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Gender  in  heritage  language  situa?ons  Ø  Amount   of   input   has   been   shown   to   be   crucial   in   the   acquisi/on   of  

gramma/cal  gender  (see  e.g.  Rodina  &  Westergaard  2015).  Ø  Since   heritage   language   speakers   usually   have   limited   exposure   to   the  

minority   language,   it   is   to   be   expected   that   their   gender   system   may  differ  from  the  baseline.  

 

Why  is  the  study  of  gender  in  heritage  languages  interes?ng?  Ø  It  can  shed  light  on  how  gender  systems  may  change  over  /me.  Ø  Studying   gender   in   situa/ons   with   reduced   input   is   important   in  

understanding  the  role  of  input  in  acquisi/on  more  generally.  

Unresolved  issues  Ø  How  to  account  for  variability  in  heritage  language  popula/ons.  Ø What   are   the   (poten/ally)   differen/al   effects   of   incomplete   acquisi?on  

and  aGri?on,   respec/vely,   on   the   development   of   the   gender   system   in  heritage  language  speakers?  

 

The  present  study    

BACKGROUND  

A   longitudinal   case   study   of   the   development   of   gramma/cal   gender   in   the  leVers  of  a  speaker  of  North  American  Icelandic  (NAI).  

 The  Gender  System  in  Icelandic  

A  corpus  of  152  leGers  (82.000  word  tokens)    The  leVers  were  wriVen  by  a  first-­‐genera/on  NAI  speaker,  who  wrote  for  more   than   70   years   (1908-­‐1980).   The   leVers   were   discovered   at  Héraðsskjalasafn  Austur-­‐Húnavatnssýslu   in  Blönduós,   Iceland.  They  were  photographed  and  typed  into  a  text  editor.                    

Blönduós,  Iceland  

 Background  informa?on  Informa/on  on  the  PLD  and  input/use  in  NAI  is  based  on  the  speaker’s  own  record  of  it:    Ø  The  speaker  mainly  used   Icelandic  with  her  parents,  who  died  when  she  

was  in  her  30s.  Ø  The  speaker  received  primary  schooling  in  English.  Ø  English  was  the  only  language  spoken  in  the  speaker’s  home  in  adulthood.    

Development  of  the  grammar  in  NAI  The  grammar  of  NAI   seems  to  be   rela/vely  stable  un/l   the   last  30  years  of  wri/ng:    Modules  of  grammar  that  stay  intact  Ø Word  order    (V2)    Ø  The   4-­‐Case   system   (although   there   is   considerable   varia/on   between  

Geni/ve  and  Da/ve  forms)  Ø  Tense  Ø  Verbal  morphology  

Modules  of  grammar  that  are  vulnerable  to  aGri?on  Ø  Gender    Ø Mood      

     

   

THE  DATA  

Reduced  input  and/or  use  leads  to  systema?c  discrepancies  Ø  All  three  genders  are  represented  in  the  corpus  at  all  /mes.  However,  

systema/c  discrepancies  in  gender  become  pervasive  in  the  last  30  years  of  wri/ng.  

 Ø  Discrepancies  in  gender  are  aVested  on  adjec/ves  and  quan/fiers  within  

the  DP  (47  examples),  referen/al  anaphora  (34  examples),  adjec/val  predicates  (20  examples)  and  verbal  predicates  (22  examples).    

   

Feminine  nouns  are  by  far  the  most  problema?c    Almost  all  discrepancies  are  due  to  the  overgeneraliza/on  of  masculine  or  neuter  to  feminine:      Ø  The   earliest   and   most   frequent   discrepancies   occur   on   adjec/ves   or  

quan/fiers  modifying  opaque  feminine  nouns.    

Ø  As   /me   progresses,   the   overgeneraliza/on   of   masculine/neuter   to  feminine  is  extended  to  transparent  feminine  nouns  (see  f.ex.  (1)  below).  

 Ø  There  is  considerable  varia/on  between  masculine  and  neuter  forms  used  

with  some  feminine  nouns  in  DP-­‐internal  discrepancies:    

(1)  a.  Það  hefur  verið  svo  mikið                  aukavinna.                                                                              EXPL  has    been  so      much.N          extra  work(F)                                                                              ‘It  must  have  been  so  much  extra  work.’                                                                      b.  Það        er  nokkuð  mikill          vinna.                                                                                EXPL    is    quite        much.M  work(F)                                                                                ‘It  has  been  so  much  work.’  

 Overgeneraliza?on  of  the  default  gender  Overall,  neuter  is  most  frequently  overgeneralized  to  feminine.      Ø Neuter  is  almost  always  overgeneralized  to  feminine  on  referen/al  

anaphors,  verbal  and  adjec/val  predicates.  Ø Neuter  is  overgeneralized  irrespec/ve  of  whether  the  antecedent  is  

animate  or  not.  cf.  (2b)  and  (2c).      

                                                   (2)  a.  Henni  líkar    sú                vinna  og        það  borgar  nokkuð  vel.                                                                          She          likes  DEM.F  job(F)    and  it.N  pays        rather      well                                                                          ‘She  likes  that  job  and  it  pays  rather  well.’                                                                  b.  Þessi  bók          er  ætlað                        mest  fyrir  Ísland.                                                                          This  book(F)  is    intended.N    most  for  Iceland                                                                            ‘This  book  is  intended  mostly  for  Iceland.’                                                                  c.    Hún  er  svo  íslenskt.                                                                              She    is  so        Icelandic.N                                                                            ‘She  is  so  Icelandic.’    

         Non-­‐target  consistent  omission  of  the  definite  ar?cle  The  speaker  frequently  omits  the  definite  ar/cle  in  the  last  thirty  years  of  wri/ng:                                          (3)        Við  borðuðum  á  Geysir,  en  matur  var  ekki  góður.                                                          We  ate                            at  Geysir,  but  food    was  not  good                                                        ‘We  ate  ate  Geysir,  but  (the)  food  was  not  good.’    Ø May  either  indicate  difficul/es  with  gender  assignment  or  fine-­‐grained  

seman/c/pragma/c  dis/nc/ons  in  the  minority  language                                                

RESULTS   DISCUSSION  

Ø  The   3-­‐gender   system   is   retained,   in   spite   of   systema/c   discrepancies   in  later  years  of  leVer  wri/ng.  

Ø  The   speaker   does   not   fully   develop   a   2-­‐gender   system,   as   has   been  aVested,   for   example,   in   some   varie/es   of   heritage   Russian   (Polinsky  2008),  and  has  been  argued  to  be  an  effect  of  incomplete  acquisi/on.  

Ø  Instead,  there  is  considerable  varia/on  in  gender  forms.  Ø  This  may  indicate  that  the  effects  of  aVri/on  manifest  themselves  in  great  

variability   in   input-­‐sensi/ve   forms   (such   as   gender),   rather   than   the  development  of  a  heritage  variety  with  a  different  gender  system  from  the  baseline.  

 

REFERENCES  

Magnússon,   F.   and   Briem,   Stefán.   1991.   Íslensk   orð>ðnibók.   Reykjavík,    Stofnun  Árna  Magnússonar  í  íslenskum    fræðum.  

Polinsky,   M.   2008.   Gender   under   Incomplete   Acquisi/on:   Heritage     Speakers’   Knowledge   of   Noun     Categoriza/on.   Heritage   Language    Journal  6(1):40-­‐71.  

Rodina,   Y.,   and   Westergaard,   M.   2015.   Gramma/cal   gender   in    Norwegian:      Language  acquisi/on  and      Language  change.  J.  Germ.  Linguist.  27.2,       1 4 5 -­‐ 1 8 7 .   d o i :   1 0 . 1 0 1 7 /  S1470542714000245.  

Rögnvaldsson,   Eiríkur.   2013.   Hljóðkerfi   og   orðhlutafræði   íslensku.   Ms.,    University  of  Iceland.  

     

CONTACT  

Email:  sirrimjoll@gmail.com  Website:  www.hugurogtunga.com  

   

   Ø  Icelandic  has  three  genders:  masculine,  feminine  and  neuter.  Ø  The   three   genders   are   represented   at   almost   equal   frequency   in   the  

language   (masculine   34,8%,   feminine   32,9%   and   neuter   32,2%   (Íslenska  orð>ðnibókin  1991).  

Ø  The   gender   of  many   nouns   in   Icelandic   is   predictable   based   on   nominal  endings,  although  there  is  some  opacity:  

             

Table  I:  The  distribuIon  of  transparent  vs.  opaque  nouns  based  on  noun  endings  in  the  NominaIve  Singular  

 Ø  There  is  syntac/c  evidence  that  neuter  is  the  default  gender  in  Icelandic.    Ø  Feminine  is  the  marked  gender  (Rögnvaldsson  2013).  Ø  Gender   is   expressed   DP-­‐internally   on   adjec?ves,   quan?fiers   and   the  

definite   ar?cle,   which   is   a   suffix,   as   well   as   verbal   and   adjec?val  predicates.    

Hypotheses    Ø  Gender  is  vulnerable  to  aVri/on  in  the  later  years  of  leVer  wri/ng  due  to  

reduced  input  in  NAI.  Ø Neuter,   the   default   gender,   will   be   overgeneralized   to   feminine,   the  

marked  gender.  Ø Most  discrepancies  in  gender  occur  where  the  morphophonological  cue  to  

gender  is  opaque.  

University  of  Maryland,  College  Park  Sigríður  Mjöll  Björnsdózr  

Gender  in  North  American  Icelandic:  a  case  study  of  aVri/on