genetic selection
DESCRIPTION
The main purpose of fish selection is to improve the existing and develop new breeds and hybrids and thus increase their productivity. For improving the quality of commercially important fish species, the use is made of their variation in many morphological, physiological and biochemical features. A marked proprotion of this variation is hereditary, the level of which is very high in fish population and helps in fish selection work.TRANSCRIPT
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Producedby:FisheriesandAquacultureDepartment
Title:LecturenotesoncompositefishcultureanditsextensioninIndia... Moredetails
GENETICSELECTIONANDCARPHYBRIDIZATIONH.A.KhanFreshwaterAquacultureResearchandTrainingCentre(CIFRI),DhauliP.O.KausalyagangViaBhubaneswar2Orissa(India)
1INTRODUCTIONThemainpurposeoffishselectionistoimprovetheexistinganddevelopnewbreedsandhybridsandthusincreasetheirproductivity.Forimprovingthequalityofcommerciallyimportantfishspecies,theuseismadeoftheirvariationinmanymorphological,physiologicalandbiochemicalfeatures.Amarkedproprotionofthisvariationishereditary,thelevelofwhichisveryhighinfishpopulationandhelpsinfishselectionwork.
Incomparisontothebreedingofdomesticanimalsfishcultureisayoungscience.FishcultureinChinaandIndiahasbeeninvoguesincelong.Butthedomesticationoffishandcreationofbreedsdifferingfromtheirwildparentsinhigherproductivitytraitswasactuallystartedonlyafewcenturiesago.Withthenotableexceptionofgoldfish,ornamentalcarpandperhapsthecommoncarp,fewfishcouldbeconsidereddomesticatedeventhoughsomestrainsoftrout,forexample,aremuchmoreadaptedtohatcheryconditionsthantheirwildcounterparts.OtherspeciesliketheChinesecarps,Indiancarps,Tilapiasp.andChannelcatfisharebecomingdomesticated.
Ofallculturablecarps,onlycommoncarphasbeenbredforsufficientlylongtimeanddistinctbreedsofthisspeciesthroughselectiondevelopedare:InUSSRtheUkrainiancarp,Ropshacarp,hybridsofthefirstgenerationofthedomesticatedcarpandtheAmurWildcarp,theNivchancarp,theCentralRussiancarp,theKazakhistancarp,theKasnodarcarp,theByelorussianbreedandtheParrabreedofcarp(Kirpichnikov,1981)inIsraelDor70carp(Wohlfarth,Lahman&Hulata,1980)andinHungarytheHungarianstrain(Bakos,1979).
2METHODSOFFISHSELECTION
2.1Massorindividualselection
Thetermmassofindividualselectionisusedtodescribeartificialselectionanduseinsubsequentreproductionofindividualshavingthebestphenotypes.Thetraitsusedinsuchaselectiondependonspecificpurposeandmayincludeincreasedweightorbodysize,goodexteriorindices,rateofsexualmaturation,thenecessarypigmentation,thedesignpatternofscaling,resistancetounfavourableenvironmentalconditionsandtodiseasesandcertainimprovedphysiologicalorbiochemicalcharacteristicseasilymeasurableinfishes.Selectionmayincludeinteriorfeaturessuchasnumberofintramuscularbones,sizeofairbladder,etc.
Theefficiencyofmassselectionisexpressedbysimpleequation(Falconer,1960).
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R = ih2=Sh2(1)Where
R = hereditaryimprovementofcharacterofonegenerationS = Selectivedifferential(differencebetweenmeanforselectedindividualsandinitialpopulationmean)
i = intensityofselectioni.e.selectivedifferentialexpressedinmeansquaredeviationsh2 = heritabilityofcharacter = variabilityofinitialpopulationexpressedintermsofstandarddeviation.
Nowletusconsiderthepossibilityofincreasingeachofthetermsintherightpartoftheaboveequation,whileperformingtheselectionofafish.
2.1.1Theintensityofselection
Theintensityofselectionmaybequitesubstantialinthosespecieswhichareveryfertile.Insuchcasewecanchooseasmallpartofagrownpopulationforbreedingandrestcanberejected.Thenumberofbestspecimensleftforbreedingiscalledtheselectionseveritycoefficient(V)
WhereN=initialnumberofindividualsn=numberofselectedindividuals
Selectionseveritycoefficientinveryfertilefishlikecommoncarpcanbeeasilybroughtto1%(1:100)oreven0.1(1:1000).OccasionallyinselectingRopshacarpinfirstyear,stillmorerigidnormsofrejection,keepingforbreedingpurposeonly0.050.02%ofthepopulation(1:2000to1:5000)havebeenfollowed(Kirpichnikov,1967).Suchanincreaseintheselectionseverityrequiresaverylargenumberofpopulationstobecultured.Theseverityandintensityofselectionarefunctionallycorrelated(Fig.I).AtlowvaluesofV(0.01orless)anyfurtherdecreaseinthosecharacteristicshardlyhasanyeffectonthevalueofselectionintensityanddoesnotcompensatefortheexpenditurenecessarytogrowalargenumberoffishespriortothetimeofselection.Ifthefertilityoffishislow,selectionwithratio1:20(V=5%)wouldbepermissible.Afurtherreductioninseverityisundesirableasitwouldbefollowedbyasuddendropofthevaluei.Withtheincreasedsizeofinitialpopulationandthereforeenhancedimaybeaccompaniedbyreductioninheritability(h2).Ithasbeenobservedbymanyinvestigatorsthatinyoungstagesofcommoncarp,whengrown,underconditionofhighdensity,theweightdistributioncurvebecomesmarkedlyasymetricafewshootfryalsocalledjumpersorchampionsappearwhoserateofgrowthgreatlysurpassesthatoftheircompanionsofthesameagethefoodcompetitionbeingthemeanreasonforthissizedifference(Wohlfarth,1977).Inpresenceoffoodcompetition,anincreaseinseverityandintensityofselectionaboveacertainlimitwillhaveabadeffect.
2.1.2Variabilityofinitialpopulation
Thevariabilityofinitialpopulation()mustbesufficientlyhighifVisnearzero,evenwithaveryhighintensityofselectionandconsiderableheritability(about0.60.8)theefficiencyofselectionmayturnouttobelow.Inmassselection,onlygeneticvariationisimportantbecauseanyincreaseinthevalueofnonheriditaryvariablesduetotheincreaseinenvironmentalvariationismeaninglessbecauseitwillresultinaproportionaldecreaseinheritabilityandwillnotenhancetheefficiencyoftheselection.
2.1.3Heritability
Heritability,inbroadsense,istherelationbetweenthewholegeneticvarianceandtotalvariance:
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Totalvariance,inturn,expandsintoanumberofcomponents.
WhereEisenvironmentalvarianceandjisvarianceofinteractionbetweenenvironmentandgenotype.TheE2andj2shouldbereducedandthiscanbedonebycreatingsimilarhomogenousconditionsforgrowing(tobeginwithparentmaintenanceconditions)andreducingfoodcompetitionwhichfrequentlyenhancestheinteractionalvariance.
Heritabilitycanbeincreasedinmanyways:
i. Bycrossingunrelatedindividuals,includingcrossingbetweenlines,breedingstocks,varieties,subspeciesandoccasionallyspecies
ii. Bythemethodofunifyingfishgrowingconditionstoselection.
Infishculture,theparatypicvariancecanbegreatlyreducedbyadoptingthefollowingmeasures,theimportantonesare:
i. settingupofsimilarconditionsforallparentspriortoreproduction,ii. simultaneousperformanceofallcrossesdesignedtoyieldmaterialforselection,iii. maximalstanderdisationofenvirenmentalconditionsthroughouttheperiodoffishculture,iv. stockingoffishessimultaneouslyintopondsatamoderatedensityinordertoavoid
excessivefoodcompetition,v. measurestopreventmixingofindividualsculturedindifferentponds,vi. selectiontobeconductedattheagemaximallycorrespondingtothemarketingage.
However,inspiteofobservingallabovementionedconditions,theenvironmentalvariance(E2)incommoncarpandinseveralotherfishesprovestobeveryconsiderable.Acompleteeliminationofcausesthatproduceunequalconditionsoflifeforindividualslivingtogetherinpondsisimpossible.
Theinteractionbetweenthegenotypeandageinfishisnotveryimportantbuteventhenitexists.Theearlyphasesoflifeoffisharegreatlyinfluencedbymaternaleffect.Theenvironmentalcomponentoftotalvarianceofweightisparticularlyhighatthebeginning,butdecreasesthereafterandheritabilityofweightandsizeincreasesbyafactorof23.Geneticdifferencesaremoredetectableatlaterstagethanduringtheearlyphasesoflife.Atlaterstagefishgrowthis,however,greatlyaffectedbytherateofgonadalmaturation,sowhenselectionisaimedatweight,itshouldbedoneatthemiddleage.
Occasionally,heritabilitydecreasesbecauseofheterozygousbalance,aphenomenonpeculiartomanyspeciesofanimalsandplants.Duetogreatnumberofchromosomesincommoncarp(2n=104)andmanyotherfoodfishtheprobabilityofheterozygousbalancebeingestablishedinapopulationappearstobegreat.Hence,itistheindividualswithmaximumheterozygosisthatwillbethemostviableandfastgrowinginapopulation.
Selectionundersuchconditionsverysoonbecomesinefficient,sincethegeneticvariabilityprovestobeinthemainnonadditive.Astovariabilityofanycharacter,itistheproportionofadditivegeneticvariabilityinthetotalvariabilityofthegivencharacter.
whereA2=G2D2E2(6)
Withoutbalancedheterogygosis,thevarianceofdominanceandepistasis(D2and2)aresmallandinitiallytheadditivegeneticvariancedoesnotdiffermuchfromthetotalvariance(G2).If
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thereissubstantialheterozygousbalanceformanypolygenes,thedifferencebetweenh12andh22willbeverygreat.Atrueheritabilityinspiteofconsiderablegeneticvariability(G2)willbenearzero,sincethevariabilityisnotadditive.
Itisdifficulttostriveagainstanestablishedheterozygousbalanceastheequilibriumofgenotypeprovestobeverystable.Theonlywaytocorrect,thesituationistoperformnew,sufficientlyremotecrossingswhichmaydestroythepolygenesystemandtherebycontributetoanincreaseinheritability.Table1showsthephenotypicandgeneticparametersforquantitativecharactersincommoncarp.
Table1.Phenotypicandgeneticparametersforquantitativecharacterincommoncarp(=mean,standarddeviation),CV=CoefficientofVariation,S.E.=Standarderror,Heritability(h2)asestimatedfromsire(S),dam(D)andfamily(F)Componentsorvariation
Traits CV h2sS.E. h2DS.E Nooffamilies Authorsh2fS.E
Weightoffingerlings 0.100.20 Kirpichnikov(1972)Bodyweight 0.25 Smisek(1979)Drymatter 0.150.18 doFatcontent 0.140.15 doNindrymatter 0.150.17 do4monthwt.(g) 71 17 23 0.48F 9F Nagyetal 0.12F 9F (1980)Tolerancetohypoxia 179 50 28 0.15F 9F doWeightgain(g) 366 81 22 0.47(b) 17off/parents Brodyetal.(1981)
Fromtheabovetableitisevidentthatweightheritabilityincommoncarpforjuvenilesisratherlowandthatforbodyweightofadultsisofmediumsizeandhigherforyounganimals.Selectionforweightisalwayspossible,butitdoesnotalwaysgivethedesiredresults.Inthepresenceoffoodcompetition,moreaggressiveindividuals,whoareabletosnatchfoodfromothersinthepond(Moav&Wohlfarth,1967)maynotnecessarilybethebestatassimilatingfood.Itisevidentthatforimprovingtherateofgrowthmassselectionshouldbecombinedwithtestingforrelatives.
Massselectionshouldbereplacedbytestingforrelativesonlyincaseswhensuchcharacteristicsasfatcontent,biochemicalcompositionofmeatanddegreeofboninessaretobeknown,oriftheprincipaltaskistoraisethefishproductionofponds.
2.2TheSelectionforRelatives
Theselectionforrelativesinvolvestoagreatextenttheselectionforgenotypesthepositivecharacteristicsofindividualschosenforsubsequentreproductionareknownfromananalysisoftheircloserelatives.Therearetwoformsofselectionforrelatives:(a)familyselectionand(b)evaluationofspawnersbyprogenytesting.Asinmassselection,theefficiencyofselectionforrelativeisexpressedbyasimpleequation.
R=if.fhf2(7)
Inthisequationintensityofselection(if)equalsthedifferencebetweenmeanforselectedfamilyandpopulationmeanexpressedinmeansquaredeviations,ofcharacterisesthevariabilityoffamilymeansandh2showsheritabilityofdifferencesbetweenfamilyeans.Infamilyselectionthevaluefandselectionintensityarereducedthanthesevaluesinmassselection,buttheheritabilitymeanscanreachveryhighvaluesifthefamilitiesaregrowntogetherundersimilarconditions.
2.2.1Familyselection
Familyselectionisgenerallyusedwhenhereditaryofselectedcharacteristicislow.Thisrequires
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farmingofseveralfamiliesoroffspringsfromdifferentpairsorsmallpotentialgroupsunderoptimumconditions.Thememberofcrossingsmaybe810orwhenculturefacilitiesexist,itmaybeashighas15or20.
Theselectionintensity(f)dependstoaverygreatextent,onthenumberoffamilies.Thevariabilityofthefamilymeans(f)isnotgreatandcanbeincreasedonlyattheexpenditureofenlargingitsgeneticcomponent.Theheritabilityofmeans(hf2)isincreasedanditapproacheswhenallfamiliesarekeptunderstandardconditions.Themostimportantconditionsforfamilyselectionare:
i. Sufficientgeneticvariabilityoffamilymeanii. Homogenityofconditionsforgrowingseparatefamiliesorsufficientreplicatesof
experiments.
2.2.2Progenytesting
Thesimplestmethodinvolvescomparisonofoffspringsobtainedfromdifferentpairsornestsofparents(Fig.2a)inthiscasetheevaluationreferstothecombinationofindividuals.Inthesimplifieddiallelecrosses(Fig.2b)whicharegenerallypractised,malesorfemalesareseparatelycrossedwithoneormoreindividualsoftheoppositesex.Thematuringofeachofthemalestestedwithtwofemalesprovidesasufficientlyreliableevaluationofthebreedingqualitiesofthesemales.Acompletediallelecross(22,33,55,1010,etc.)alsoenablesthefishbreedertoselectthebestindividualsbelongingtoothersex,sincethenumberofoffspringincreasesitsproportiontobesquarenumberofparentsofonesexsubjectedtoexamination(Fig.2c),onehastofacetheproblemofgrowinglargenumberofoffspringsunderuniformstandardconditions.Theprogenytestingisalsotimeconsumingandrequiresoneortwoyears.
TestingofspawnersofeithersexofcommoncarphasbeendoneforselectioninUSSR(Kirpichnikov,1966)andinIsrael(Moav&Wohlfarth,1967)thatabout70%ofthedifferencesbetweenprogenymeanscanbeattributedtogeneticvariance.Thusprogenytestsprovideaneffectivetoolforidentifyinggeneticallysuperiorprogeniesandparentalgroups.Theconditionsandrequirementsforprogenytestingaresimilartothoseusedinfamilyselection.
2.3CombinedSelection
ComparisionoftheequationR=Sh2andRf=Sf,h2fallowsonetodeterminewhichoftheselectionmethodsisbetterforfishbreeding,ifSh2>Sf,h2fthenmassselectionistobepreferredoverfamilyselectionorviceversa.Selectionforrelativeswillbemoreeffectivefortraitswithverylowheritabilityi.e.lessthan0.5andwhenh2ishigherthan0.5,massselectionismoreefficientthanthefamilyselection.Whenh2=0.5,familyandindividualselectionareofequalefficiency(Falconer,1960).Withfish,selectionshouldbebasedonacombinationofmassandfamilyselection.Massselectionisonlyofinterestwhengrowthrateistheonlytraitofeconomicimportanceandishighlyheritable(Gjedrem,1963).Theresponseofcombinedselectionistheoreticallyequaltothesumtotalresponseofeachoftheselectionmethodsused.
Rs=Rf+Rm+Rpr,whereRf,RmRPrrefertotheeffectivenessoffamilyselection,massselectionandprogenyselection.
Thefirststepincombinedselectionconsistsofcrossesbetweenheterogenousunrelatedparents,suchcrossesareaimedatobtainingasmallnumberofprogenyupto10incommoncarpbreeding.Duringthecultivationofthesefamiliestheirreproductivepropertiesareevaluated.Thesepropertiesincludeviability,growthrate,thequalityofflesh,etc.sothatbestfamiliescanbeselected.Thesecondstageincludesmassselectioninseveralofthebestfamilies.Atthethirdstageparentsareexamined,usingprogenytestingParentsofjustonesexwheretheonsetofmaturityoccursearlieraretested(malesincommoncarpbreeding).Thistestingistobecompletedbythetimeofonsetofmaturityofindividualsoftheothersex.
3NEWTRENDSINFISHSELECTION
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3.1Applicationofgeneticmarkerinfishselection.
Theinformationregardingthepatternofinheritanceofmorphological(bothquantitativeandqualitative),physiologicalandbiochemicaltraits,particularlythoserelatedtoyieldcapacitycanbedirectlyutilizedinplanningselectionwork.Thelaterinformationhelpsindecidingwhethertogoformassselectionorselectionofrelativesandisusefulindevelopingasystemofcrosses.AgoodexampleofsuchanapplicationoftheinformationcanbeseeninthepurificationofthebroodstockoftheRopshacommoncarpfromtherecessivegene.
InthestudyonhomoandhetorozygosityinthescaledcarpinthegeneS,(mirrorandscatteredscale),thebackcrossingiscarriedoutthus:
1) S(S?) nnssnn scaled scattered2) S(s?) nnSsnn scaled scaledheterozygous
Intheformercase,thescaledandscatteredoffspringoftheheterozygousparentsareproducedina1:1ratio.Inthelattercase,theratiois3:1(threescaledperonescattered).Theentireoffspringofhomozygousscaledparentsinanyofthetwocrossingshaveacompletelyscaledintegument.From1956to1964,469parentsofRopshacarpwereexaminedbythistechnique,247werehomozygous.Thisworkenabledcompleteeliminationoftheoccurrenceofthescatteredcarpasearlyasinthe5thselectedgeneration(Kirpichnikov,1971).
Useofgenesformarkingthebreedingstocksisanotherimportantpromisingtrendandpresentlygeneticmarkershavebeensuccessfullyusedforlabellingdifferentstocksofcommoncarpe.g.,selectionofCentralRussiancarpincludingthebreedingoftwostocksdifferingintheS(patternofscale)andD(pigmentationofspinesandhead)loci(Kirpichnikov,1981)andtwostrainsofcommoncarpinIsraelmarkedwithcolourrecessivegene(MoavandWohlfarth,1967).Genemarkersarehelpfulinestablishingtheoriginofcertainfishbreeds.Ifthecorrelationbetweenmarkergenesandselectivetraitissignificant,theselectioninvolvingsuchmarkersmaybeconsiderablyaccelerated.
3.2Artificialgynogenesis
Gynogenesisisaspecialtypeofsexualreproductionrequiringinseminationwhennucleusofsperm,whichhaspenetratedtheovum,undergoesinactivationintheeggplasmanddevelopmentofembryoiscontrolledexclusivelybymaternalnucleus.Thechromosomesofspermsareeliminatedsoonafterfertilization.Thetechniqueofartificialgynogenesisisbasedoninactivationofspermbyirradiationanddiploidizationofthefemalechromosomesetbyacoldshock.ThismethodhasbeenemployedsuccessfullyonCyprinuscarpio(Golovinskaya,1968)andintwoIndianmajorcarpsviz.,CatlacatlaandLabeorohita(GeorgeJohnetal.,1984).Alsotheproductionofmonosexbroodsforpopulationcontrolhasbeenattemptedwithgrasscarp.
Thegreatadvantageofthistechniqueisthatitconstitutesadefactovegetativereproductionthatcanmaintainandmultiplyasinglesuperiorgenotyperegardlessofitslevelofheterozygosity.Anotheradvantageisthatgynogeneticallyreproducingpopulationstendtohaveonlythefemalesex.Thisprovidesmeansofselectingfemaleswithhighergenetictendencyforgynogenesis.
3.3Polyploidy
Infishesnaturalgynogenesisisintimatelyassociatedwiththephenomenonofhybridization,apomxisandpolyploidy.Triploidamieoticparthenogenesisandrogenesismayoccurasaresultofbackcrossesofparthenogeneticdiploidfemaleswithmalesofrelatedbisexualspecies.Incaseofthecrossbetweentriploidgynogeneticfemaleswithdiploidmales,tetraploidgynogeneticindividualsmaydevelop.Triploidshavebeenproducedbycoldshocktreatmentofthefertilizedeggsofcommoncarp(Garvaietal.,1980).Thesefishesareexpectedtobesterile.Theinteggenerichybridsbetweengrasscarpandeithercommoncarporbigheadcarpappeartobelargelytriploid(AllenandStanley,1981).ThepopulationofCarassiusauratusglibelioinJapan
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hasbeenreportedtocontaintetraploids.
4CROSSINGASAMETHODOFINCREASINGTHEHETEROGENITYOFTHESELECTIONMATERIAL
Theselectionresponsedoes,toalargeextent,dependonthelevelofheterogenityoftheselectedgroups.Crossesbetweenunrelatedindividualsenrichthestrainincreasingthegeneticcomponentoftheirveriationandtherebyfacilitatingselection.Anotherresultisthedisappearanceofanyharmfuleffectofinbreeding.Crossingalsoensuresthepreservationandperfectionofthereproductivequalitiesofthebreedandallowsheterosistobeutilizedtoitsutmostineverygeneration.Crossinghelpsinimprovingthebreedingqualityofthelocalbreedbymakinguseofthefewvaluabletraitsofanotherbeed(improver)andinincreasingtheviabilityofthebreedbyintroducinggenesresponsiblefortheresistancetoenvironmentalfactorsanddiseases.Inaccordancewiththeaboveobjectives,followingtheoriginalcrossing,thereproduction,ofthehybrid,populationiscarriedoutbymeansofthereproductive,introductory,absorptiveoralternatecrossing.
4.1Thereproductivecross(Fig.3a)
Thisisusedwhenmanyusefultraitsaretobecombinedfrombothcrossbreedsorspecies.Thisiseasilyachievedwhenhybridsarecompletelyfertilebutrequirethoroughselectioninallhybridgenerations.Examplesofsuchcrossesare:TheUkrainianandRopshacommoncarpbreeds,theHungariancarp,etc.
4.2Theintroductorycross(Fig.3b):
Thisisusedwhenitisrequiredtointroduceoneorseveralvaluabletraitsofanotherstrainorspeciesintothelocalhighlyproductivebreed.F1hybridsoftwoformsarethenbackcrossedmanytimeswithindividualsofthelocalbreed,whoseimprovementsintended.Inthisprocess,thebackcrosshybridspossessingthedesiredtraitsofdonorstrainareusedforsubsequentreproductiontoimprovethebreed.Ifthesetraitsaredeterminedbydominantclearlymanifestedgenes,theproblemofconservationofrequiredcharacterscanbesolvedrelativelyeasily,otherwiseincaseofrecessivegenesorwheninheritanceispolygenic,theriskoflossofcharactersisveryhigh.
4.3Theabsorbingcross(Fig.3c)
Similartointroductorycross.Aseriesofbackcrossesiscompletedaftertheinitialcrossoftwostrainsbuthybridsarerepeatedlycrossedwiththeindividualsofstrainsusedforimprovementandnotoflocalstrain.Strictmeasuresshouldbeadoptedaimingatconservingthemostusefultraitsofabsorbedstrains,inthiscasethelocalone.
4.4Thealternativecrosses(Fig.3d)
Thisrequiresintermittentcrossingofhybridswiththeindividualsbelongingtothetwoinitialbreedsasfollowedbyselectionofthenecessarycombinationoftraits.After3or4generations,thealternatecrossisreplacedbyreproducingone,otherwise,itisdifficulttostabilizethetraitsofthenewhybridbreed.
4.5Hybridization
F1hybridsiftheypossessheterosiscanbeculturedcommercially(Moav&Wohlfarth,1967).Heterosisappearstodependontwomaincompensatorymechanisms.Thecombinationofusefuldominantgenesaccumulatedbybothcrossedformsinhybrids(hypothesisordominance)andtheincreaseinhybridsofthetotallevelofheterozygosity(thehypothesisofoverdominance).Anincreaseinthebiochemicalversalityinhybridsoccursinbothcases.Heterosisinnaturalpopulationisgenerallymanifestedasariseinthefitnessofhybridsintheelevationoftheadaptive
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value.Thisistypicalofmanyintraspecificandcertaininterspecificfishcrosses.Maximalcareisrequiredincarryingoutcommercialhybridization,becauseifF1hybridsareleftinthewaterbodies,therearechancesofcontaminationofthebroodstockoftheinitialforms.Thisleadstothedeteriorationoftheeconomicallyimportantstrains.Anexampleofsuchhybridizationcanbecitedincaseofdomesticcommoncarp,withitslivingancestor,thewildcarp.Bettercontrolofcommercialhybridizationcanbeconsideredbytheuseofgeneticmarkers,bothparentsandhybridsmaydifferintheallelesofthegenesresponsibleforthecolourpattern,scalepatternandcertainbiochemicalloci.Somepromisingimportanthybridcombinationsare:(1)InterbreedhybridsofcommoncarpcrossesbetweenRopshaand'Ukrainiancarps,ofthescaledandformed,Ukrainiancarps,threestocksoftheKrasnodarcarp.HeterosismanifestedinbettersurvivalandproductivityhasbeenobservedinthecrossesofHungarianandPolishcarps,andcrossesoftheJapaneseYamatocarpwithEuropeanmirrorcarp.(2)IntraspecifichybridsofsilvercarpofAmurandChineseorigin(3)HybridsofdomesticcarpandAmurwildcarp(Cyprinuscarpiohaemalopterus)(4)Intergenerichybridsofcommoncarpandcruciancarp(5)Intergenerichybridsofsilvercarpandbighead(6)IntergenerichybridsofCatlacatlaandLabeorohita(Chaudhuri,1971)andmanyothersspeciesasshowninTable2
5BREEDINGSYSTEMSADOPTEDFORFISHSELECTIONINSOMECOUNTRIES
Inordertoutilizecompletelytheadvantagesassociatedwithheterogenouscrossings,fishbreedingshouldbecarriedoutaccordingtoadefiniteplan,dependingontheknowledgeofgenetics,inbreddepressionandheterosisinfishcrossing.Inmakingcrosses,inducedbreedingofthespeciesfollowedbyartificialfecundationisemployed.Alsoforcarryingoutgeneticexperimentationonlargescale,anadequatemethodofmarkingfishforindividualorgroupobservationsistobedeveloped.Thebestresultshavebeenobtainedinmarkingexperimentalfishbyfinclippingorbrandmarking(Moavetal.,1960)orsubcutaneousinjectionsoforganicdyes(dichlorotriazineandothercompounds)(ZonovaandKirpichnikov,1971)orbyinjectingblue,redoryellowflurescentgranulesintothespine(Smithermanetal.,1983).UnderIndianconditions,commoncarpwhoninjectedwithProcianMbluestainbytheauthorhasretainedmarksforlasttenmonthsandstillthemarksarequitedistinct.
Thevariousfishbreedingsystemsfollowedforthegeneticimprovementofcommoncarpindifferentcountriesaredescribedasfollows:
USSR:ThemethodofparallelbreedingoftwoormoregroupsisusedfortheselectionofRopshacarp(Kirpichnikov,19711971).Inthissystemtwoorthreegroupsareconcurrentlychosenwithinabreed,withoutintermingling,allowinginsideeachamoderateinbreedingandcarryingoutselectionineachgeneration.Forcommercialpurposesfishfromdifferentgroupsarecrossedtoavoidcloseinbreeding(Fig.4).
Israel:
(a)Breedingingroupswithfamilyselection:
Eachyearabout20pairsofcommoncarparespawnedandprogenytested.Thetestedpairsmayincludethesethatexcelledinpreviousyears.Theymayalsoincludeagroupoffullsibsofasuperiorprogenyofthepreviousyearmassspawnedwithanunrelatedmale.Thefastergrowingindividualsofthebestprogeniesareselectedtoserveasparentsofcrossbreedfry.Theremainingprogeniesarecullod.Thesameprocessisrepeatedwithnewpairseachyear(Moav&Wohlfarth,1967).
Asthenumberoftestedcombinationincreases,thepossibilityoffindinganew,bestcombinationbecomessmallandfurtherimprovementrequiresselectionforcombiningabilitywithinthebestparentalline.Thisrequirementismetintherecurrentselection(RS)andreciprocalrecurrentselection(RRS).Thebasicfeatureoftheaboveselectionproceduresthatdifferentiatesthemfromotherselectionprocedureisthatthepurebredparentsareselectedonthebasisoftheperformanceoftheircrossbredhalfsibsratherthanonthebasisoftheirownperformance(Fig.6).
(b)Opengenepoolsystem:
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RRSmethodoranyotherbasedonfamilyselectionorprogenytestingisthatitincreases,inbreedingintheparentlines.Toavoidthis,theuseofopengenepoolsystemmaybemade.Thissysteminvolvesthemaintenanceofgeneticallymarkedreservegenepoolsforeachoneofthetwoparentallines.Eachcycleofprogenytestingmayincludeasmallproportionoftheindividualsfromthereservegenepools.
Iftheprogenytestingresultsshowthatoneormoreofthegenepoolimmigrantsproducedsuperiorcrossbredprogeny,purebredprogenymaybeincorporatedintothepurebredparentalline.Selectionshouldaimatanincreaseincombiningcapacity(Moav&Wohlfarth,1967).ThismethodhasalsobeenfollowedandextensivelyusedbySovietfishbreeders(Golovinskaya,1971).
Hungary:
TheHungarianlandracesofcommoncarpwereusedforgeneticcrossing.Ineachcrossonlyonemaleandonefemalewereused.Thecarpspawnerswereidentifiedbyburnsorbrands,boaringlineandindividualmarks.Theprogenypopulations,weredifferentiatedbycollectivemarks,eachgroupreceivingabrandedstrip2cmlongondifferentpartsoftheirbody.Inplanningcrossingcombinationthefollowingaspectsweretakenintoconsideration(Fig.5).
i. Matingoutstandingfemalesandmalespossessingthesamevalueofstabilizedandfurtherimprovementofadvantageouscharacters.
ii. Matingofanoutstandingmaleandfemalehavingtwodifferentcharactersforthecombinationofadvantageousfeatures.
iii. Matingofonefemalewithoutstandingcharactersandmoremalesforthecontrolofcombiningabilityandfortheselectionofmostsuitablelineofmales.
iv. Matingofrelatedindividualswithinpurelinesfortheproductionofinbredlines.
Theproductivecapacityofcarphybridswasestablishedbytheevaluationofeggfertility,percentageofsurvivalinthefirstandsecondyearsoflife,increaseinweightduringthesecondyear,foodconversionability,percentageofconsumablefleshandfatcontentofflesh(Bakos,1979).
6CONCLUSIONSi. Theefficiencyofmassselectioncanbeenhancedbyincreasingtothepossibleextent,the
valueofthreefactors:intensityofselection,variabilityandheritabilityofthetraittobeselected.Ofthese,increaseinheritabilityisthemostimportant,whichcanbedonebymeansofcrossing,creationofuniformconditionsforfishrearingandcarryingoutselectionattheagetobeimproved.
ii. Familyselectionandprogenytestingincarpbreedingprovetobemoreefficientthanmassselectiononlywhentheheritabilityofthecharacter(h20.10.15).Themaindifficultyinperformingselectionforrelativesistherequirementoflargenumberofpondsforgrowingasufficientlylargenumberoffamiliesunderidenticalconditions.
iii. Muchbenefitmaybeexpectedfromcombinedselectioninthecourseofwhich,massselection,progenytestingoffemales,andfamilyselectionareperformedsuccessivelyinonegeneration.
iv. Newtrendsinfishselectionsuchasuseofgeneticmarkers,artificialgynogenesisandpolyploidyhavebeendescribed.InIndianmajorcarps,viz.CatlacatlaandLabeorohita,thegynogenesishasbeensuccessfullycarriedoutforthefirsttime.
v. Methodsofincreasingtheheterogenityoftheselectionmaterialandbreedingsystems,aspractisedinUSSR,IsraelandHungary,havebeendescribed.
7REFERENCES
Alikunhi,K.H.&H.Chaudhuri,(1959)Preliminaryobservationsonhybridizationofcommoncarp(Cyprinuscarpio)withIndiancarps.Proc.IndianSci.Congr.,(3):46.
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Allen,S.K.andJ.G.Stanley,(1981)Polyploidyandgynogenesisinthecultureoffishandshellfish.Int.Counc.Explot.Sea.F.,28:18pp.
Bakos,J.(1979)CrossbreedingHungarianracesofcommoncarptodevelopmoreproductivehybrids.InAdvancesinAquaculture(T.V.R.Pillay&W.A.Dilleds.)FishingNewsBooks,England:633635.
Barrackpore,(1980)(1979)CentralInlandFisheriesResearchInstitute,Rep.Cent.Inl.Fish.Res.Inst.,Barrackporefortheyear1980and1979.
Brody,T.G.W.,Wohlfarth,G.HulataandR.Moav.(1981)Applicationofelectrophoreticgeneticmarkerstofishbreeding.IV.Assessmentofbreedingvalueoffullsibfamilies.Aquaculture,24:175186.
Bhowmick,R.M.,R.K.Jana,S.D.Gupta,andG.V.KowtalandM.Rout.(1981)Studiesonsomeaspectsofbiologyandmorphometryoftheintergenerichybrid,Catlacatla(Hamilton)xLabeorohita(Hamilton)producedbyhypophysation.Aquaculture,23:367371.
Chaudhuri,H.(1959)ExperimentsonhybridizationofIndiancarpsProc.IndianSci.,Congr.46(4):2021.
Chaudhuri,H.(1971)FishhybridizationinAsiawithspecialreferencetoIndia.Rep.FAO/UNDP(TA)(2926):5159.
Falconer,T.D.S.(1960)Introductiontoquantitativegenetics.Oliver&Boyd.Edinburgh:365pp.
Garvai,J.,S.Poters,A.Nagy,L.HorvathandV.Csanyi(1980)Inducedtriploidyincarp,CyprinuscarpioD.J.Fish.Bio.,17:667671.
GeorgeJohn,P.V.G.K.ReddyandS.D.Gupta.(1984)ArtificialgynogenesisintheIndianmajorcarps,Labeorohita(Ham.)andCatlacatla(Ham.)Aquaculture.42:161168.
Gjedrem,T.(1983)Geneticvariationinquantitativetraitsandselectivebreedinginfishandshellfish.Aquaculture,33:5172.
Golovinskaya,K.A.(1968)Geneticsandselectionoffishandartificialgynogenesisofthecarp(Cyprinuscarpio).FAOFishRep.,(44)Vol.4:251252.
Golovinskaya.(1971)Breedinginfishculture.Rep.FAO/UNDP(TA)(2926):292300.
Ibrahim,K.H.,G.V.KowtalandS.D.Gupta.(1980)EmbryonicandlarvaldevelopmentamongCatlacatla(Ham.)xHypephthalmichthysmolitrix(Val.)Hybrid.J.Inland.Fish.Soc.India,12(2):6973.
Kirpichnikov,V.S.Methodsofprogenytestingspawnersin(1966)carpfishfarms.Izv.GOS,NauchnoIssled,Inst.Ozern.Rechn.Rybn.Khoz.,61.TranslatedfromtheRussianbyIsraelprogrammeofScientifictranslations,Jerusalem,IPSTCat.No.(5737):3655(1970).
Kirpichnikov.(1967)Efficiencyofmassselectionandselectionforrelativesinfishculture.FAOFishRep.,(44)Vol.4:179194.
Kirpichnikov.(1971)Methodsoffishselection.Aimsofselectionandmethodsofartificialselection.Rep.FAO/UNDP(TA)(2926):217227.
Kirpichnikov.(1971)Methodsoffishselection2.Crossing,modernmethodsofselection,selectiontechniques.Rep.FAO/UNDP(TA)(2926):217227.
Kirpichnikov.(1972)Theoryoffishselection.In:B.1Cherfas(Ed),Geneticselectionandhybridizationoffish.AcademyofSciencesoftheUSSR.IsraelProgrammeforScientificTranslations,Jerusalem:269pp.
Kirpichnikov.(1981)Geneticalbasesoffishselection.Springer,VerlagBorlin:1140.
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Moav,R.&G.W.Wohlfarth.(1967)Geneticimprovementofyieldincarp.FAOFishRep.,(44).Vol.4:227.
Moav,R.,G.W.WohlfarthandM.Lahman.(1960)Geneticimprovementofcarp2.Markingfishbybranding.Bamidgeh,12(2):4953.
Nagy,A.V.Csanyi,J.BakosandL.Hervath.(1980)Developmentofashorttermlaboratorysystemfortheelevationofcarpgrowthinponds.Bamidgeh,32:615.
NaseemHamsa,K.(1971)PreliminaryaccountofanintergenericfertilehybridbetweenCirrhinamrigalaandLabeorohita.Cent.Inst.Fish.Educ.Rec.Club.Scuvenir,1015.
Roddy,K.P.&T.J.Verghese.(1980)StudiesonthecomparativegrowthrateoftwoIndianmajorcarphybrids,Catlarohuandrohucatla.J.InlandFish.Soc.India12(2),1824.
Singh,S.B.&P.C.Chakraborti.(1970)ObservationsonthehybridbetweensilvercarpandgrasscarpSABRAONewsletter2(2):103106.
Smisek,J.(1979)Considerationofbodyconfirmation,heritabilityandbiochemicalcharactersingeneticstudiesofcarpinCzechoslovakia,Bull.VURHVednany,15(2):36Ref.Anim.Breed.Abstr.48(5):302.
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Wohlfarth,G.W.Shootcarp.Bamidgeh,29(2):3556.(1977)
Wohlfarth,G.W.,M.LehmanandG.Hulata.(1980)ThestoryofDor70,aselectedstrainoftheIsraelicommoncarp,Bamidgeh,32(1):35.
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Table2:ShowingimportanthybridsofIndianmajorcarpsandChinesecarpsproducedinIndia
Femaleparentspecies Maleparentspecies Hybrid Importantcharacteristics Authority
1 Interspecifichybrids Labeocalbasu
Labeorohita Calbasurohu Attainedfullmaturityin2yearsF2generationproduced.Varyingcharactersintermediatebetweencalbasuandrohu.
Chaudhuri(1959&1971)
L.rohita L.calbasu rohucalbasu Inbothhybridsover94%fertilisationwasobtained,theirgrowthratewasfarsuperiortotheparentLabeocalbasu.
Do
2 Intergenerichybrids Cirrhinusmrigala
L.rohita mrigalrohu Relativelysmallhead,deeperbodyslendercaudalpeduncle.D2/1314P18V9A2/6C19,L.l.4647Lengthofhead5.21ofcaudal4.66heightofbody4.57intotallength,pharyngealteeth542.Fullmaturityin2years.Intermediatebodycharacters.
NaseamHamza(1971)
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Labeorohita C.mrigala rohumrigal Intermediatebodycharactersascomparedtothoseofparents.Attainsmaturityin2years.
Chaudhuri(1959&1971)
Labeorohita C.mrigala rohucatla Bodycharacteristicsintermediatetoparentspecies.Colourationlikecatla,smallhead,mouthterminal,finraysresemblingthoseofrohu.Broadbodyofcatla,smallheadofrohuandmoreflesh(54%)thaneitheroftheparents.viz.,rohu(48%)&catla(45%).Fastergrowththanrohu.Fullmaturityattainedin3years.Fecunditylessthanbothparentalspecies.F2generationproduced.Slightlybettergrowthratethanthehybridcatlaxrohu.
Bhowmicketal(1981)
ReddyandVerhese(1980).
Catlacatla Labeorohita Catlarohu Greaterbodygirthandfastergrowththanrohu,smallerheadthancatlaandmorefleshthanboththeparents.Primarilyplanktonfeederbutacceptartificialfeed.Growthslightlyfasterthanrohubutslowerthancatla.F1hybridsmaturedin2years.F2generationproduced.ReddyandVenghese(1980)reportedgrowthofhybridmuchslowerthancatlaandslightlylowerthanthatofrohu.
Chaudhuri(1971)
Reddy&Verghese(1980)
Catlacatla L.calbasu Catlacalbasu
Fastergrowthratethancalbasu,smallerheadthancatlaandbodygirthmorethancalbasu.
Chaudhuri(1971)
L.calbasu C.catla Calbasucatla
Fastergrowththancalbasu. do
C.catla L.fimbriatus Catlafimbriatus
FastergrowththanfimbriatusHeadsmallerthancatlaandbodygirthnearertocatla.
do
C.idella Hypophthalmichthysmolitrix
grasscarpsilvercarp
Resembledgrasscarp,irregularlargesizedscalesatsomeplacesalongthelaterallineinsomecasesactivelarvicidalandweedicidaltendenciesinfrystage.Malesmaturedin2yearsandfemalesin3years.
Barrackpore(1980)
H.molitrix C.idella grasscarpsilvercarp
Roundbodyofgrasscarpwithsmallerscales.Mouthwithlowerlipprotrudingasinsilvercarp.Gillrakersnumerousbutnotfusedasinsilvercarp.Anaverage
Singh&Chakraborti(1970)
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sizeof366mm/475ginoneyear.Didnotmature.Nonacceptanceofweeds.
Labeorohita Cyprinuscarpio rohucommoncarp
Elongateddorsalfinlikeparentspecies,butothercharacteristicsintermediatebetweenparentspecies,Sterile.Survivedforseveralmonths.
AlikunhiandChaudhuri(1959)
C.mrigala C.carpio mrigalcommoncarp
Survivalforseveralmonths Chaudhuri(1971)
Catlacatla H.molitrix catlasilvercarp
Bodygirthcomparabletocatla,sizeofheadandscalesnearertosilvercarpandcolourationslategreyondorsalsideandsilveryontoabdomen
Ibrahimetal(1980)
H.molitrix Catlacatla silvercarpcatla
Asinglespecimen,survivedfor21monthsandattained497mm/1.45kg.Showedroughnessofpectoralfin.
Barrackpore(1979)
Cyprinuscarnio
L.rohita commoncarprohu
Bodycharactersintermediatebetweenbothparentspecies.Bodyprofilenearertorohu.
Khanetal(1984)unpublished.
Fig.1RelationbetweenselectionseverityandSelectiveintensity(,1967)NSizeofpopulation
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requiredforselectinganindividualVselectionseverity(%)iselectionintensity
Fig2Progenytestinginfishbreeding
Fig3TypesofCrossings
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Fig.4.SchemeofcreatingbreedingstockofRapshahybridcarp(kirpichnikov,1967)CCculturedmirrorcarp,AWCWildCarp.HN+HKHybridsofNovogarad+KurskstrainsHB,HC,HJhybridsofbackcross,CrissCross(withlinear)andintermediatestrains.DoubleframsoutlinesheterosisCombinations?denotesuncontrolledcrossingduringthewar194144.
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Fig5.SchemeofproductionofCommoncarphybridsshowingtheprocessofbreeding(Bakos1979)
Fig.6.Schematicpresentationofacombinationofselection(offemalesoftheparentlineA)plusmoreselectionwithinthepureline(I1,andI2representtwotestedimmigrantsoftheopengenepooloftheparentlineA)(Moav&Wholfarth,1967)
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