general psychology review 2

7/30/2019 General Psychology Review 2

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R E V I E W 2

GENERAL

PSYCHOLOGY


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SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Attachment Having a strong emotional attachment

with a primary care-giver Parents -> Peers -> Partner

Keys to attachment Psychical contact Familiarity


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SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

John Bowlby Was at the forefront of attachment research in the 50s and

60s

Mary Ainsworth Bowlbys student

Came up with an attachment style test called the StrangeSituation Test

Hazan & Shaver Found that early attachment styles reflected later romantic

relationships (correlation notcausation!)

Also, later in life, those with secure attachment styles weremore emotionally competent in later childhood andadolescense


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STRANGE SITUATION TEST

1. Secure the only healthy attachment style Explore the room with mother as touch-base

Look for mothers reaction to stranger

Usually upset when left alone; can be comforted bystranger, but cannot compare to mothers comfort

Mother was loving, warm, and sensitive

2. Later relationships Happiness, trust, friendship

Accept and support partners faults


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1. Avoidant Willing to explore but no touch-base

No response to stranger

No interest when mother left Mother was unresponsive and insensitive

2. Later relationships

Fear of intimacy Emotional highs and lows

Jealousy


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1. Ambivalent Clingy and unwilling to explore

Upset by strangers

Hard to soothe Mixed behaviour of demanding to be picked up and

pushing mother away

Mother had inconsistent responsiveness and wasinsensitive

2. Later relationships Obsessive love

Emotional highs and lows

Desire for reciprocation/union


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1. Disorganised/Disoriented discoveredlater on Similar to ambivalent

Mothers return led to avoidance,fearfulness, and depressed looks

Mother was abusive and/or neglectful


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TEMPERAMENT

Attachment also factors into temperament

Temperament behavioural and emotionalcharacteristics that are established at birth

Thomas & Chess (1950s) Longitudinal NY study of several participants from infancy

through adulthood

Can we predict adult personality from infant traits?


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TEMPERAMENT

3 Basic Styles of Temperament Easy

Regular with their schedules

Adaptable to change

Easily soothed

Difficult Irregular schedules

Inflexible

Loud and active Slow to warm up

Less negative and more regular than difficult children

Slow to adapt to change

Change has to come gradually


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TEMPERAMENT

Buss & Plomin Believed that these 3 styles were to specific and that some

children may be a combination of styles

SO they created broad personality dispositions

They believed that how dispositions developed into traitsdepended upon how they interacted with their environment

They examined activity, sociability, and emotionality (i.e.distress, fearfulness, anger).

Longitudinal research suggests that temperamentstyles last well into adulthood, but there is anenvironmental influence


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DIMENSIONS OF PARENTING

Baumrind asked how can we define parenting?

There are 2 domains and 4 different parenting styles Warm/Responsive

Affectionate and involved Response to emotional needs

Time spent with children

Control/Demandingness Control over childrens behaviour

Level of communication to these standards Consistently enforced (because I told you so)


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4 Parenting Styles Authoritarian

Imposes rules and expects obedience Aim to cultivate hard work, respect and obedience

Permissive Make few demands and use little punishment Offers warmth

Authoritative Both demanding and responsiveness Impose rules, but also explain reasons for rules High level warmth

Neglectful No warmth or control May meet physical, but not emotional needs


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Control/Demand

No Control

Warm/ResponsiveCold/Unresponsive


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Correlational Studies Authoritarian children with lower self-esteem; poorer social

skills

Permissive aggressive and immature children; impulsive

Authoritative children with higher self-esteem; self-reliance; social competence

Neglectful low self-esteem; social and emotional issues


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ADOLESCENCE

Cognitively Think abstractly and hypothetically

Inductive and deductive reasoning

Limitations Egocentric

Imaginary audience

Risk-taking behaviour (i.e. drinking, drugs, unsafe sex)

Personal fable Feeling of invulnerability (Thats not gonna happen to me!)


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ADULTHOOD

Adolescence doesnt end at a certain age; cant bemeasured by physical maturation

Sociocultural factors also play a role

Jeffry Arnett (200,2004) Large, diverse samples of 18-24 year olds

This group said they were inbetween


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EMERGING ADULTHOOD

Left adolescence but are still some distance from takingon adult responsibilities

Emphasized psychological qualities Self-sufficiency

Independent choices, financial independence, equalrelationship with parents, and taking responsibility foryour actions are the self-sufficient qualities

Collectivists cultures (Hispanic, African-American, etc.)also place emphasis on attaining certain roles

Age of Identity Exploration (most risk-taking) Age of Instability Age of Self-focus Age of Feeling in-between Age of Possibilities


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PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Erik Erikson Emphasis on important social relationships in development

8 stages

Each stage has an emotional crisis in personality Infant, toddler, preschool, elementary school, adolescence,

early adulthood, middle adulthood, late adulthood


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Just the basics

All the details


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PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

Kohlbergs Theory of Moral Development Pre-conventional consequences determine morality; if

behaviour is rewarded, then right; if punished, then wrong Whats in it for me?

Conventional conformity to social norms is morally correct;if it is non-conformity, then it is wrong Good girl, good boy

Post-conventional moral principles determined by the personare used to determine right and wrong; may disagree withsocietal norms (i.e. the Holocaust)


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LEARNING

Learning any permanent change in behaviour broughtabout by experience or practice

Not all changes in an individual is based on learning

Ex. Toddlers learning to walk Not based solelyon experience or practice

Maturation makes it possible Nervous system, muscles strength, and sense of balance reach a point

Pavlov The conditioned reflex Learning to make a reflex respond to stimulus other than the

original, natural stimulus that produce the reflex


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LEARNING

Stimulus any object, event, or experience that causes aresponse

Response reaction of an organism Reflex involuntary response

Unconditional stimulus (UCS) unlearned or naturally occurringleads to reflex (ex. Food) Unconditional response (UR) reflex response to UCS or

naturally occurring stimulus (ex. Saliva) Conditional stimulus stimulus that becomes able to produce a

learned reflex response by being paired with the original UCS.Needs to be initially neutral stimulus!(ex. Bell)

Conditional response learned reflex response to a conditionedstimulus. Usually not as strong as the original UR (aka UCR). (ex.Saliva) CR and UCR are thesamethey simply differ in whatthey respondto!

Acquisition process of acquired learning


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LEARNING

Basic Principles of Classic Conditioning CS must come before UCS CS and UCS must come close together in time (within secs) NS must be paired with UCS several times before conditioning is

complete

CS- stimulus that is distinct from other competing stimulus Stimulus generalization tendency to respond to stimulus that

is similar to original CS in the CS-CR pairing Stimulus discrimination tendency to stop making generalized

response to a stimulus that is similar to original CS Similar stimulus is never paired with UCS

Extinction disappearance/weakening of CR following removal ofUS Why does it happen? UCS becomes reinforcer of CS-CR association.

Remove reinforcer and CR will weaken/disappear

CSCloseness of Car

UCSCrash

UCR/CRCringing


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LEARNING

Higher-Order conditioning Strong CS paired with NS (neutral

stimulus)

NS becomes a second CS!

Conditioned Emotional Response(CER) John Watsons Little Albert

experiment Interest in phobias Demonstrated that a phobia can be

learned

Can be some of the easiest formsof classical conditioning to

accomplish

NSSnap

Fingers

CSRang Bell

CRSalivate

UCSLoud noise

CSRat

CSOthersimilar

stimuli (i.e.rabbit, fur

coat)

UR/CR

Fear


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LEARNING

Vicarious Conditioning People can be classically conditioned just by observing how

others respond to the stimulus

Ex. Children lined up to get vaccinations; Jacks swim lessons

Conditioned Taste Aversion Development of nausea or aversive response to particular

taste because taste was followed by nausea reaction

Can occur in 1 association

Survival mechanism Quickest type of conditioning

Ex: birds and monarch butterflies and moth


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LEARNING


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REINFORCEMENT VS. PUNISHMENT

Schedules of Reinforcement Timing of reinforcement will affect how quickly learning occurs and strength

of response

Continuous reinforcement reinforcement for each and every correctresponse

Partial reinforcement reinforcement after some, but not all correctresponses

Ex. Feeding cats Isabella gets $1 each night she remembers to feed the cats

Grace gets $7 at the end of the week if she fed that cats every night

Isabella is more likely to stop doing the chore. Extinction would happen faster in

her case. Extrinsic motivation intrinsic motivation is the goal


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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Why does it work? Cognitive perspective

CS provides information on our expectancy about the coming UCS

Robert Rescorlas experiment Groups of rats; both groups hear a tone and receive a shock; first

group gets a shock half way through the tone; second group gets ashock a few seconds after tone has stopped

First group feels feat at beginning of tone; second group feelsfear when the tone stops


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COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY

Pavlov and Skinner focused on observable behaviour only Some psychologists believe you cant ignore cognition that

occurs during behaviour Cognitionmental events that take place in a persons

mind Edward Tolman Latent learning learning that remains hidden until application

becomes useful 3 groups of rats

1st rewarded every time they exited maze

2nd

rewards began after 10th

day 3rd (control group) no reward

Took 1st group 17 days or so to get out of the maze in 30 sec Skinner would then predict 27 days for group 2 BUT it didnt take that long. It took about 15.


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MEMORY

Different types of Memory Short-term memory (stm) information is held for brief periods of

time while being used (average stm is 7 items) Working memory active system that processes the information in stm Long-term memory (ltm) information is placed to be kept more or less

permanent Difficulties retrieving LTM

State-dependent memory memory formed during particularsphysiological or psychological state

Recall vs. recognition memory (recognition has visual reminders) Tip of your tongue phenomena Serial position effect information at beginning and end of list easier

to remember Primacy effect Recency effect


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MEMORY

Earliest Memory Infantile Amnesia inability to retrieve memories from

before the age of 3 Influences

Most have a clear self-image (around the age of 2) Language skills are emerging Can create a life story Hippocampus more fully developed Parents encouragement of recalled memories

Repetitive Elaborative

Preschoolers who experienced elaborative style, recall moreinformation about past events

Also produce more organisation and detailed memories


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MEMORY

Children and Eyewitness Memory Younger the child, the more prone to memory errors

Descriptions of past events Infer others motives and intentions

Number of reasons

Responding to interviewers questions is hard Poor source monitoring More likely to agree with adults yes-or-no questions Less competent at using narratives Less skilled in inhibition

How suggestible are child witnesses?

Ceci, Loftus, Leichtman, Bruck (1994) Preschoolers and 5-6yr old given a false memory

Plausibility Pezdek and Hodge (1999)

Demo that 1/3 of 5-7 year olds remember being lost in a mall 1 in 19 (5%) remember being given an enema

More detail to true memories compared to false memories


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MEMORY

Implications of Infantile Amnesia For most states, its rare to have a child 5 and under to

testify

6-10 yr old are often called as witnesses

Need to place limitations on ways children are interviewed

Ask non-leading questions

Limit number of times children are interviewed

Reassure children that its better to say I dont remember

Interviewer should be friendly and patient


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MEMORY

Elizabeth Loftus Focus on inaccuracies of memory retrieval

Memory is constantly changing How you question someone affects their ability to recall accurate

information

Constructive processing - retrieval of memory in which memoriesare altered, revised, or influenced by newer info Early researchhow a question is worded can alter a persons

memory of that particular event Presupposition if question presupposes an event, later

questioning leads one to incorporate it in recalling the memory

Video of a 5-car accident Diary of a Student Revolution- three minute clip Argued that need to consider the process of reconstruction when

looking at recall memory What you recall is not original event, but reconstruction of it Implications in criminal investigations and eyewitness testimony


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THINKING

Tools used for thought process Mental images representations that stand in for object or events and

have a picture-like quality Takes longer to view mental images that are larger or covers more

distance

Mental images Use it everyday Helps us to remember things Able to mentally rotate or turn images One form of mental representation

Concepts

Ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities Use to think about categories vs. specific examples of category Represents different levels of objects and events

Superordinate concept most general form Basic level type type of concept around which other similar concepts are

organised Subordinate concept most specific type (i.e. foods fruits apples)


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THINKING

Formal Concepts Defined by specific rules or features

Fairly rigid with rules

Ex: psychological terms- unconditioned stimulus; prenatal

stage of development; double-blind experiments Must fit very specific features to be considered true

examples

What about things that dont fit the rules or features of aconcept?

Natural Concepts i.e. is a platypus a mammal or a bird?

Concepts we form as a result of our experiences in the world

Helps us understand surroundings in less structured manner

than formal concepts


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THINKING

Prototypes Mental image that closely matches the defining characteristics of concept

people with different experiences will have different prototypes Culture also matters in formation of prototypes Apples vs. Papaya Greater differences of prototypes between cultures that are dissimilar

Problem-Solving and decision-making Process of cognition that occurs when goal must be reached by thinking and

behaving in certain ways Methods used to solve problems and make decisions

Trial and error (mechanical solution) keep trying until find solution thatworks; also involves solving by rote or learned set of rules

Algorithms specific, step-by-step, procedures for solving certain types of

problems; always leads to solution if one is to be found Heuristicsrule of thumb simple rule that is intended to be applied to many

situations; work backwards; educated guess based on prior experiences thathelps narrow down possible solutions; WILL NOT ALWAYS LEAD TOCORRECT SOLUTION;quicker than algorithms

Availability Heuristics making decisions based on what comes to our mind;big reliance on the media

Insightsometimes solution suddenly pops into your head; like an ahamoment; what usually happens when insight occurs


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THINKING

Problems with Problem Solving Have different types of barriers to make solving problems

difficult1. Functional Fixedness think about objects only in terms of their

typical functions2. Mental sets using problem-solving patterns that worked in the

past

3. Confirmation biassearch for evidence that fits ones beliefswhile ignoring any evidence to the contrary


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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

How do children learn language? 2 months of age

Cooing - vowel-like sounds 4-5 months of age

Babbling intentional vocalizations that lack specific meaning Gradually more complex over first year (Jargoning)

Daand Baare easiest to form Comprehension of words (receptive) comes before production

(expressive)

Figuring out Phonemes Begin with basic global phoneme categories 10 months of age phonemes are similar to adult

Learning Words Comprehension of name begins as early as 6 months Receptive skills precedes expressive language skills First works produced near 1st birthday

Errors in word meaning Overgeneraliztion vs. Undergeneralization


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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

How do children learn language? (cont.) Syntactic Development

Holophrases single-word phrases used in early development toconvey an entire thought

Understand basic syntactic rules before they can express them

Telegraphic Speech (2 word utterances) Begins to emerge when toddler has approximately 200 words

Pronunciation Errors Common, usually related to production difficulty with complex

sounds

Three-word sentences (2-3 years) Also beginning to engage in conversational turn-taking and

topic maintenance

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