genetic algorithms
DESCRIPTION
Genetic Algorithms. 虞台文. Content. Evolutional Algorithms Genetic Algorithms Main Components of Genetic Algorithms Encoding Fitness Function Recombination Mutation Population Selection Models. Genetic Algorithms. Evolutional Algorithms. Biological Evolution. Motivated from Nature. - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Genetic Algorithms
虞台文
Content Evolutional Algorithms Genetic Algorithms Main Components of Genetic Algorithms
– Encoding– Fitness Function– Recombination– Mutation– Population– Selection Models
Genetic Algorithms
Evolutional Algorithms
Biological Evolution
Motivated from Nature
Nature evolve strikingly complex
organisms in response to
complex environmental
adaptation problems with
apparent ease
Localize and extract principles
from nature
Apply them to design algorithms
Darwinian Evolution 1: Survival of the Fittest
All environments have finite resources– can only support a limited number of individuals
Lifeforms have basic instinct/lifecycles geared towards reproduction
– Therefore some kind of selection is inevitable
– Those individuals that compete for the resources most effectively have increased chance of reproduction
Note: fitness in natural evolution is a derived, secondary measure, i.e., we (humans) assign a high fitness to individuals with many offspring
1809-1882
Darwinian Evolution 2: Diversity Drives Change
Phenotypic traits:– Behaviour/physical differences that affect response to
environment– Partly determined by inheritance, partly by factors
during development– Unique to each individual, partly as a result of random
changes If phenotypic traits:
– Lead to higher chances of reproduction– Can be inherited
then they will tend to increase in subsequent generations and, hence, lead to new combinations of traits …
1809-1882
Darwinian Evolution:Summary
Population consists of diverse set of individuals Combinations of traits that are better adapted
tend to increase representation in population Individuals are “units of selection”
Variations occur through random changes yielding constant source of diversity, coupled with selection means that:
Population is the “unit of evolution” Note the absence of “guiding force” w/o God
1809-1882
PopulationPopulation
General Scheme ofEvolutional Algorithms (EAs)
ParentsParents
OffspringOffspring
Initialization
Termination
Parent Selection
Survivor Selection
Recombination
Mutation
PopulationPopulation
General Scheme ofEvolutional Algorithms (EAs)
ParentsParents
OffspringOffspring
Initialization
Termination
Parent Selection
Survivor Selection
Recombination
Mutation
•A set of individuals corresponding
to candidate solutions to a
problem.
•Each individual has a fitness
value.
•How to represent the individuals?
•How to define the fitness
function?
•A set of individuals corresponding
to candidate solutions to a
problem.
•Each individual has a fitness
value.
•How to represent the individuals?
•How to define the fitness
function?
PopulationPopulation
General Scheme ofEvolutional Algorithms (EAs)
ParentsParents
OffspringOffspring
Initialization
Termination
Parent Selection
Survivor Selection
Recombination
Mutation
Better individuals get higher probability
to become the parents of the next
generation.
Better individuals get higher probability
to become the parents of the next
generation.
Variation
operators
Variation
operators
PopulationPopulation
General Scheme ofEvolutional Algorithms (EAs)
ParentsParents
OffspringOffspring
Initialization
Termination
Parent Selection
Survivor Selection
Recombination
Mutation
Replace some old
individuals with
newly born ones.
Replace some old
individuals with
newly born ones.
Pseudo-Code for Typical EA
Typical Behavior of an EA
Early phase:quasi-random population
distribution
Mid-phase:population arranged around/on
hills
Late phase:population concentrated on high
hills
Components of EAs
Representation definition of individuals Evaluation function fitness function Population Parent selection mechanism Variation operators
– Recombination– Mutation
Survivor selection mechanism replacement Termination
Different Types of EAs
Historically, different flavours of EAs have
been associated with different representations
– Binary strings : Genetic Algorithms
– Real-valued vectors : Evolution Strategies
– Finite state Machines: Evolutionary Programming
– LISP trees: Genetic Programming
Different Types of EAs
Historically, different flavours of EAs have
been associated with different representations
• Binary strings : Genetic Algorithms• Real-valued vectors : Evolution Strategies• Finite state Machines: Evolutionary Programming• LISP trees: Genetic Programming
• Binary strings : Genetic Algorithms• Real-valued vectors : Evolution Strategies• Finite state Machines: Evolutionary Programming• LISP trees: Genetic Programming
GeneticAlgorithms
EvolutionStrategies
Different Types of EAs
Historically, different flavours of EAs have
been associated with different representations
• Binary strings : Genetic Algorithms• Real-valued vectors : Evolution Strategies• Finite state Machines: Evolutionary Programming• LISP trees: Genetic Programming
• Binary strings : Genetic Algorithms• Real-valued vectors : Evolution Strategies• Finite state Machines: Evolutionary Programming• LISP trees: Genetic Programming
EvolutionaryProgramming
GeneticProgramming
Genetic Algorithms
Genetic Algorithms
The Genetic Algorithm
Directed search algorithms based on the mechanics of biological evolution
Developed by John Holland, University of Michigan (1970’s)– To understand the adaptive processes of
natural systems– To design artificial systems software that
retains the robustness of natural systems
Genetic Algorithms
Holland’s original GA is now known as the simple genetic algorithm (SGA)
Other GAs use different:– Representations– Mutations– Crossovers– Selection mechanisms
SGA Technical Summary Tableau
Representation Binary strings
Recombination N-point or uniform
MutationBitwise bit-flipping with fixed probability
Parent selection Fitness-Proportionate
Survivor selection
All children replace parents
Speciality Emphasis on crossover
Representation
Genotype space
Phenotype spaceEncoding
(representation)
Decoding(inverse representation)
011101001
010001001
10010010
10010001
SGA Evolution Cycle
1. Select parents for the mating pool (size of mating pool = population size)
2. Shuffle the mating pool3. For each consecutive pair apply crossover
with probability pc , otherwise copy parents
4. For each offspring apply mutation (bit-flip with probability pm independently for each bit)
5. Replace the whole population with the resulting offspring
1. Select parents for the mating pool (size of mating pool = population size)
2. Shuffle the mating pool3. For each consecutive pair apply crossover
with probability pc , otherwise copy parents
4. For each offspring apply mutation (bit-flip with probability pm independently for each bit)
5. Replace the whole population with the resulting offspring
SGA Operators: 1-Point Crossover
Choose a random point on the two parents Split parents at this crossover point Create children by exchanging tails pc typically in range (0.6, 0.9)
SGA Operators: Mutation
Alter each gene independently with a probability pm
pm is called the mutation rate
– Typically between 1/pop_size and 1/chromosome_length
SGA Operators: Selection
Main idea: better individuals get
higher chance
– Chances proportional to fitness
– Implementation
roulette wheel technique
Assign to each individual a part of
the roulette wheel
Spin the wheel n times to select n
individuals
C33%
B17%
A50%
fitness(A) = 3
fitness(B) = 1
fitness(C) = 2
Exercise: The OneMax Problem
The OneMax Problem (or BitCounting) is a simple problem consisting in maximizing the number of ones of a bitstring.
Formally, this problem can be described as finding a string x = (x1, x2, …, xn) , with xi{0, 1} , that maximizes the following equation:
1
( )n
ii
F x
x
Genetic Algorithms
Main Components of GA’s
Nature-to-Computer Mapping
Nature Computer
Individual Solution to a problem
Population Set of solutions
Fitness Quality of a solution
Chromosome Encoding for a solution
Gene Part of the encoding of a solution
Crossover Search Operator (Local)
Mutation Search Operator (Global)
Nature Selection Reuse of good (sub-)solutions
Main Components of GA’s
Encoding principles (gene, chromosome)
Initialization procedure (creation)
Selection of parents (reproduction)
Genetic operators (mutation, recombination)
Fitness function (environment)
Termination condition
Encoding The process of representing the solution in the for
m of a string that conveys the necessary information.
Just as in a chromosome, each gene controls a particular characteristic of the individual, similarly, each bit in the string represents a characteristic of the solution.
Hence, the encoding mechanism depends on the nature of the problem variables.
Commonly Used Encoding Schemes
Binary Encoding– most common and simplest one
Permutation Encoding– used in “ordering problems”, e.g., TSP
Direct Value Encoding– used in problems with complicated values
Tree Encoding– used mainly for evolving programs or
expressions, e.g., genetic programming
Binary Encoding
• Binary Encoding• Permutation Encoding• Direct Value Encoding• Tree Encoding
Most common method of encoding.– Chromosomes are strings of 1s and 0s and
each position in the chromosome represents a particular characteristic of the problem.
11111110000000011111Chromosome B
10110010110011100101Chromosome A
Permutation Encoding
• Binary Encoding• Permutation Encoding• Direct Value Encoding• Tree Encoding
Useful in ordering problems such as the Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP). – Every chromosome is a string of numbers,
each of which represents a city to be visited.
8 5 6 7 2 3 1 4 9Chromosome B
1 5 3 2 6 4 7 9 8Chromosome A
Direct Value Encoding
• Binary Encoding• Permutation Encoding• Direct Value Encoding• Tree Encoding
Used in problems where complicated values, such as real numbers, are used and where binary encoding would not suffice.
Good for some problems, but often necessary to develop some specific crossover and mutation techniques for these chromosomes.
(left), (back), (left), (right), (forward)Chromosome B
1.235 5.323 0.454 2.321 2.454Chromosome A
Tree Encoding
• Binary Encoding• Permutation Encoding• Direct Value Encoding• Tree Encoding
Tree encoding is used mainly for evolving programs or expressions for genetic programming.
In tree encoding every chromosome is a tree of some objects, such as functions or commands in programming language.
More on Binary Encoding Gray coding of integers
Integer Binary Gray
0 000 000
1 001 001
2 010 011
3 011 010
4 100 110
5 101 111
6 110 101
7 111 100
More on Binary Encoding Gray coding of integers
Gray coding is a mapping that “attempts” to improve causality, i.e., small changes in the genotype cause small changes in the phenotype, unlike binary coding.– “Smoother” genotype-phenotype mapping makes
life easier for the GA.
Nowadays it is generally accepted that it is better to encode numerical variables directly as integers and floating point variables
More on Binary Encoding Interval Representation
z [x, y] represented by {a1,…,aL} {0,1}L
[x, y] {0,1}L must be invertible
: {0,1}L [x, y] defines the representation1
10
( ,..., ) 2 [ , ]2 1
Lj
L L jLj
y xa a x a x y
Crossover
It is the process in which two chromosomes (strings) combine their genetic material (bits) to produce a new offspring which possesses both their characteristics.
Two strings are picked from the mating pool at random to cross over.
The method chosen depends on the Encoding Method.
Crossover Operators
Binary Encoding– 1-Point Crossover– 2-Point Crossover– N-Point Crossover– Uniform Crossover
Permutation Encoding
Binary Encoding 1-Point Crossover
Chromosome1 11011 | 00100110110
Chromosome 2 11011 | 11000011110
Offspring 1 11011 | 11000011110
Offspring 2 11011 | 00100110110
Binary Encoding 2-Point Crossover
Chromosome1 11011 | 00100 | 110110
Chromosome 2 10101 | 11000 | 011110
Offspring 1 10101 | 00100 | 011110
Offspring 2 11011 | 11000 | 110110
Binary Encoding N-Point Crossover
Choose N random crossover points Split along those points Glue parts, alternating between parents
Binary Encoding Uniform Crossover
Each gene (bit) is selected randomly from one of the corresponding genes of the parent chromosomes.
Chromosome1 11000101 01011000 01101010
Chromosome 2 00100100 10111001 01111000
Offspring 1 01000101 01111000 01111010
Offspring 2 10100100 10011001 01101000
Permutation Encoding Order Crossover (OX)
Builds offspring by choosing a sub-sequence of a tour
from one parent and preserving the relative order of
cities from the other parent and feasibility
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 2 1 8 7 6 9 3
Permutation Encoding Order Crossover (OX)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 2 1 8 7 6 9 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Builds offspring by choosing a sub-sequence of a tour
from one parent and preserving the relative order of
cities from the other parent and feasibility
Permutation Encoding Order Crossover (OX)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 2 1 8 7 6 9 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Builds offspring by choosing a sub-sequence of a tour
from one parent and preserving the relative order of
cities from the other parent and feasibility
2 1 8 9 3
Permutation Encoding Order Crossover (OX)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
4 5 2 1 8 7 6 9 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Builds offspring by choosing a sub-sequence of a tour
from one parent and preserving the relative order of
cities from the other parent and feasibility
2 1 8 9 3
Chromosome1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Chromosome 2 4 5 2 1 8 7 6 9 3
Offspring 1 3 4 5 1 8 7 6 9 2
Offspring 2 2 1 8 4 5 6 7 9 3
Permutation Encoding Partially Mapped Crossover (PMX)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 3 7 8 2 6 5 1 4
Permutation Encoding Partially Mapped Crossover (PMX)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 3 7 8 2 6 5 1 4
4 5 6 7
9 3 8 2 16 5 47
Step 1
Permutation Encoding Partially Mapped Crossover (PMX)
4 5 6 7
9 3 8 2 16 5 47
Step 2
4 5 6 79 3 1
Permutation Encoding Partially Mapped Crossover (PMX)
4 5 6 7
9 3 8 2 16 5 47
Step 3
4 5 6 79 3 1 82
Permutation Encoding Partially Mapped Crossover (PMX)
4 5 6 79 3 1 82
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
9 3 7 8 2 6 5 1 4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
8 2 6 5
Step 1
Permutation Encoding Partially Mapped Crossover (PMX)
4 5 6 79 3 1 82
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
8 2 6 5
Step 2
8 2 6 51 3 9
Permutation Encoding Partially Mapped Crossover (PMX)
4 5 6 79 3 1 82
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
8 2 6 5
Step 3
8 2 6 51 3 947
Permutation Encoding Partially Mapped Crossover (PMX)
4 5 6 79 3 1 82
8 2 6 51 3 947
Chromosome1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Chromosome 2 9 3 7 8 2 6 5 1 4
Offspring 1 9 3 2 4 5 6 7 1 8
Offspring 2 1 7 3 8 2 6 5 4 9
Permutation Encoding Cycle Crossover
4 5 6 7 91 2 83
8 2 6 59 7 413
Permutation Encoding Cycle Crossover
4 5 6 7 91 2 83
8 2 6 59 7 413
Step 1: identify cycles
4 91 8
89 41
Permutation Encoding Cycle Crossover
4 5 6 7 91 2 83
8 2 6 59 7 413
Step 1: identify cycles
4 91 8
89 41
5 72 3
2 573
Permutation Encoding Cycle Crossover
4 5 6 7 91 2 83
8 2 6 59 7 413
Step 1: identify cycles
4 91 8
89 41
5 72 3
2 573
6
6
Permutation Encoding Cycle Crossover
4 5 6 7 91 2 83
8 2 6 59 7 413
Step 1: identify cycles
4 91 8
89 41
5 72 3
2 573
6
6
Step 2: copy alternate cycles into offspring
4 91 8
89 415 72 3
2 573 6
6
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
4 5 6 7 91 2 83
8 2 6 59 7 413
Step 1: Construct edge table
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge table
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Step 2: Randomly choose start node
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge table
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Step 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2 8
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2 8
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2 8 7
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2 8 7
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2 8 7 3
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
2 4 7 9
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2 8 7 3
2 4 7 9
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2 8 7 3 9
2 4 7 9
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2 8 7 3 9
2 4 7 9
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
2 4 7 9
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2 8 7 3 9 4
2 4 7 9
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Permutation Encoding Edge Recombination
1
Step 1: Construct edge tableStep 2: Randomly choose start nodeStep 3: Remove visited nodes
Step 4:Pick common edge if existentPick one with the shortest listTies are split at random
5
Step 5: Loop to Step 3 until done
6 2 8 7 3 9 4
2 4 7 9
2 4 5 91
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1 3 6 8
1 3 5 9
1 4 +6
2 +5 7
3 6 +8
2 +7 9
1 3 4 8
Crossover for Real Valued GAs
Discrete:– Each allele value in offspring z comes from one of its
parents (x, y) with equal probability: zi = xi or yi
– Could use n-point or uniform Intermediate
– exploits idea of creating children “between” parents (hence a.k.a. arithmetic recombination)
– zi = xi + (1 ) yi where : 0 1.– The parameter can be:
• constant: uniform arithmetical crossover• variable (e.g. depend on the age of the population) • picked at random every time
Single Arithmetic Crossover
• Parents: x1,…, xn and y1,…, yn• Pick a single gene (k) at random
• child1 is:
• reverse for other child. e.g. with = 0.5
1 11, ..., , ,..., (1 )k kk nx x xy x
Simple Arithmetic Crossover
• Parents: x1,…, xn and y1,…, yn• Pick random gene (k) after this point mix values
• child1 is:
• reverse for other child. e.g. with = 0.5
11 1 (1 ) (, ..., , ,.. 1. ), k k n nk y x y xx x
Whole Arithmetic Crossover
• Parents: x1,…, xn and y1,…, yn
• child1 is:
• reverse for other child. e.g. with = 0.5
(1 ) x y
More on Crossover
Crossover between 2 good solutions MAY NOT ALWAYS yield a better or as good a solution.
Since parents are good, probability of the child being good is high.
If offspring is not good (poor solution), it will be removed in the next iteration during “Selection”.
Crossover or Mutation
Decade long debate: Which one is better / necessary / main-background?
Answer (at least, rather wide agreement):– it depends on the problem, but– in general, it is good to have both– both have another role– mutation-only-EA is possible, xover-only-EA would not wor
k in general
Crossover or Mutation
Exploration: – Discovering promising areas in the search space, i.e.
gaining information on the problem– Crossover is “usually” explorative, it makes a big jump
to an area somewhere “in between” two (parent) areas
Exploitation:– Optimizing within a promising area, i.e. using
information– Mutation is “usually” exploitative, it creates random
small diversions, thereby staying near (in the area of ) the parent
Crossover or Mutation
Crossover can combine information from two parents
Mutation can introduce new information (alleles)
Crossover does not change the allele frequencies of the population
To hit the optimum you often need a ‘lucky’ mutation
Mutation Operators
Binary EncodingValue Encoding
– Integers– Floating points
Permutation Encoding
Mutation Operator for Binary Encoding
For chromosomes using Binary Encoding, randomly selected bits are inverted.
Offspring 11011 00100 110110
Mutated Offspring 11010 00100 100110
NOTE: The number of bits to be inverted depends on the Mutation Probability.
Mutation Operator for Value Encoding
Creep – Adding small offset to randomly chosen allele(s)
Random choice – Assign random value to randomly chosen allele
(s)Offspring 9 15 7 0 32 50 70
Mutated Offspring 9 17 7 0 80 50 70
Mutation Operators for Permutation Encoding
Insert Mutation
Swap Mutation
Inversion mutation
Elitism
When creating a new population by crossover or mutation the best chromosome might be lost.
Forces GAs to retain some number of the best individuals at each generation.
Has been found that elitism significantly improves performance.
Elitism is a method which copies the best chromosome to the new offspring population before crossover and mutation.
Population Models
SGA uses a Generational model:– each individual survives for exactly one generation– the entire set of parents is replaced by the offspring
At the other end of the scale are Steady-State models:– one offspring is generated per generation,– one member of population replaced,
Generation Gap – the proportion of the population replaced– 1.0 for GGA, 1/pop_size for SSGA
Fitness Function A fitness function quantifies the optimality of a solution (chr
omosome) so that that particular solution may be ranked against all the other solutions.
A fitness value is assigned to each solution depending on how close it actually is to solving the problem.
Ideal fitness function correlates closely to goal + quickly computable.
Example: In TSP, f(x) is sum of distances between the cities in solution. The lesser the value, the fitter the solution is.
Selection Models
Selection can occur in two places:– Parent selection Selection from current
generation to take part in mating– Survivor selection Selection from parents
+ offspring to go into next generation Distinction between selection
– operators: define selection probabilities – algorithms: define how probabilities are
implemented
Parent Selection
Fitness-Proportionate Selection– Roulette wheel algorithm
– Baker’s SUS algorithm:
Rank-Based Selection– Linear Ranking
– Exponential Ranking
Tournament Selection
Fitness-Proportionate Selection
Roulette wheel algorithm:– Given a probability distribution, spin a 1-
armed wheel n times to make n selections
Baker’s SUS algorithm:– Stochastic Universal Sampling– n evenly spaced arms on wheel and spin
once
Fitness-Proportionate Selection
Problems– One highly fit member can rapidly take over if rest of
population is much less fit: Premature Convergence– At end of runs when fitnesses are similar, lose
selection pressure – Highly susceptible to function transposition
Scaling can fix last two problems– Windowing: f’(i) = f(i) - t
where is worst fitness in this (last n) generations
– Sigma Scaling: f’(i) = max[ f(i) – ( f - c • f ), 0.0] where c is a constant, usually 2.0
Function Transposition for FPS
Rank-Based Selection
Attempt to remove problems of FPS by basing selection probabilities on relative rather than absolute fitness
Rank population according to fitness and then base selection probabilities on rank where fittest has rank and worst rank 1
Rank-Based Selection
Linear Ranking
Exponential Ranking
lin-rank(2 ) 1)( 1)
( ) ,1.0 2.0s i s
P i s
exp-rank1
( )ie
P ic
Tournament Selection
Tournament Selection
All methods above rely on global population statistics– Could be a bottleneck esp. on parallel machines– Relies on presence of external fitness function
which might not exist: e.g., evolving game players
Informal Procedure:– Pick k members at random then select the best
of these– Repeat to select more individuals– k = 2: binary tournament selection
Tournament Selection
6 3 4 5 2 18479
2 6 3 4 5 18142
4 1 3 2 5 67993
4 3 2 1 5 66872
3 6 4 1 2 58971
4 1 3 2 5 67993
4 3 2 1 5 66872
6 3 4 5 2 18479
3 6 4 1 2 58971
5 2 6 4 3 18673
5 2 6 4 3 18673
2 6 3 4 5 18142
4 3 2 1 5 66872
5 2 6 4 3 18673
4 1 3 2 5 67993
2 6 3 4 5 18142
4 3 2 1 5 66872
2 6 3 4 5 18142
Mating Pool
Some Demonstrations
http://cs.felk.cvut.cz/~xobitko/ga/ http://www.heatonresearch.com/articles/65/page1.html http://homepage.sunrise.ch/homepage/pglaus/gentore.htm#Applet http://www.ads.tuwien.ac.at/raidl/tspga/TSPGA.html http://www.see.ed.ac.uk/~rjt/ga.html?http://oldeee.see.ed.ac.uk/~rjt/ga.
html
References
A Survey of Genetic Algorithm
Genetic Algorithms: A Survey
A Genetic Algorithm Tutorial