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GENERAL SCOPE AND USES OF
PHYSICAL/BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Course name: Physical Anthropology
Paper No. & Title: B.A./B.Sc. Anthropology 2nd semester
Paper –II
Topic No. & Title: 1/15 Definition and Scope of Physical
Anthropology
Objective:
The topic aims to give a general background and focus of
the subject physical anthropology. The area of study, both in
the early and the later stages are discussed. The changing
trends of the subject from anthropometric studies
(measurement of body parts), calculation of indices and
computation of statistics to the study of understanding
processes and mechanisms involved in the problem are
discussed. In the later stage, it becomes more analytical and
critical with a major objective of developing consistent
hypothesis which should be verified experimentally. The
changing trends lead to the establishment of various new
fields of physical anthropology broadening its horizon.
Content & Script of the Programme
Introduction:
What is Man? Was he created one fine morning? Or is
he the product of evolution? Man is a social being and as
such a biological one. Over the years, human societies have
undergone considerable changes in various aspects of their
physical, cultural and socio-economic conditions. People do
differ in their skin color, eye color and shape, height, hair
color and texture etc. How is that
people from very cold climatic
regions are observed to be very fair
in complexion while people from the
tropical regions dark? What would
be the skin color of a child, if one of
the parents belongs to the Negroid
race while the other a Caucasoid or
Mongoloid race? Racism is the
discrimination based on body traits like skin color, blood
etc. Does any pure race exist at all? No scientist can tell
your race from a drop of your
blood. Is this quality dependent
upon the marriage pattern,
inbreeding or outbreeding practiced
by the society? How can inbreeding
be measured? How can the risk of
having anomalies be predicted?
Genetic disorders in a family and
population level can be detected by
various techniques. Now, one can also compare and
comprehend genetic diversity in population with reference
to normal and abnormal trait variation.
Physical growth and
development is a natural and
continuous process. Food,
nutrition and exercise have their
effects on it. How can the
children suffering from
malnutrition be detected? Is there an ideal growth standard
for Indian children? What are the temporal and secular
changes observed in growth patterns? What are the
methods and techniques available to study and assess the
growth rate? Is there an age specific growth? It is observed
that among the old people there is retardation in growth
pattern.
Such a list of questions could be extended stretching to
any number of areas and disciplines as far as their relation
to man is concerned. The attempts to put together all these
jigsaw puzzle of man as a biological being in his past,
present and the future is dealt by the branch of
anthropology called Physical anthropology. In the
contemporary context the term Physical anthropology and
Biological anthropology are synonymous.
Definition of Physical Anthropology:
The emergence of anthropology as
a branch of science goes back to the
remote past. But Aristotle was given
the credit in the 16th century only for
coining the term anthropology. The
development of Physical anthropology
as an organized and systematic
discipline started in the 2nd half of the
19th century.
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, a
German physician (1752-1840) is
regarded as the father of Physical
anthropology. Physical anthropology is
the oldest branch of anthropology,
which was established much earlier
than the other branches. It is the
study of man as a living organism. The important aspects
studied in this branch of anthropology are human biology,
human variation and human evolution.
Paul Broca (1871) defined Physical anthropology as the
science whose objective is the study of humanity
considered as a whole, in its parts and in relationship to the
rest of nature.
Juan Comas (1968) defined Physical anthropology as a
biological science that deals with the origin, development
and varieties of man as a member of the animal kingdom.
It is concerned with the biological basis of man’s ability to
use culture, the evolution of this ability, its present
development and its feature.
Scope of Physical Anthropology:
The study of Physical anthropology in the early period
was characterized by anthropometric studies (measurement
of body parts), calculation of indices and computation of
statistics. The purpose of old or early period studies were
primarily classification and correlation by which it was
thought that the description and
differences was enough for solving
the problem. As such there was no
place for theory because it was
realized that the facts speak for
themselves. The interpretations of
the results remained a mere
speculation. Anthropologists of olden
period were only satisfied with the reporting of variation
such as the size and shape of brow ridges, form of the nose,
growth in the pre-maxillary suture, evolution of lower jaw,
genetic structure of population etc., as facts by observation
and measurement and never went into the causative factors.
A new chapter in the study of Physical anthropology was
opened in the year 1900 as at that
time Mendel’s law of Inheritance was
developed. In course of time the study
of Physical anthropology became more
specialized with newer inventions and
discoveries. The angle of vision of the
scholars is being changed considerably.
This new achievement in Physical anthropology is the result
of the direct cause of complete re-orientation in some of the
field of study. Anthropologists of later or new period are
mainly interested in understanding the processes and
mechanisms involved in the problem. Here the theory is
critical and the major objective is to develop consistent
hypothesis which should be verified experimentally.
Therefore the interpretation involved the tasks of testing the
hypothesis and its validity. So the new period of Physical
anthropology begins where the old period ends. Though the
aims and interest of both the traditions are the same, the
emphasis of new period is re-orientation in methodology
comprehension and interpretation.
The new period anthropologists
have started investigations into a
number of new areas to understand
genetic relationship and to trace
possible ancestors. It also studies the
dynamics of diversity of mankind
that includes bio-chemical, Human
genetics covering Haemoglobin, Haptoglobin and
Transferrins, analysis of
evolutionary factors such as
Mutation, Natural selection,
Genetic drift and Gene flow and
Primate biology involving the
study of blood group, genetics
and local evolutionary factors of
non human primates such as monkeys and apes. A large
number of dimensions of academic research and applied
importance of Physical anthropology have developed into a
number of specialized fields. Mention may be made of
Human population genetics, Genetic demography or Demo-
genetics, Human evolution, Paleo-anthropology, Human
growth and development, Human bio-chemical genetics,
Forensic anthropology, Human cytogenetics, Ecology or
Environmental anthropology, Anthropometry, Nutritional
anthropology, Dermatoglyphics, Physiological anthropology,
Primatology, Medical anthropology, Kinanthropology, Genetic
engineering, Twins study, Molecular anthropology, Neuro-
anthropology, Human osteology etc.
Physical anthropologists are interested in studying
primates, the close relative of man, from different angles
for different reasons. It is
studied in relation to geological
and temporal sequence,
comparative anatomy, their
behavior both in natural setting
and laboratory and fossil remains
so as to understand the
evolutionary stages and certain fundamental aspects on
man. The study of fossil remains gives the evidence of the
gradual development of man from his non-human
ancestors. The study of fossil
evidence of Dryopithecus,
Ramapithicus, Australopithecus,
Homo erectus and other Hominid
fossils is used in tracing the
evolution of mankind. By the
method of reconstruction, the
physical appearances and rudimentary cultural features of
the ancestors of human are derived. The study of
transmission from every pre-hominid to a hominid stage is
characterized by a change to a fully erect posture,
bipedalism, teeth structure and jaw structure, sagittal
crest, relative height and brain size of the species,
opposable thumb and the prolongation of immaturity. The
ancestor of modern man Homo sapiens had existed for
approximately the past 50,000 years. The anatomical and
morphological changes that occurred over the past
millions of years have produced this species of mankind.
Physical anthropology used the general principle of
biology and utilized the finding of anatomy, Physiology,
Embryology, Zoology etc. It studies the origin and
evolution of man, man’s physical character and form of
diversity. The theories of Lamarckism, Darwinism and
Modern Synthesis which are derived from the biological
form are useful in explaining the evolutionary process of
man. It also analyses the bio-social adaptation of different
human population living in different geographical and
ecological zones. The effect of adaptation to high altitudes,
heat and cold stress tolerance on different geographical
population will help in finding out the ways and means of
combating the bio-chemical and physiological changes in
the human body.
The general laws and principles applied to the study of
human genetics as a field of Physical anthropology are
derived from the study of plants and animals. It helps in
understanding the processes of replication and variation
among human population. It also helps in analyzing the
matter of inheritance of diseases, normal and abnormal
characteristics, to know the cause of human variations
both individual and racial. The study of human races
involves the consideration of the present day frequencies
of human physical characteristics as well as the probable
mechanisms like Mutation, Gene recombination,
Chromosomal alteration, Selection, Genetic drift,
Hybridization, Isolation etc. which are brought about by
specific adaptation to the natural environment in the
region they live. On the basis of the differences in
phenotypic and genotypic characters such as Serology,
Dermatoglyphics, Anthropometry etc. classification of the
human population is made into races, ethnic groups, and
Mendelian populations or endogamous groups. It tries to
erase the myth regarding the concept of racism, the
concept of pure and impure, inferior or superior race and
attempts to establish the principles of classification. One of
the best classifications of human population is derived
from the knowledge of human genetics.
Another trend is the study of blood groups. Blood
groups were discovered in the course of experiment on
cross reaction between the bloods of different individuals.
The main medical
significance has to this day
remained connected to
blood transfusion. For
anthropologist the blood
group is considered as an
ideal indicator of historical
connection between human
groups. It facilitates the
study of genetic
composition and origin of
the population that lived
thousands of years ago as
their proportion remains
stable from generation to generation. It is also utilized in
genetic counseling to partners entering into marriage to
know their blood groups and their compatibilities and
incompatibilities. It also used in medico-legal cases of
paternity dispute and to persons belonging to different
blood groups who are prone to different diseases such as
‘A’ group person to lungs diseases, ‘B’ to rheumatic fever,
‘O’ to duodenal and peptic ulcers and ‘AB’ to leprosy etc.
to take precaution with necessary regard to diet and
infection. In modern clinical genetics the analysis of multi
factorial genetic system is of increasing importance.
Investigation on blood group supports the hypothesis that
individuals with blood group ‘O’ are little more fit than
those with blood group ‘A’. People with ‘O’ blood group
have longer life expectancy.
Anthropometry, the science of measurement of the
human body has traditionally been concerned with the
study of human evolution and the
formation and differentiation of race
of mankind. Great emphasis has
been given by the anthropologist to
standardize the various
measurements on the living and
also on the skeleton. Sheldon’s
Somatotype system may be
regarded as an important advancement in this connection.
Now, anthropometry is used in designing equipment and
work space so as to increase the safety and efficiency of
job performance thereby reducing accidents.
Anthropometry is now extensively utilized as an index of
nutritional status. It plays the most important role in the
nutritional assessment of an individual regardless of age
and sex. In recent years anthropometry has been
harnessed in games and sports. Olympic athletes are
studied scientifically from the point of view of i) Family
status, ii) Genetic features and iii) Anthropometric
characters.
Conclusion:
Thus, Physical anthropology deals with primates,
development of human species, bio-cultural studies of
human diversity, the hominid fossil evidence, comparative
anatomy, human ecology, growth and nutrition, bio-
chemical variation and human genetics which help to
reconstruct a complete picture of man as a biological being.
Physical anthropology is also deeply concerned about the
influence of culture and environment on human body.
Cultural factors like mating, interbreeding and outbreeding,
modification of body, migration and social isolation influence
the biology of mankind. One of the most important
challenging tasks of the Physical anthropology is explaining
the complexity between biological and cultural factors.
GLOSSARY:
Adaptation = An evolutionary process by which an organism
becomes adjusted to its environment; a feature fitted through
Natural selection for some special activity.
Bipedalism = Movement with two legs.
Chromosome = The physical unit of hereditary, of most gene
carried, comprising of DNA and protein.
Darwinism = Evolution through natural selection.
Demo-genetics = Study of genetic in population.
Dermatoglyphics = Study of dermal ridges of finger, palm,
sole and toe.
Ecology or Environmental Anthropology = Study of
interrelationship between organism (man) and their
environment.
Environment = The complex of external condition, abiotic and
biotic affecting organism.
Evolution = The genetic changes in population that over
generations lead to new types of organisms.
Fossils = Any preserved remains or traces of past life, more
than about 10,000 years old, embedded in rock either as
mineralized remains or as impressions casts or tracks.
Gene flow = The exchange of genes among population, either
directly by migration or indirectly by the diffusion of genes
over many generations.
Genetic frequency = The proportion of the various alleles at a
locus within a population.
Genotypic = The set of alleles at a particular locus.
Haptoglobin = Oxygen storing protein in the muscle.
Haemoglobin = Oxygen carrying protein of the blood..
Homo erectus = Early Fossil Man, Pithecanthropus,
Sinanthropus.
Human Bio-chemical Genetics = Study of inheritance and
variation of Biochemical.
Human Cytogenetic = Study of human cell structure.
Human genetics = Study of human inheritance.
Human Oesteology = Study of human Skeleton.
Hybridization = Mixing of two different characters.
Isolation = Separated from others may be geographical or
Social.
Kinanthropology = Anthropological study on Sports.
Lineage = A line of common descent.
Mutation = An alteration in an individual’s genetic
constitution.
Natural selection, = The differential survival and reproduction
of individuals of different genotypes within a population.
Neuroanthropology = Anthropological study on Brain
development.
Nutritional Anthropology = Anthropological study on Nutrition.
Paleoanthropology, = Study of Early period; fossils remains.
Phenotypic = The observable and measureable characters of
an organism, as a result of the interaction of genotype and
environment.
Physiological Anthropology = Anthropological study on human
physiology like in adaptation.
Primatology = Studies of primates.
Races or ethnic groups = Division of mankind base on
Biomorphological and Genetic Characters.
Summary:
Physical anthropology attempts to unravel the mystery of
the long evolution of man through a span of billions of years
resulting in the creation of human being of different races
with a large variety of physical, cultural and socio-economic
conditions. This field of science attempts to put together all
the scattered pieces of the jigsaw puzzle of man as a
biological being. Physical anthropology also attempts to show
man’s ability to use culture, the evolution of this ability and
progress from a primate to a being capable of adjusting to the
environment.
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) and Answer:
Q1. State the differences between the early and later period
of Physical anthropology.
Answer: The anthropologists of old period were only
satisfied with the reporting of variation such as in the size and
shape of brow ridges, form of the nose, growth in the pre-
maxillary suture, evolution of lower jaw, genetic structure of
population etc. as facts by observation and measurement,
where they had never gone into the causative factors. In the
later period the study has become more specialized with the
newer invention and discoveries. The angle of vision of the
scholars is being changed considerably which are evidenced
by the work of Harrison, Weiner, Tanner and Barnicot (1977).
This new achievement in physical anthropology is the result of
the direct cause of complete re-orientation in some of the
fields of study. Anthropologists of later or new period are
mainly interested in understanding the processes and
mechanisms involved in the problem. Here, the theory is
critical and the major objective is to develop consistent
hypothesis which should be verified experimentally. Therefore
the interpretation involves the tasks of testing the hypothesis
and its validity.
Q2. What is the importance of Serology in anthropological
studies?
Answer: The study of blood is called Serology. The study of
Serology includes Haemoglobin, Haptoglobin, Transferrins etc.
For anthropologists blood group is considered as an ideal
indicator of historical connection between human groups. It
facilitates the study of genetic composition and origin of the
population lived thousands of years ago as their proportion
remains stable from generation to generation. Not only to this
it also utilizes in genetic counseling of partners entering into
marriage to know their blood groups and their compatibilities
and incompatibilities. It is also used in medico legal cases of
paternity dispute and to persons belonging to different blood
group who are prone to different diseases. Blood is one of the
important sources for DNA of an individual. The different
variant and the inheritance of Haemoglobin, Haptoglobin and
Transferrins are studied. It also analyzes that why an
abnormal variant which have great disadvantage in
adaptation still exist. Mention may be made of occurrence of
Hbs, Hbc, thalessiamia etc in the population.
Q3. Why Physical anthropology study primates and hominid
fossil?
Answer: Physical anthropologists study primates, the close
relatives of man from different angles for different reasons. It
is studied in relation to geological and temporal sequences,
comparative anatomy, behavior both in natural and
laboratory, and fossil remains so as to understand the
evolutionary stages and certain fundamental aspects on man.
The study of fossils remains gives the evidence of the gradual
development of man from his non-human ancestor. The
ancestor of modern man Homo sapiens has existed for
approximately the past 50,000 years. The anatomical and
morphological changes that have occurred over the past
million of years have produced this species of mankind. The
study of fossil evidence of Dryopithecus, Ramapithicus,
Australopithecus, Homo erectus and other Hominid fossils is
use in tracing the evolution of mankind. By the method of
reconstruction, the physical appearances and rudimentary
cultural features the ancestor of human are derived. The
theories of Lamarckism, Darwinism and Modern Synthesis
which are derived from the biological form are useful in
explaining the evolutionary process of man. It also analyses
the bio-social adaptation of different human population living
in different geographical and ecological zones. The effect of
adaptation to high altitudes, heat and cold stress tolerance on
different geographical population will help in finding out the
ways and means of combating the bio-chemical and
physiological changes in the human body.
Q4. How is Human race studied?
Answer: The study of human races involves the
consideration of the present day frequencies of human
physical characteristics as well as the probable mechanisms
like Mutation, Gene recombination, Chromosomal alteration
selection, Genetic drift, Hybridization, Isolation etc. which
brought about by specific adaptation to the natural
environment in the part of the world they live. On the basis of
the differences in phenotypic and genotypic characters such
as Serology, Dermatoglyphics, Anthropometry etc.
classification of the human population is made into races,
ethnic groups, Mendelian populations or endogamous groups
etc. It tries to erase the myth regarding the concept of
racism, the concept of pure and impure, inferior or superior
race and attempt to establish the principles of classification.
One of the best classifications is derived from the knowledge
of human genetics.
Quiz:
Q.1. The father of Physical Anthropology is
A) Aristotle. B) G.J. Mendel. C) J.F. Blumenbach. D) Juan Comas.
Q.3. Physical Anthropology is also known as
A) Paleoanthropology. B) Biological Anthropology.
C) Physiological Anthropology. D) Molecular Anthropology.
Q.4. Mendel’s work was rediscovered in the year
A) 1700. B) 1800. C) 1900. D) 1909.
Q.5. In medico legal cases Blood group is used in
A) Paternity Dispute. B) To confirmed pure or impure race. C) Blood transfusion. D) both B and C.
Q.6. The branch of physical Anthropology that study in the field of Games and sports is
A) Kinanthropology. B) Human Oesteology. C) Physiological Anthropology. D) Neuroanthropology.
Q.7. Dermatoglyphics is the study of
A) Brain. B) DNA finger print. C) Ridges on the finger, palm, sole and toe. D) Skin color.
Assignment:
Q1. How is the study of Physical Anthropology helped by other sciences?
Q2. Trace the development history of Physical Anthropology.
Q3. How does the study of primates and hominid fossils help to understand the human evolution?
Q4. Discuss the Social relevance of Anthropometry in the society.
Q5. Define Racism. How is it different from the biological concept of race?
Reference:
Lasker, Gabriel ward 1960, A Brief Introduction to
Physical Anthropology, The Evolution of Man; Holt
Rinehart and Winston, New York- Chicago- San Francisco
Toronto, London.
Ember, Carol R.; Melvin Ember 1995, Anthropology;
Prentice-hall of India Private Limited New Delhi 110001.
Roy, Indrani Basu 2003, Anthropology the study of Man;
S. Chand & Company LTD. Ram Nagar, New Delhi 110055.
Harrison, G.A.; Weiner, J.S.; Tanner, J.M.; Barniocot, N.A.;
Reynolds V. 1977, Human Biology; 2Edn. OxfordUniversity
Press, Oxford.
Comas, J. 1972, Manual of Physical Anthropology; C.C
Thomas, Springfield.
Janusch, John Buettner 1969, Origin of Man, Physical
Anthropology; Wiley Eastern Private Limited, New Delhi.
Reddy, V. Rami 1992, Physical Anthropology, Evolution
and Genetics of Man; Published by V. Indira 517 Reddy and
Reddy Colony, Tirupati 517501, Andhra Pradesh.
Sodhi H.S. 1991, Sports Anthropometry, A
Kinanthropometric Approach; Anova Publication Mobali.