practice in which language is presented in a textual
medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols. People use writing to transmit
messages from one place to another and from one point of time to another. Writing
system came into use as a consequence of lifestyle change in the early societies from
hunting and gathering to agriculture. In academic settings, students are also required
to do lots of writing, such as writings of laboratory reports and essays.
2.2 Academic Writing
2.2.1 What is academic writing'?
Tertiary students engage in varieties of writing tasks such as essays or reports
writing in their tertiary education. Even though those tasks vary from one degree of
program to another, their level of difficulties increases as the undergraduates progress
further in their chosen degree of program.
Academic writing "requires conscious effort and practice in composing,
developing and analyzing ideas" (Myles, 2002, p. 1). Therefore, it is essential far the
undergraduates to master techniques, strategies and skills to write academically to
ensure effective communication through the piece of writing produced. To produce
good pieces of academic writings, writers have to take into account of several
considerations: audience, purpose and organization (Swales & Freak, 2004).
2.2.1.1 Audience
Before starting to write, an author must bear in mind the possible audiences
(Swales & Freak, 2004) of his/her writings. To write effectively, a writer must
consider his/her audiences' familiarity with the subjects or topics he/she is going to
talk about.
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