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GENDER REVIEW OF SMALL SCALE AND MICRO IRRIGATION

SITUATION ANALYSIS AND CAPACITY NEEDS ASSESSMENT REPORT

JUNE 2015

Sub-consultant: Marie-Katherine Waller

Submitted by: AGRITEAM CANADA CONSULTING LTD.

Suite 200, 14707 Bannister Road S.E. Calgary AB T2X 1Z2

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation i June 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Objectives................................................................................................................................ 1 1.2. Project Overview ..................................................................................................................... 2 1.3. Background ............................................................................................................................. 3

2. Methodology ................................................................................................................................... 7 3. Literature Review of Key Gender Issues and Barriers to gender equality in Irrigated Agriculture 10

3.1. Gender Division of Labor in Agriculture ................................................................................ 10 3.1.1. Gender Division of Labor in Water Resource Management ......................................... 10

3.2. Access and Control and Decision Making Power .................................................................. 11 3.2.1. Differences among Sex of Household Head and Categories of Women ....................... 11 3.2.2. Access and control in Water Resource Management ................................................... 12

3.3. Social and Cultural Barriers ................................................................................................... 13 3.4. Concluding Remarks .............................................................................................................. 14

4. National Response to Gender and Irrigation ................................................................................. 15 4.1. Measuring Institutional Capacity for Promoting Gender Equality ........................................ 15 4.2. National Policy Environment to address Gender Inequality ................................................. 15 4.3. Institutional Gender Infrastructure ....................................................................................... 16

4.3.1. Gender Capacity of The Ministry of Women, Youth and Child Affairs ......................... 16 4.3.2. Gender Advisors and Focal Persons in Relevant Irrigation Sector Bureaus and Offices ..................................................................................................... 20

4.4. SSMI Development Specific Gender Policies and Infrastructure .......................................... 28 4.4.1. Institutional Commitments and Gender Machinery in SSMI Specific Processes and Institutions ..................................................................................................................................... 31 4.4.2. Level of Gender Mainstreaming in SSMI Development ................................................ 33 4.4.3. Micro-irrigation Promotion ........................................................................................... 35 4.4.4. Opportunities, Good Practices and Lessons Learned in SSMI Development ................ 35

4.5. Policy Responses to Water User Associations ...................................................................... 40 4.5.1. Access and Participation in Water User Organizations ................................................. 41

4.6. What are the Linkages Between Gender Equality and Nutrition to Successful SSMI? ......... 47 4.6.1. Key Gender and Nutrition Issues .................................................................................. 47 4.6.2. Linkages with Policies .................................................................................................... 48 4.6.3. Opportunities ................................................................................................................ 49

4.7. Gender and Extension Services ............................................................................................. 49 4.7.1. Linkages to Policies ....................................................................................................... 49 4.7.2. Main Barriers to Gender Disparities in Extension Services ........................................... 50 4.7.3. Strengths and Gaps ....................................................................................................... 52 4.7.4. Opportunities and Good Practices to build on ............................................................. 54

4.8. Concluding Remarks .............................................................................................................. 56 5. Recommendations for Action ........................................................................................................ 57 6. References ..................................................................................................................................... 59 Annex One: Key Government and NGOs interviewed by region and by Theme .............................. 62 Annex Two: Frameworks of Analysis for Measuring Level and Quality of Gender Mainstreaming . 65 Annex Three: Proposed Five-Year Action Plan: Gender and Nutrition Cross-Cutting Themes ....... 69

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation ii June 2015

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADSWE Amhara Development and Scheme Water Enterprise AGP Agricultural Growth Program ATA Agricultural Transformation Agency BoA Bureau of Agriculture BoARD Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development BoWR Bureau of Water Resources BoWRD Bureau of Water Resources Development CNA Capacity Needs Assessment DFATD Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development EKN Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands FGD Focal Group Discussion FHH Female Headed Household FP Focal Person GTP Growth and Transformation Plan GM Gender Mainstreaming IC Irrigation Cooperative IDSAA Bureau of Irrigation, Development Scheme Administrative Agency IWUA Irrigated Water User Associations KII Key Informant Interview LIVES Livelihoods, Irrigation and Value-Chain MFI Micro-finance Institutions MHH Male headed household MI Micro-irrigation NRM Natural Resource Management OIDA Oromia Irrigation Development Agency SD Social Development SMIS Small Scale and Micro Irrigation Support Project SNSF Safety Net Support Facility SSMI Small-scale and Micro-irrigation SWHISA Sustainable Water Harvesting Institutional Strengthening in Amhara WAO Women’s Affairs Office WiMHH Women in male headed households WUA Water User Associations WYAD Women and Youth Affairs Directorate WYCAs Women, Youth and Child Affairs

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation iii June 2015

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This gender review served to inform the development of a five-year gender mainstreaming strategy and action plan for the Dutch/Canadian-funded Agriteam-led SMIS project in Ethiopia. The first part provided a context analysis of gender dynamics in rain-fed and irrigated agriculture. Key gender issues and constraints to rural women and men’s equal participation and benefit from small scale and micro irrigation (SSMI) development in irrigated agriculture were discussed. The second part examined strengths, gaps, and opportunities of the wider policy and program response to gender and social development in SSMI systems/scheme development and management. It assessed the level and quality of gender mainstreaming capacity of SMIS’ key target group, responsible regional public/private institutions involved in SSMI development, management and irrigation extension. The analysis explored the gender capacity of these organizations and their assigned gender/social development (SD) experts and focal persons (FPs). It examined the quality of gender mainstreaming in staff and institutional and programming structures and practices. It identified inter-linkages between complementary gender programs. It looked at the extent to which they effectively address gender and not worsen existing gender inequalities relevant to gender equality and women’s empowerment in irrigated agriculture. Based on these two parts, the last section provided priority recommendations for the SMIS project teams and partners to consider in developing a capacity building approach and interventions in gender that would be fully integrated across project activities as appropriate. The strategies aim to strengthen targeted regional public/private institutions in Amhara, Tigray, Oromia and SNNPR to have the necessary gender capacity required for gender responsive SSMI systems and scheme development. The review is based on a literature review of gender and irrigation issues in Ethiopia and globally. This is combined with results from a rapid capacity needs assessment conducted by regional and international SMIS team members from February 24th to March 25rd, 2015. This primary data collection involved key informant interviews (KIIs) and focus groups discussions (FGDs) with a wide range of stakeholders: regional, zonal and district-level government staff and teams working in gender-related SSMI development, operation and maintenance, water user association (WUA) establishment and support, in irrigation extension and natural resource management (NRM). Mixed methods were used to allow for cross-checking data for validation of results and analysis. An overarching approach was applying a gender analysis to identify the socio-cultural, economic and political factors that shape rural women/girls and men/boys’ lives at individual, community and institutional levels. The analysis looked at what issues are most pertinent to gender and social equity and equality promotion in SSMI. Key Gender Issues and Constraints at Farmer and Community Levels The Government of Ethiopia’s National Water Resource Policy (2001) has identified investing in effective, efficient and equitable irrigation as a priority intervention for improving rural household incomes and food security through increased agricultural production and productivity. National and international evidence clearly demonstrates the high potential of irrigation to boost agricultural

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation iv June 2015

productivity and to bring about positive human development outcomes of environmental sustainability, household nutrition, improved health, income, women’s empowerment and gender equality. Studies clearly show direct and positive correlations between supporting women’s empowerment and gender equality in SSMI projects and more positive pro-poor results. The challenge is to avoid the common failure of irrigation projects in Ethiopia and globally that ignore the complex social, gender, economic and environmental issues and active community participation from the onset. Gender blindness has led many irrigation projects to reinforce existing gender inequalities including women’s marginalization from high value irrigated agriculture and the tendency for men’s increased control and status. Key barriers are women’s low socio-economic status and unequal access, control of and benefit of key social, economic and productive resources reinforced by negative cultural stereotypes that constraint their voice, decision making power and choices in farming. These gender based constraints deny women their full rights to reach their potential and undermine their vital roles in securing household livelihoods and overall wellbeing. The main issues and barriers to women’s equal participation and benefit to SSMI development and irrigated agriculture are as summarized below: Unequal gender division of labor – Farming systems are generally male dominated with women predominantly working as family farm laborers and or dominating niches of small scale agricultural production and marketing. Rural Ethiopian women play vital roles in all aspects of agricultural production, represent half of the agricultural labor force and contribute 70 percent of household food production (ATA 2012; MoA 2013: 1). They are more involved in labor-intensive work such as weeding, harvesting, preparation for storage, transporting farm inputs to the field, and procuring water for household use and some on-farm uses (EEA/EEPRI, 2006; Mogues et al 2009: Cohen and Lemma 2011). Men hold a more privileged position as the land owners, household heads and socially-legitimate authority figures. Women’s abilities to equally engage in economic and agricultural opportunities are constrained by uneven and unpaid domestic, care giving and labor-intensive productive work burdens.1 In community water management, the same gender dynamics play out. Women’s water use is for household domestic needs and small scale household horticulture/production critical to household food, nutrition and economic security. Men’s water use is more likely to be for both staple and cash crop production and thus on a larger more profitable scale (Awulachew 2005: 29). Uneven access and control of key productive resources – Women have limited access to land, information and farming inputs like labor-saving/water-saving technologies, irrigation, and agricultural extension services that suit their needs and strategic interests. Married women in male headed households (WiMHHs) have little decision making power over male-controlled high value cereal crop and commercialized farming like teff, barley and Khat. Due to men’s greater power and control, they have much easier access and control over decisions related to access and use of SSI scheme and WUA related benefits for SSI affected households. In the SWHISA project, even after five 1 Women are primarily responsible for all domestic and care giving responsibilities and work between 15 and 17 hours a day preparing meals, collecting water, feeding and caring for household members (MoA 2013).

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation v June 2015

years of implementation and efforts to ensure married women are involved in community management committees involved in rainwater harvesting, many husbands continued to represent their wives in water user committees. Women were reported to accept this (Walelign 2010). Women’s additional responsibilities and barriers undermine their ability to equally and actively participate in SSMI development and water user associations. In SSI development, studies show that male headed households have a comparative advantage to engaging in irrigated farming because they are land owners, and have higher access to income, farming inputs and information. FHHs have significantly lower take-up rates of irrigation as compared to men: only 2.9% of FHHs, but 4.8% of MHHs, currently use irrigation (ATA 2011). One study found that male headed households were 38% more likely to participate in irrigation activities than female headed households due to FHHs limited land access, labor deficits and limited income. They often end up renting or share-cropping (Aseyehegn et al. 2012). Key productive resources and farmer incentives to participate in irrigation projects, to join community management committees like water user associations (WUAs) and to adopt irrigation technology is strongly linked to having access and control of land, credit, markets and related information. These are assets that FHHs and married women have limited access to (ATA 2011:22). Social and cultural barriers - Uneven gender norms put women and girls in a much lower social and economic status than men and boys. There are dominant gender stereotypes and misconceptions that women are not real farmers, are weak, and should remain “docile” that undermine their own self-confidence and motivation to engage in community and government agricultural support services that are based more in serving men’s farming needs and interests. In several studies (Mogues et al 2009; Waller 2013; FAO 2012), a major issue raised on why women farmers have been largely excluded from irrigation projects is the common misconception that “women are not farmers.” These observations were confirmed in the SMIS capacity needs assessment interviews. Why Invest in Women’s Empowerment? Recent research in Ethiopia suggests that investments in women’s access to agricultural inputs and agronomic practices can bring up to a 30% increase in production (ATA 2011). There are direct correlations between women’s empowerment and gender equality and child and overall household improvements in nutrition (EDHS 2014). However, due to women’s low decision making power at household levels and the different priorities and interests between women and men in agricultural production, consumption and sale, women may not have equal ability to influence decisions on choice of crops and access and benefit to increased food production and crop diversification. This will in turn, have an impact on household food consumption and nutrition. Studies show that irrigation schemes that ignored local gender dynamics and failed to consult affected women and men farmers from the onset, reinforced gender and social inequities. Gender blind irrigation projects run the risk of increasing inequities in resource allocation; worsening women’s unequal access to land and water; reinforcing women’s unequal access and control of high value irrigated agriculture and increase men’s existing biased access, control and status; lead to selection of inappropriate technologies; women and youth excluded from decision making processes; increasing workloads of women and girls (IFAD 2012: 10; Van Koppen 1998 and even

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation vi June 2015

women rejecting schemes (Awulachew 2005). This gender blindness has led to the development of unsustainable and inefficient irrigation schemes (FAO 2012, 2001; Awulachew 2005; Van Koppen 2002). In a recent study of an irrigation project in Zambia and Nepal, women farmers who had participated in irrigated plot production had greater influence in decision-making about their crops and of their husbands’ controlled plots as compared to households reliant on rain-fed agriculture (Wahaj et al 2012). Moreover, women and men farmers often pool their labor and resources together for mutual benefit in family farming. These positive gender dynamics should be fostered. This situational analysis demonstrates that the SMIS project must support its public and private counterparts to effectively apply proper gender analysis to understand local gender dynamics and women and men’s different roles, status and benefits from agriculture production and sale. Consideration of these uneven gender relations is important to ensuing SSMI development responds to women and men’s practical needs and strategic interests and that project activities do not further exploit or marginalize women’s existing lower status. It is also important to understand and respond to opportunities to increase shared decision making and pooling of labor and resources between husbands and wives. Policy and Program Effectiveness, Gaps and Opportunities The second section in this gender review discussed broader policy and program responses and responsible public and private staff and institutional gender capacity strengths, gaps and opportunities to effectively address gender inequalities and promote women and youth empowerment in all aspects of SSMI system and scheme development and management. The government of Ethiopia has developed strong gender policies and established a related gender machinery of assigned gender/SD experts through the Ministry of Women, Youth and Child Affairs (WYCAs). This ministry has gender advisors at regional bureau and zonal and district office levels and volunteer gender advisors who are members of kebele cabinet administrations. This ministry is responsible for ensuring gender mainstreaming across all other sectors by building the capacity of each sector’s staff and assigned gender/SD advisors and FPs. The WYCAs staff are also responsible for implementing important initiatives like the Rural Women’s Development Package to make extension services more responsive to women’s needs and interests. The main public institutions leading SSMI at regional levels are the Bureaus of Agriculture (BoA), Bureau of Water (BoW) and public affiliated irrigation agency bureaus. These regional bureaus and offices have gender and or youth advisors and focal persons that are responsible for making sure gender inequalities and women and youth empowerment is considered in SSMI development and in irrigation extension services. Strengths, Gaps and Opportunities There is a more favorable policy and program response to gender inequality in Ethiopia and some sector-specific gender mainstreaming commitments across regional MoA, MoW and regional public irrigation agencies. Despite this, responsible public and private institutions in the SSMI sector do not prioritize gender and social development issues in SSMI development and management. One major gap is the lack of regional sector-wide and specific gender mainstreaming policies and action plans to guide all relevant sub-sectors.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation vii June 2015

There is a lack of an integrated coordinated gender approach with clear institutional directives, accountability, financial and human resource allocations, key strategies and targets, practical tools and capacity building strategies to ensure leadership and staff are fully gender aware and systematically apply gender analysis and gender mainstreaming in their work. There is a need for clear minimum requirements for each sub-thematic unit/process to follow and to be held accountable for in gender integration in SSMI systems. While there are some assigned gender and SD/youth advisors or FPs at regional, zonal and district levels, not all allocated positions are filled. A major issue is budget shortages. For some regions, the assigned gender staff is only one person deep at regional bureau level. They are responsible for ensuring gender integration across many sub-processes and units and for large numbers of districts. They have no budgets and limited influence on final decision making processes. Their roles and positions are marginal to mainstream strategic planning processes. They need increased competencies in negotiation and advocacy to convince leadership and experts why gender matters to SSMI. One good practice is regional bureaus that have promoted their sole regional gender advisor to the senior management team. One regional gender advisor explained that her promotion had enabled her to have a greater influence on decision making processes and to gender being prioritized. All regional bureaus and irrigation sub-sectors should be supported to do the same. Many regional bureaus and agencies have some form of gender mainstreaming guidelines for SSI scheme development but these guidelines have not been standardized. SSMI sector’ staff reported that they have not been trained on how to use them as relevant to their role in SSMI development. There is a lack of minimum standards or requirements in gender mainstreaming and women/youth empowerment for the SSMI sectors. Another major gap is the need for sector-wide and sub-sector specific practical user-friendly gender analysis and gender mainstreaming tools and participatory gender responsive livelihoods planning tools, guidelines and tips for SSMI identification, planning, design, construction and management support. SSMI gender advisors and focal persons reported that their main gender mainstreaming strategy is to review gender sensitivity and extent of specific GM activities in quarterly and annual plans, budgets and reporting in SSMI sectors. They may review plans of SSI design and construction, Cooperative Agency support to the establishment and capacity building of Water User Organizations and irrigation extension plans. They end up, however, only counting numbers of women and men and will then push the government experts and subject matter specialist (SMSs) to increase targeting rural women. The capacity needs assessment results indicate, however, that not all activities are disaggregated by sex and so some activities that should be gender equitable are likely not being done so. There are major barriers to women’s participation due to women’s low confidence, work burdens, and negative cultural attitudes shared by SSMI staff and community beneficiaries. There is widespread gender discrimination and negative gender stereotyping that women are not farmers and are mainly housewives and family farm laborers rather than farmers in their own right. There is often an over-focus on female headed households across the SSMI sector in terms of participation and benefit.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation viii June 2015

There are gender misconceptions that define community participants of SSMI development and management as the domain of household heads and more wealth-off farmers who are mainly male or FHHs. This assumption is based on the fact that most community beneficiaries of SSMI development, WUA leadership and membership and irrigated extension targeting are household heads and land owners. There is a narrow view of the category of women as mainly female headed households who then become the main target group. A main reason is because FHHs are more likely to own land and may have greater skills and experiences and freedom to join community decision-making structures. This practice excludes many female farmers such as married women or more resource-poor FHHs and landless youth whose needs and interests are neglected. Other major barriers are lack of leadership and clarity among senior core process heads and middle managers, experts and beneficiaries on what and why gender equality is important to SSMI systems and schemes. Unless gender advisors and FPs can help SSMI staff explore and deal with these barriers, counting numbers of women and men being targeting in an activity will not lead to gender equity in service provision. The regional BoWYCAs are charged with reviewing all regional bureau plans for gender equality and providing training in gender mainstreaming methodologies. Regional gender advisors/FPs reported having access to some capacity building training and support from regional BoWYCAs staff. This support, however, was rare due to the limited budgets of regional WYCAs bureaus and offices. As a result, training and collaboration between these sectors depended more on having access to additional funds from other projects or particularly motivated gender champions. This gender review results and analysis indicate that there is much more joint work and collaboration at district office levels among district office WYCAs, gender/SD advisors and SSMI experts who will engage in joint survey work, planning, capacity building and provision of some gender sensitive and gender specific rural irrigation extension services to rural women and men and youth/farmers/the landless and landowners. The district level collaboration holds much potential. SMIS capacity building interventions should focus to some degree on WYCAs and more so on gender advisors and focal points in the SSMI sub-sectors. Capacity building interventions must strengthen gender staff capacity, tools and possibly financial resources, to be able to ensure key SSMI staff have gender mainstreaming capacity, commitment, tools and systems in place to effectively address gender issues in their work. There is weak gender sensitive monitoring and evaluation systems and only tracking of FHHs/MHHs neglecting the diversity of interests and impacts of SSMI activities on WiMHHs, landless male and female youth and the poorest women and men. There are important good practices and opportunities to build on such as strengthening the WYCAs’ offices initiatives to support women and youth organizing to access land, irrigation and other agricultural inputs. There are also good practices to work with them to build on current initiatives to provide female farmers with labour-saving devices to reduce their heavy workloads. There must be investments in building women’s increased leadership representation in management committees at community levels and in government sectors across all SSMI.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation ix June 2015

There is an opportunity to make more accessible and practical current progressive gender policies to be more relevant to the SSMI sector. In addition and related to this, there are opportunities to make existing gender mainstream guidelines, manuals and tools more user friendly and standardized for all relevant sectors to ensure gender analysis and gender mainstreaming is systematically integrated into all SSMI sector activities along with ensuring regular training based on proper budgeting. By developing a specific sector-wide gender mainstreaming policy for the irrigation sector, it will become possible to create stronger accountability at all levels such as encouraging government sectors to instate gender objectives in all job descriptions and performance reviews. Key to success is use of participatory methodologies and planning processes from the selection criteria, feasibility studies, design, and construction to eventual transfer of operation and maintenance to end users or the water user organizations. Key approaches are livelihoods-based planning and design and use of PRA techniques (FAO 2001). One lesson learnt from gender reviews of irrigation projects is that understanding intra and inter household gender dynamics in agricultural and household reproductive and productive and gender differences in incentives in terms of capital and labor in engaging in irrigation activities must be taken into consideration in designing SSI schemes. At community levels, one opportunity is to find ways to support couple extension services and flexible joint membership in WUAs and ICs in ways that support effective partnership between women and men based on more equal gender relations with shared vision of higher productivity and gains for the whole household. For example, in several SSI projects in the Southern Highlands of Peru gender sensitizing training with women and men brought greater dialogue and joint planning between women and men, older people and youth and among family members (IFAD 2012:9; World Bank 2013). SSI Development About half of SSI scheme development processes/departments have an assigned gender advisor across the four regions. They may have a gender policy or strategy or action plan but there is inconsistency in whether it is effectively implemented as planned across the four regions. Key gaps:

• Lack of gender balanced staffing. Men dominate at all levels of irrigation core processes and departments across the agricultural and water sectors

• Limited involvement and consultation with existing gender advisors in SSI processes/departments on decision making related to SSI scheme development

• Lack of adequate knowledge and support in the form of tools, training and access to a gender advisor to carry out their work with gender awareness

• In designing training or capacity development, there is rarely any accommodation to encourage women’s participation. Women’s representation typically ranges from 10-25 percent. Their participation in training sessions ranges from minimal to mediocre.

• There are variations per region on whether technical staff involved in SSI development has relevant gender mainstreaming guidelines and manuals to integrate gender issues in any training or step of SSMI development

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation x June 2015

• Limited procedures and participatory approaches for ensuring women’s representation and participation in each step of SSMI development

• Key challenges to ensuring gender equity in SSI scheme development as identified by SSI government staff are women’s low participation and leadership, women’s lack of decision making power and priority given to male farmers’ interests.

• Collection of sex-disaggregated data is not consistently collected and is often not used by technical SSI staff to inform project activities. Only the gender adviser will use the data to challenge the technical staff/experts to increase women’s participation and targeting of women in the activities.

• Women are generally not genuinely consulted in selection, detailed study and design processes. One reason is lack of capacity and tools to do gender sensitive participatory consultations, planning and analysis through the step by step processes of SSI scheme development

• Lack of real commitment to gender and awareness of gender issues in project design and implementation phases; decision makers and technical staff locked into misconception that women are not real farmers and over focus on irrigation scheme as a end in itself rather than as a tool for supporting farmers to go from rain-fed subsistence agriculture to more commercialized higher productive farming and marketing systems.

Micro-irrigation Most common water saving or lifting devices installed are hand-driven pumps or motorized diesel pumps. The main beneficiaries are male and female household heads and some married women and youth. Key Gaps:

• No special targeting of married women or youth • No gender guidelines are available in micro-irrigation development manuals

WUA Formation, Establishment and Capacity Development The main strength is that cooperative promotion agency staff that support WUAs to become irrigation cooperatives, use national and regional Cooperative Promotion Agency Policies and Acts that encourage at least 30% representation of women in management committees of irrigation cooperatives. Key Gaps:

• WUOs are mainly male-dominated in representation in membership and leadership and in decision making; women’s perspectives are neglected.

• Gender roles and stereotypes influence women and men’s different motivations for joining and for taking leadership roles. Male household heads assumed to represent the whole family unit and thus married women are not represented. Women are less motivated to join these male-dominated groups. Their husbands may limit their choice to participate and they may prefer to allow their husbands to represent them and to be involved in more women dominated and women only common interest groups.

• Cooperative agency staff have no clear guidelines or procedures on how to target and ensure women and youth join and are actively involved in WUAs. They have no guidelines or

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation xi June 2015

tools to support and encourage WUAs to ensure equitable and inclusive membership, participation and leadership.

• There is inconsistent collection of sex-disaggregated data. Responses as to whether activities contribute to the empowerment of women and gender equality were wide ranging from minimal to mediocre to great extent.

• Opportunities include having quotas to ensure some allocation of irrigated land to communal gardens, to having more flexible membership criteria to have husbands and wives to be joint members; to ensuring separate preparatory meetings for women to be better prepared for regular WUA meetings and ensuring women and men members equally have responsibilities for water management but in gender equitable ways. Another option is to have as selection criteria for SSMI schemes and communities, selection based on communities and districts with more equitable land rights already in place.

Gender and Extension Services There are increasing efforts to increasing numbers of women accessing agricultural services such as providing more women-friendly services especially due to programs like AGP which focuses on women and youth. Respondents interviewed in the SMIS capacity needs assessment felt that they were responsive to the e different needs, roles and interests of female and male farmers in determining inputs and credit but generally lack skills on specific gender appropriate services and technologies or on how to ensure women’s equal targeting and participation and benefit. Gaps:

• Limited capacity of irrigation extension staff and DAs on how to practically consider the different needs and interests of women and men farmers and on how to facilitate WiMHHs and FFH’s active participation. They will assume their nominal representation in targeting extension services is enough.

• Extension providers still tend to target male headed households even if it is about a woman controlled farming issue, assuming the husband will relay the information to the woman/wife.

• Irrigation extension providers interviewed stated that they lacked knowledge and skill on how to conduct a gender analysis and on how to ensure women and youth participation and that they did not have the skills to ensure training content and facilitation is catered to women’s farmers needs and interests.

• Not all allocated gender staff are filled in each region. Gender positions are in place at regional levels but only at district levels in Amhara region and some gaps in SNNPR. There are almost no gender advisors at zonal and district levels in Tigray and Oromiya.

• Limited budgets and resources for gender mainstreaming. There is no adequate allocation of budgets at district level gender units.

• Services offered and extension packages tend to be developed in a top-down manner, non-participatory, one-way, not client oriented and gender blind. There is limited understanding of women and youth needs and interests and a general failure of developing women friendly services and technologies.

• While irrigation extension providers interviewed in the SMIS assessment felt they responded to women and male farmers needs and interests in supply chain and credit facility needs, they rated their capacity to actively involve women and men as inadequate.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation xii June 2015

• Most interviewed rated their skills in M&E using gender analysis as weak and said that sex-disaggregated data was collected but not in a consistent and systematic way.

• There is a gap in practical gender mainstreaming guidelines and in tools on how to ensure women’s participation. Women have practical needs such as labor and time saving technologies and need for information on proper home management and nutrition support to promote healthy consumption practices and the need for women friendly credit services to reduce current complicated procedures.

• There is gender imbalance and low representation of female staff in irrigation extension services. Women represent only 18% of extension service providers in Ethiopia. Generally there is a need to increase gender awareness among field level development agents.

Actionable Recommendations The last section of this gender reviewed provided recommendations for action meant to inform the development of a gender mainstreaming strategy for the SMIS project. In the SMIS logical model, the commitment is to mainstream gender and nutrition considerations across all activities where appropriate. Based on the situational and institutional capacity assessments and findings, this gender review recommends the following priority actions: Recommendation One: Development of regional gender mainstreaming strategies, action plans and gender and irrigation taskforces for the SSMI sub-sectors. Recommendation Two: SMIS should prioritize building the capacity of the relevant public and private institutions’ gender and social development experts and focal persons and leadership to then be able to build the capacity of all SSMI sub-sections. Recommendation Three: Development of special measures to support women to overcome gender-based constraints and equally access and take advantage of project activities. Recommendation Four: Leveraging complementary government, donor and NGO projects and interventions, explore, promote and pilot women/youth friendly irrigation extension packages in MI technology promotion (hand drilling technologies), labor-saving technologies, improved farming practices and farmer-service providers linkages such as women and youth friendly rural financing services. Recommendation 5: Support development of practical gender and social development minimum requirements, guidelines, participatory planning techniques and tips appropriate to each thematic intervention area.

Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment Report Agriteam Canada Consulting Ltd Gender Review of Small Scale and Micro Irrigation 1 June 2015

1. INTRODUCTION

Rural Ethiopia women play vital roles in agricultural production critical to overall household wellbeing and to securing sustainable livelihoods and achieving broader millennium development goals (FAO 2011; EDHS 2014). Yet, they face unjust gender-specific constraints due to their low socio-economic status; limited access to productive resources of land, labor, credit and education; heavy domestic and productive workloads and negative gender stereotypes that limit their ability to reach their full potential. Studies show that many irrigation and water management projects in Ethiopia and globally ignore women’s key contributions to agriculture and their specific needs, roles and interests in water resource management. As a result, decision making processes in the scheme planning, design and management often exclude locally affected women and other socially vulnerable groups from the surrounding communities. Such gender blindness has led to exacerbating existing social and gender inequities and the development of economically, socially and environmentally unsustainable and inefficient irrigation schemes (FAO 2012, 2001; Awulachew 2005; Van Koppen 2002). Both the Government of Ethiopia (GoE) and the Canadian/Dutch funded Agriteam-led Small Scale and Micro-irrigation Support (SMIS) project (2015-2020) are committed to strengthening irrigation sector interventions in ways that fully account for women’s and men’s differing needs, roles, interests and experiences in agricultural production and water-use. In this way, the SMIS project can better support its government partners to develop SSMI schemes that maximize on meeting the social, domestic and productive needs of all relevant stakeholders and to ensure equitable participation and benefit to all. In order to effectively design a gender responsive project, this gender review was carried out to provide a summary of key gender issues and overall policy and program responses in SSMI development in Ethiopia. It serves to inform the design of a five-year gender mainstreaming strategy for the SMIS Project in Ethiopia.

1.1. Objectives

Its main objectives are to provide a gender situational analysis of:

1. Key gender issues and gender-based constraints relevant to SSMI development and irrigated agriculture in Ethiopia and as much as possible on the regions of Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR and Tigray;

2. Strengths, weaknesses, gaps and opportunities in the existing policy and programming response to gender and SSMI development in Ethiopia including a capacity needs assessment (CNA) of the main government organizations in the sector and potential linkages and synergies with other projects.

3. Lessons learned and good practices from past and present small scale irrigation projects.

1. INTRODUCTION


From this analysis, it suggests:

1. Recommendations for action for a five year gender mainstreaming strategy that addresses gender in SSI scheme development and long-term management; support to water user associations (WUAs) and promotion of gender equitable micro-irrigation.

2. More detailed regional and local gender situational analyses of SSMI issues will be conducted in the four targeted regions of Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR and Tigray during the first year of project implementation.

1.2. Project Overview

The SMIS project’s main development objective (DO) is to ensure that all concerned public and private institutions within four regional states, Amhara, Tigray, Oromia and SNNPR, have the necessary capacity required for gender-responsive identification, planning, design, construction and management of sustainable small scale systems and micro irrigation (SSMI) schemes in a coordinated manner and according to the adopted integrated watershed-based approach. Its three main components and related intermediate outcomes (IOs) are:

1. SSI capacity building (IO1) is improved planning, design and construction of gender equitable and sustainable SSMI schemes by public and private institutions in a coordinated manner and according to an integrated watershed-based approach;

2. Capacity development of A-TVETs (IO2) for improved management of gender equitable and

sustainable SSMI schemes by water users’ organizations (WUOs) and individual users respectively with support from key public institutions;

3. Promotion of micro irrigation (IO3) for improved water, soil and crop management practices

for irrigated crops adopted by male and female farmers. As a capacity building initiative, it builds on past Agriteam capacity building projects in food security and in small scale irrigation, specifically SNSF and SWHISA. Project design aims to be fully aligned with GoE gender, agriculture and irrigation sector priorities. It aims to support the government’s understanding that it requires substantial improvements in the ways its relevant entities and private sector partners provide quality services that can support rural farmers to overcome challenges like high cost of or low access to farming inputs and knowledge to improve their livelihoods. The Government of Ethiopia’s (GoE) National Water Sector Policy prioritizes application of an integrated watershed-resource management approach that respects the integrity of natural systems and its hydraulic boundaries while ensuring environmental sustainability and multi-use water systems. These commitments are based on principles of social equity, active community participation and ownership and enhancing existing agricultural production, and services. Taking an integrated watershed management approach, its long term goal is to support its implementing partners, to improve the conditions of rural male and female farmers’ access and capacities in needed SSI for improved crop production, sale, household food security and nutrition. The SMIS project will support integrated watershed management using a best practice step-by-step approach

1. INTRODUCTION


of participatory and gender-responsive irrigation development and management (PIDM) building on the previous Canadian-funded SWHISA project. Gender Commitments The SMIS project’s proposal defines gender inequality as a central issue in SSMI development and thus commits to mainstream gender in all project activities to ensure equitable participation and benefit of rural female and male farmers.2 It recognizes that women farmers face particular gender-based barriers that deny them their full rights. Special measures will be required to guarantee their equitable access and ability to take full advantage of SMIS supported activities. It aims to build on lessons learnt and good practices from previous and existing gender sensitive natural resource management (NRM) and small scale irrigation projects from Ethiopia and internationally. It commits to a gender mainstreaming strategy and action plan to be integrated across all three project components of SSI capacity building, A-TVET capacity building and MI promotion. It has established regional gender expertise to ensure gender mainstreaming and capacity building on gender across the project and in each region. It also recognizes that fully considering gender issues in all activities requires all implementing partners and direct and indirect beneficiaries to be gender aware and to apply gender sensitivity in all their work. This means all should champion gender. The project should support role models at all levels.

1.3. Background

Agriculture has been a driving force to Ethiopia’s current success as one of the fastest-growing economies in Sub-Saharan Africa. It employs 83% of the population and accounts for 43% of the national GDP (FAO 2011; Cohen and Lemma 2011; Breen 2014). Despite this progress, there remain significant challenges to Ethiopia’s economic and social development such as high population growth, food insecurity and low agricultural productivity, dependence on rain-fed agriculture, water scarcity, environmental degradation and gender inequality.3

2 Gender mainstreaming is a strategy and process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programs, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality (UN Social and Economic Council 1997). 3 Ethiopia remains one of the poorest countries in the world. In the UN Human Development Index 2014, it was ranked 173 out of 186 countries and 120 out of 149 countries in the Gender Inequality Index (Available at: hdr.undp.org/sites/all/themes/hdr_theme/.../ETH.pdf).

One lesson learnt from gender reviews of irrigation projects is that the risks of failure of the project is often linked to ignoring intra and inter-household gender dynamics and gender differences in incentives in terms of capital and labour in engaging in irrigation activities (FAO 2001). By recognizing these differences, it becomes possible to build ownership and maximize on environmental and multi-use gender, social, nutritional/health and economic benefits of such schemes (FAO 2012, 2001, Awalachew 2005; Van Koppen 2002). Studies carried out in Ethiopia, Cameroon, Laos, Nepal and the Gambia have shown that irrigation projects that have ensured the full participation of women in planning and implementation have been the most effective and sustainable (FAO 2012; Awelachew 2005).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_equality

1. INTRODUCTION


The majority of Ethiopians are rural smallholder farmers who are unable to meet food, nutritional and income security. They face multiple challenges of low skills, knowledge and education, smallholder plots (averaging half a hectare), limited crop diversity, limited access to fertilizers, financial services, improved productive technologies, irrigation and agricultural markets, and weak capacity of agricultural institutions and private sector, and soil and severe land degradation. Most rural households do not have access to safe and reliable supplies of water to meet productive, consumptive and social needs necessary to household income and food security (IFAD 2012).4 With water-scarcity, there are competing demands and interests for this scarce resource from various sectors including industry, agriculture, power generation, domestic use, and the environment. Inequity in access and use is an increasing issue, with the most resource-poor households and disadvantaged groups, rural women, most affected (IFAD 2012). The Government of Ethiopia (GoE) has prioritized agricultural development in its national growth and transformation plans (2010-2014 and 2015-2020). As part of this, it has identified investing in effective, efficient and equitable irrigation as a high potential strategy for improving rural household incomes and food security through increased agricultural production and productivity. To back this up, national and international evidence clearly demonstrates the high potential of irrigation to boost agricultural productivity and to bring about positive outcomes in overall human development such as: environmental sustainability, household nutrition, improved health, income, women’s empowerment and gender equality. Studies indicate that irrigation interventions can support rural farming households to have higher crop yields, to diversify their crops, to increase livestock productivity and household agricultural and food production and income (Aseyehegn 2012; Domenech and Ringler 2013). Moreover, while improving agricultural productivity is important, studies show that there is a positive correlation between women’s empowerment and more gender equitable relations and improved household and community agricultural and development outcomes (Farnworth et al., 2015; OECD, 2010). The effects of irrigation interventions on affected communities are complex and will generally influence both positively and potentially negatively different members of a community or communities depending on existing roles and responsibilities and status (Domenech and Ringler 2013: 5). Impacts will be influenced by the sources of water (e.g. surface and ground water); water availability; types of technology available (e.g. drip or sprinkler system, treadle pumps etc), access to agricultural inputs such as land, credit, seeds, fertilizer, and crop and marketing information, socio-economic status of the individuals and households and institutional landscape and or rules governing water access and maintenance of water systems (Domenech and Ringler 2013:v). One major pitfall of irrigation project designs is the over focus on the technical aspects of irrigation development at the expense of ensuring community ownership and equitable access. Evidence has proven the need for participatory approaches in which the affected users are actively involved in the planning, design and uptake of schemes (FAO 2012: 4). The Government of Ethiopia’s irrigation sector has identified this as a major gap and policy strategy based on recent needs assessments and

4 About half of rural households have access to an improved source of drinking water. Only 16 percent of rural households have access to piped water and to drinking water from a protected well, and only 12 percent have access to drinking water from a protected spring (EDHS 2014).

1. INTRODUCTION


lessons learned.5 The GoE National Water Resource Policy (2001) commits to develop SSMI schemes based on principles of social equity, environmental sustainability and multi-use systems for maximizing benefits for all. Why is Gender Equality and women’s empowerment important? In Ethiopia, there have been major advancements and progressive gender policies and institutional commitments to prioritize women’s empowerment and gender equality.6 Ethiopia has reached gender parity at primary level education (EDHS 2014). The GoE has recognized both the key role women play in the development of the country and barriers that limit their capacity to fulfill their rights. It is a signatory to key international women’s rights and human development conventions and has ratified them into national laws. It is a signatory to the Millennium Development Goals to which MDG 1 (reducing by half the proportion of people living in extreme poverty and hunger by 2015) and Goal 3 (promoting gender equality and empowering women) demand gender equality promotion in national policies. In each community, there are social differences based on wealth, age, disability, ethnicity and religion to name a few. There is poor, middle and wealthy households and other differences based on age and social status. Gender is another, fundamental source of difference within communities. It results in women being more disadvantaged and often less visible, less powerful, and less assertive. Development agents adhere to the principles of the inherent dignity and equality of all people. Respecting rights fulfillment and the principle of equity requires taking positive actions to ensure that women have the capacities and opportunities to fully participate in project activities. Evidence shows that there are positive correlations between women’s overall empowerment and child and household nutrition, health and overall household wellbeing for more resilient and sustainable livelihoods (EDHS 2012, 2014; ATA 2012: 22). Supporting women’s increased agricultural productivity, market access and income generation and reducing their work burden can contribute to her increased social status and result in positive outcomes of greater nutritional, food and economic security (FAO 2011; World Bank 2012).

5 See the Small-scale Irrigation Capacity Building Needs Assessment (2011). 6Ethiopia is a signatory to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), signed by Ethiopia in 1980 and ratified in 1981. Others have not yet been ratified – for example, the Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (the Maputo Protocol) which reinforces commitments made under CEDAW but which is more specific to the African context since articles specifically address HTP and marriage. At Federal level, the Ethiopian Constitution and the 1960 Civil Code clearly state that women and men have equal rights in all spheres in Ethiopia. At the federal level, the Government of Ethiopia’s most recent national development agenda, the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP) (2010-2014) has gender equality as one of its 8 pillars; the Family law (2000) was ratified to fix the legal age of marriage to 18 and Ethiopian Penal Code protects women’s rights against domestic and other forms of violence, the National Policy on Ethiopian Women (1993) and National Action Plans for Women, Children and Youth aim to promote the fulfillment of many of these rights and to protect women and girls from rights’ violations. Some regional governments have translated these federal level laws and policies into development ‘packages’ or programs for implementation.

1. INTRODUCTION


Recent research in Ethiopia suggests that investments in women’s access to agricultural inputs and agronomic practices can bring up to a 30% increase in production (ATA 2011). A 2011 FAO report shows that reducing gender inequalities in access to productive resources and services could produce an increase in yields on women’s farms of between 20 and 30 percent that could raise agricultural output in developing countries by 2.5-4 percent (FAO 2011). For this reason, women must be consulted during the planning of any activity to ensure interventions are appropriate, used and maintained properly by the community. This concept of “efficiency" ensures project goals are reached. Many women, although not all, are among the most vulnerable in their communities. While women contribute much to agriculture, they face major gender based constraints and barriers to equally taking advantage of agricultural and economic opportunities. They are often denied their rights. They have a much lower socio-economic status than men/boys, have low educational levels, limited access and control over key agricultural assets—especially land, labor, cash and credit, and education, have limited mobility and access and participation in decision making at all levels. These inequalities undermine their capacities to take advantage of agricultural opportunities and to benefit from more lucrative marketable high value commodities. Gender roles and responsibilities still overburden women with heavy workloads. They also face gender-based discriminatory attitudes and institutions that often limit their full economic and social participation in their communities. Emergencies bring their own, gender specific vulnerabilities. For example, during times of food stress, women often give priority to men and children during meal times, reserving only a small amount of food for themselves. This makes women more vulnerable to disease. For all these reasons, gender equity and equality are essential to successful irrigation development and long term community ownership and sustainability. With this background, this gender review is divided into three main parts:

• Context of Gender Dynamics in irrigated agriculture in Ethiopia; • Policy and Program Response to Gender in SSMI sub-sectors; and • Summary of Recommendations for Gender Mainstreaming in the SMIS Project.

Example of why women must be consulted for “efficiency purposes.” In the case of irrigation design and construction of water points, women are responsible for collecting water for domestic use. To ensure that the water system is correctly sited, that the technology selection is appropriate for women's use, and that rules for maintenance are agreed to by women as well as men, it is essential that women are consulted and actively engaged throughout the decision making process. This approach ensures that the project is designed in ways that make the most effective and efficient use of its resources while respecting community demand and social equity and inclusion principles.


2. METHODOLOGY

This gender review is based on a literature review of gender issues in agricultural and SSMI sectors and on primary data collection using a rapid institutional capacity needs assessment (CNA) approach. Key stakeholders working in gender-related SSMI development, operation and maintenance, water user association establishment and support, in irrigation extension and natural resource management (NRM) were interviewed. Mixed methods allowed for cross-checking data for validation of results and analysis. An overarching approach was applying a gender analysis to identify the socio-cultural, economic and political factors that shape rural women/girls and men/boys’ lives at individual, community and institutional levels. The assessment looks at unequal gender status, relations and broader institutional structures relevant to irrigated agriculture. The gender analysis serves to help SMIS implementers identify constraints and to structure project activities in ways that can address and reduce gender barriers so that women have opportunities to equally benefit from project benefits.7 This gender situational analysis provides information to determine the most effective strategies to advance gender equality and women’s empowerment in the SMIS project. A desk review of quantitative and qualitative information was collected from SMIS project documents, donors, partners and internet searches and consisted of: SMIS related documentation (e.g. Agriteam proposal); national context-specific data and country and regional studies, reports, policies and programs/projects dealing with gender and SSMI/irrigated agriculture in Ethiopia; documentation from other relevant SSMI projects such as SWHISA; recent literature on gender and irrigation; international best practice gender mainstreaming standards, tools and studies in the sector; and national and regional gender mainstreaming tools and guidelines relevant to the SSMI sector.8 The rapid capacity needs assessment (CNA) was conducted from February 24th to March 23rd 2015 in the four SMIS regions of Oromia, SNNPR, Amhara and Tigray. Criteria for selection of sample zones and woredas were: two AGP-1 supported woredas with (high) SSI performance and two AGP-1 supported woredas with (low) SSI performance. This choice was based on inception phase discussions with AGP2 project designers that the second phase of AGP will have substantial funds to support relevant government processes and departments to design and build existing or new SSI schemes. SMIS can complement AGP2 work through building capacity of relevant government partners for improved SSMI development by working in the same targeted woredas in the same four regions. Other selection criteria was to ensure sites were geographically representative, accessible by road and due to limited time, not more than a few hours’ drive away from regional capitals. Focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews in the offices of key partner institutions were used. Five different questionnaires were developed to interview the relevant 7 Gender is understood as the socially constructed roles and responsibilities of women and men and boys and girls including expectations held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely behaviours of both women and men. These roles and expectations are learned, changeable and variable within and between cultures. Other social markers of identity and difference such as age, wealth, religion and ethnicity often interplay with gender to further define differences between individuals and social groups (DFATD Policy on Gender Equality 2010). 8 See references for details.

2. METHODOLOGY


government representatives at woreda, zonal and regional levels.9 A main research method was a participatory self-assessment approach in the six questionnaire instruments used to enable government partners to reflect themselves on their knowledge and capacity of achieving gender equality. Questionnaires were mainly closed-ended multiple choice formats with some short answer questions to allow for identification of common themes and trends in capacity and practice. In addition, key informant interviews (KIIs) were conducted with a selection of institutions implementing relevant projects in the sector in order to identify potential for more coordinated approaches and synergies for greater impact. The donors and NGOs interviewed were: World Bank (AGP1 and 2), International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) and the International Water Management Institute (IWMI) (LIVES project), REST/Tigray, MEDA-led Transforming Agricultural through Vocational Education and ATA’s Micro-Irrigation (MI) Project and gender transformative project in MI. Gender specific questions were integrated into four of the other thematic questionnaires, except for the NRM questionnaire. In addition, a gender specific questionnaire (Output 1150) was designed and used to assess to what extent government gender experts and units are supporting gender mainstreaming of the SSMI sub-sector and what are the gaps and opportunities for SMIS to build on. It was used to interview two sets of gender advisors/units: 1) Woman and Youth Affairs Directorate (WYAD) gender experts in the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Water Resources and regional specific government affiliated irrigation agencies (E.g. the Oromia Irrigation Development Agency (OIDA) in Oromia). Gender advisors at regional bureau levels and gender experts or gender focal persons at zonal and woreda levels and in the Ministry of Women, Youth and Child Affairs (WYCAs) were interviewed. Gender staff at regional bureau and zonal and woreda offices that are responsible for ensuring gender mainstreaming in all sectors, including SSMI were among those interviewed. Table 1: Selected Regions, Zones and Woredas in the Capacity Needs Assessment

Region Zone Woreda(s) AMHARA High Performing AGP West Gojjam Jabetenan & Bure Low Performing AGP North Gonder Lebokemken & Dembia TIGRAY High Performing AGP South Corridor Alamata & Endamehoni Low Performing AGP Central Zone Adwa & Ahferom SNNPR High Performing AGP Sidama Aleta & Wondegenet Low Performing Silte Misrak Azernet & Silte Oromia High Performing AGP Arsi Degalu & Tiyo Low Performing AGP East Wollega Diga & Tuga The theme and second component of this project, capacity building of A-TVETs, is not discussed directly in this gender review because a separate sector-specific capacity needs assessment was done independently. The gender review may have to be revised to include findings from the assessment of gender capacity of A-TVETS to ensure all key gender issues are discussed in one key document.

9 A summary of the key themes and related questionnaires used are found in Annex 1.

2. METHODOLOGY


Limitations and Strengths of this Review The rapid capacity needs assessment team acknowledges that the sample is not sufficient to represent individual regions but was considered satisfactory for the purposes of identifying key capacity gaps and strengths for the SMIS five year design as part of the inception phase. Another limitation in the data is that some data will be skewed due to low representation of women in what are generally male-dominated organizations. For example, in questionnaire 1100, core process heads were generally asked to respond to these questionnaires, and they were all men. Questions were asked about whether there were gender equitable hiring practices and non-discriminatory work environments but without having asked women and male staff at lower levels, it is difficult to draw solid conclusions from this data. One good practice in the primary data collection was in some cases, the SMIS CNA regional teams invited their government gender counterparts to collaboratively interview study participants. This allowed for building relationships, knowledge and shared ownership of the SMIS project. For example, in Amhara, the regional gender advisor invited the BoA gender expert to interview the gender advisor from the BoWRD. The next section discusses key gender issues and gender based constraints to women and men equally participating and benefiting from irrigated agricultural development.


3. LITERATURE REVIEW OF KEY GENDER ISSUES AND BARRIERS TO GENDER EQUALITY IN IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE

The following sections discuss gender dynamics in rain-fed and irrigated agricultural systems and key gender issues and constraints to women’s equal decision making, control of and benefit from agriculture production and marketing. The analysis shows that rural women have limited social status, lower literacy levels, decision making power and access, control over and ownership of productive resources as compared to men who dominate farming systems and most household, community and institutional decision making structures in agriculture and irrigated farming systems. These gender inequalities have limited women’s abilities to fully develop their productive potential in irrigated agriculture.

3.1. Gender Division of Labor in Agriculture

In the gender division of labor, woman are generally involved in all agricultural activities, represent half of the agricultural labor force and contribute 70 percent of household food production (ATA 2012; MoA 2013: 1). They are more engaged in labor-intensive work such as weeding, harvesting, preparation for storage, transporting farm inputs to the field, and procuring water for household use and some on-farm uses (EEA/EEPRI, 2006; Mogues et al 2009: Cohen and Lemma 2011). Across Ethiopia, it is generally culturally unacceptable for a woman to plow. In some areas, such as Sidama in Ethiopia’s SNNP region, women are prohibited from plowing, sowing, hoeing, and even weeding. Women are farmers in their own right in the production and sale of horticulture and small scale livestock production. They manage all aspects of home gardens and poultry-raising. They shoulder heavy work burdens as primarily responsible for all household domestic and care giving activities. Men hold a more privileged position as the land owners, household heads and socially-legitimate authority figures. Their farming tasks are often more socially valued as critical to farming such as plowing and harvesting. Men have greater freedom and mobility to participate in community groups like water user organizations. Due to socio-cultural values, married women’s mobility is often constrained by their husbands or other male relatives’ authority over them. This inequality limits their ability to participate in more formal farmer groups. In high return agriculture such as cereal crops, teff, wheat and maize, in Amhara, Tigray, SSNP and Oromia, there is a strict gendered division of labor. Women are generally involved in weeding, seed preparation, sowing and harvesting but they have limited access to trading and processing or selling to consumers because men control this crop (ATA/TAK IRDI 2014; LIVES 2012; 12).

3.1.1. GENDER DIVISION OF LABOR IN WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT Women manage water resources for domestic and productive purposes in their triple roles as household domestic managers, family farm laborers and farmers in their own right. They also contribute to community social development activities in household and community sanitation and hygiene and thus in good health practices. They are involved in construction and maintenance of sanitation structures as active community members. They are involved through their participation as members of 1-5 health development armies, as PSNP beneficiaries or other groups.



They spend long hours fetching water for domestic use and for their small livestock and garden plots. Current estimates are that women spend “about 15 and 17 hours a day in fetching water and fire wood, grinding grain, cooking food and other tasks which are necessary for the family’s survival” (MoA 2013: VII). Women’s time spent in fetching water has both positive social benefits and negative time and physical effects. Research shows that women and girls’ time in fetching water with other women provides opportunities for building their social networks and solidarity and to accessing information; but there are also threats of violence and health hazards (Waller 2013; IFAD 2012). This burden limits their time and energy away from other critical activities such as engaging in more lucrative farming and marketing activities to participating in farming groups like water user organizations or farming cooperatives. Women’s multiple burdens are a key barrier to their full participation in SSMI development and water user associations and cooperatives.

3.2. Access and Control and Decision Making Power

Women farmers have control over and decision making power on less lucrative small scale production and sale of horticulture of vegetables and fruits and livestock production such as poultry, goats and sheep. Meanwhile, men control the marketing and sale of larger scale cash crops such as coffee, teff, Khat, barley and sorghum and control use and benefits from larger livestock and marketing (Mogues et al 2009). Women may have access to cash crops like teff or wheat but have less control over their sale or income use. They may have limited access to revenues from sale but mainly for household consumption needs. Women and children are known to play a big role in livestock irrigation and thus may have access to larger livestock but not the right to sell (MoA 2013). According to one study, male household heads “take virtually all decisions about crop choice, cropping patterns, applying fertilizer and chemicals, use of family consumption or marketing and use of the income gained, whether or not after consulting their wives” (Awulachew 2005: 29). These unequal gender dynamics demonstrate the importance of understanding women and men’s roles in agricultural production and sale and what crops they control within specific communities and regions. Women contribute much of their labor to all aspects of household agricultural production but have limited decision making power and use-benefit as compared to men. Consideration of these uneven gender relations is important to ensuing SSMI development responds to women and men’s practical needs and strategic interests and that activities do not further exploit or marginalize women’s existing lower status. Recent research emphasizes the need to move beyond simplistic interpretations of women and men as always being in relationships based on conflicting interests over resources. These social relations perspectives emphasize the need to recognize that women and men and husbands and wives may also work together in cooperative ways and make joint decisions for shared pooling of resources and mutual benefit (Okali 2012: 8-9: Farnsworth et al 2015). Within this context, it important to both understand and recognize women farmer decision makers’ needs and interests as much as male farmers, particularly in considering that often married women’s labor and status is assumed under the male household headship. At the same time, it is also important to understand shared decision making and pooling of labor and resources within households and between husbands and wives.

3.2.1. DIFFERENCES AMONG SEX OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD AND CATEGORIES OF WOMEN



Married women in male headed households (MiMHHs) have different challenges and opportunities compared to divorced, separated, and de-facto female household heads who have become household heads due to widowhood or male outmigration. Female headed household (FHHs) represent 22% of Ethiopian households (EDHS 2014). In rural areas, they face labor and land-deficits and tend to produce lower yields compared to male farmers. They face social and cultural stigmatization due to being unmarried; and are more likely to sell their labor on other farmers’ plots due to lack of real incentives to farm their limited land holdings (WYAD/MoA and ATA 2015). According to a recent World bank (2014: 20-22) study on Ethiopian women farmers who control their own plots and harvest, female farmers produce about 23% less per hectare than their male counterparts. Reasons for this are small land plots; labor deficits; and female headed households’ disincentives to invest in agricultural production. ”Furthermore, women see lower returns to their time spent on agricultural activities, extension services received and use of fertilizer and oxen” (World Bank 2014: 20). According to several studies (WYAD/MoA and ATA 2015: 18: Awelachew 2005), married women in male headed households are more under the domination of their husbands. In comparison to single women who head households, they are more over-burdened with work and have limited decision making power and control over productive resources. Married women’s status and decision making power also varies depending on her educational status, personality and self-confidence, socio-economic status, wider social support networks and relationship with her husband and other relatives. In contrast, female headed households have greater freedom and opportunities to engage in extension services, to participate in public meetings and to be in management committees (WYAD/MoA and ATA 2015). These differences between WiMHHs and FHHs indicate that women are not a monolithic group but have varying social and economic positions, needs and priorities that must be accounted for in SSMI development (WYAD/MoA/ATA 2015: 12). For example, married women’s water use needs may not be the same as FHHs. Women with their own agricultural crops will be different from a married women who works with or on her husbands’/family controlled crop production and sale.

3.2.2. ACCESS AND CONTROL IN WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT In the gender division of labor, women’s water use is for household domestic needs and small scale household horticulture/production, often critical to household food and economic security. Men’s water use is more likely to be for both staple and cash crop production and thus on a larger more profitable scale (Awulachew 2005: 29). In SSI development, studies show that male headed households have a comparative advantage to engaging in irrigated farming because they are land owners, and have higher access to income, farming inputs and information. FHHs have significantly lower take-up rates of irrigation as compared to men: only 2.9% of FHHs, but 4.8% of MHHs, currently use irrigation (ATA 2011). One study found that male headed households were 38% more likely to participate in irrigation activities than female headed households due to FHHs limited land access, labor deficits and limited income. They often end up renting or share-cropping (Aseyehegn et al. 2012). Moreover, adoption of



irrigation technology is influenced by access to information on markets and credit access. FHHs and married women have lower access to supply chain information and networks and to credit services (ATA 2011: 22). Another key productive resource and incentive for irrigated agriculture is landownership. While the family code (2000) and recent land reforms provide for equal ownership of land, customary laws often prevail keeping land in the hands of male heads and their sons. Women control only 18.6% of agricultural land (MoA 2013). By region, very few women are land owners: Tigray – 29.9%; Oromia – 17.3%; Amhara – 17.8%; and SNNPR – 20.2% (MoA 2013; IV). Recent land recertification in Amhara, SNNP, Oromia and Tigray has brought new opportunities for more women to own land independently or jointly with their husbands. Land ownership is a key criteria for accessing most irrigation project support activities such as joining water user associations or participating in irrigated agriculture. In the CNA gender interviews with gender advisors (1150), in Tigray, it was emphasized that a key barrier to women’s equal participation and benefit to irrigation sector activities is women’s limited buying power and thus inability to access credit to buy and maintain irrigated related farming technologies. Women have a very difficult time accessing rural credit due to complicated loan requirements and their own fears of defaulting on loans. They often need their husband or a male relative to sign for loans because they lack the necessary collateral. Despite this, there are about 28 registered MFIs in Ethiopia and most clients are in rural areas and about 40% are women (MoWYCAs 2010: 13). This significant number shows that despite women’s fears and barriers of lacking needed assets, they are interested and finding ways to access credit.

3.3. Social and Cultural Barriers

In the SMIS capacity needs assessment, gender advisors were asked about their perspectives on the most significant barriers and opportunities for promoting equal participation and benefit of women and men in SSMI irrigation. In Tigray, Oromia, Amhara, and SNNPR, cultural barriers were identified as the most important obstacle to women’s equal participation and benefit from irrigation projects. In Tigray, the main barriers mentioned were community and governmental level attitudes and misconceptions of women farmers and resistance to women’s participation in SSMI. Gender norms and practices have shaped dominant identities and socialization processes. Gendered social constructions such as women should be docile and submissive and men are the decision makers and public speakers shape women and men farmers’ interests and capacities to aspire (WYAD/MoA and ATA 2015). Women generally have low literacy and education levels; low self-confidence and have limited leadership and management skills due to inexperience and barriers to formal farmers’ groups. These obstacles constrain women’s self and collective interests to access male-dominated WUAs and irrigated cooperatives. Misconceptions influence the limited outreach of male extension workers to female farmers. In an AGP study on common interest groups in Amhara, SNNP, Tigray and Oromia, it was found that there are attitudinal barriers of some families and communities towards women and men working together as culturally taboo. Group leaders/promoters of common interest groups often do not know how to mobilize and involve FHHs, married women and female youth. Other issues are lack of



understanding and solidarity among educated and non-educated women and men (MoA 2013). These local cultural dynamics will influence the success and failure of an irrigation scheme. In Tigray and Oromia, women farmers were defined as often reluctant themselves to engage in SSMI schemes out of their lack of self-confidence and fears of defaulting on loans that they might have to take to pay for irrigation technologies. In Tigray, it was mentioned that even if women are members of WUAs, they may be reluctant to share their perspectives in these male dominated discussions spaces. They often allow their husbands to represent them who themselves think this is the way it should be (Walelign 2010). These cultural barriers were said to permeate at household/couple, community and institutional levels. In Tigray, it was identified that there is a general disregard for gender issues at regional and woreda levels. Female and Male Youth Female youth are most disadvantaged in accessing productive resources. Many drop out of school due to uneven gender norms and practices such as societal expectations that they will marry early. Many male youth have no access to land due to land shortages from overpopulation and out-dated land distribution. They are often unemployed and face barriers to access economic and educational opportunities.

3.4. Concluding Remarks

This gender analysis discussed key gender issues and barriers in the gender division of labour; unequal access and control of key agricultural resources and decision-making; and broader socio-cultural biases that devalue women. These contextual issues that will need to be further understood and identified to understand how the SMIS project can both address these gender inequities and make sure not to worsen them. Considering women’s limited access and control of land and productive resources, women are at a much greater disadvantage then men in taking advantage of SSMI services. Moreover, married women in male headed households are more disadvantaged than female household heads that are more likely to own some land. For married women who have limited access to land or landless youth, their access to irrigation benefits may be through increased needs for labor on irrigated farms or in joining together to secure communal lands for shared irrigated agriculture.


4. NATIONAL RESPONSE TO GENDER AND IRRIGATION

4.1. Measuring Institutional Capacity for Promoting Gender Equality

It is internationally recognized that project implementers whether NGOs or governments cannot effectively address gender inequalities in the communities they serve unless they have the necessary institutional commitment, leadership, organizational culture, skills, knowledge, policies, systems and practices in place to promote gender equality internally. A key success criterion for addressing gender inequalities is the capacity of the relevant individuals, units/processes and institutions to effectively consider gender issues and constraints systematically and in all aspects of organizational and programming work.10 The following synthesis of primary and secondary source review and analysis looks at the gender capacity of key target institutions for SMIS’ capacity building activities. The analysis of these key institutions’ capacity is measured against international good practice standards in gender mainstreaming.11 The SMIS project’s design makes commitments to building the capacities of responsible public and private institutions and community level decision making structures supporting and involved in SSMI to have gender equitable and gender responsive services and approaches. To identify gaps and opportunities in policy and programs, the gender review examined the level and degree of gender responsiveness and gender equity of services. Gender equity is about fairness and justice in the distribution of benefits and responsibilities between women and men in services and community and formal decision-making structures. Gender equitable refers to policies, practices, budgeting, and regulations that ensure equal outcomes for women and men based on gender analysis. Gender-responsive approaches are important to developing gender equitable structures and services. Thus, the gender review assessed to what extent policies and programs consider the different needs and interests of women and men; girls and boys, as well as the different impact of initiatives on women and men. To be gender responsive, SMIS government partners should be capacitated and supported by SMIS to develop interventions in all thematic areas from SSI development and management to irrigation extension services to ATVET SSMI programs that respond to and aim to reduce gender gaps in decision-making, access, control, and rights.

4.2. National Policy Environment to address Gender Inequality

Gender Equality Policies The GoE has gender sensitive strategies, legal and policy measures and programs to address gender inequalities in all sectors including agriculture and the sub-sectors of irrigation and water resource management. Commitments include women’s equal rights to equal pay for equal work and to access productive resources like land, property and education (MoA 2013: IX). Relevant policies include but are not limited to: National Women’s Policy (1993) and National Women and Children’s Action Plan

10 If organizations make efforts to increase staff knowledge and self-awareness of their own gender biases and develop organizational practices to counteract any exclusionary practices, they are more likely to recognize and challenge gender and other forms of discrimination both internally and in responding to male and female beneficiaries for gender equality. An organizational culture strongly supportive of gender equality will be displayed in a gender balanced staff, a gender sensitive governance structure, and the equal valuing of women and men in all their diversities. 11 See Annex 3 for a full explanation of the various gender mainstreaming frameworks and assessment tools used.



(2010); Constitution (1994); Family Code (2000); Education and Training Policy (1994), Agricultural Development Led Industrialization Strategy (2001); National Resource and Environmental Policy (1997) and Federal Land Administration Proclamation (1997). This latter policy guarantees equal rights of women and men with respect to the use and administration and control of land. In all government institutions, the Revised Federal Civil Servants’ Proclamation (515/2007) advocates for women’s constitutional rights to affirmative action in recruitment, promotion, deployment, training and creation of a violence-free working environment (MoWYCAs 2010: 12). “Many of these policies explicitly call for the elimination of discrimination against women and promote women’s equal participation and benefit economically, politically and socially and leadership in all sectors” (MoWYCAs 2010: 10). The Government’s third generation poverty reduction strategy, the Growth and Transformation Plan (2010-2014), has made gender equality one of its eight pillars and sets targets for increasing women’s entrepreneurship, access to credit and saving services and increased participation in decision-making processes. The National Policy on Ethiopian Women aims to address gender inequalities in all social, economic and political domains by ensuring women equally participate and benefit in all spheres of development equally to men. It strives to ensure women’s equitable access to social services, to reduce their work burdens and to eradicate harmful traditional practices over the long term (MoWYCAs 2010: 10). To achieve this, it has developed the Ethiopian Women’s and Children’s Growth and Transformational Plan (2010-2015) and 20 year Women and Children Development Plan (WCDP) (2010) in accordance with the GTP. The WCDP plan’s goals and targets support women’s equitable participation in irrigated agriculture. Strategies include providing labor saving devices to reduce women’s workload, increasing women’s equal participation and influence in governmental and civil society decision making and enabling 90% of women to exercise their rights in an organized way. Each region has developed its own regional specific GTP and women, youth and children priorities based on these national policy directives. The analysis below discusses the gender capacity and practice of the relevant institutions working in each of the SMIS’ projects main intervention areas of capacity building in gender and gender specific capacity building in SMIS development, support to WUAs and irrigation extension. This capacity assessment is structured according to the identified strengths, weaknesses and gaps and opportunities of the various institutions and across the various SMIS themes. Good practices and lessons learned are highlighted.

4.3. Institutional Gender Infrastructure

4.3.1. GENDER CAPACITY OF THE MINISTRY OF WOMEN, YOUTH AND CHILD AFFAIRS Strengths This overview of strengths in the MoWYCA’s role as lead Ministry in gender mainstreaming is followed by a discussion of the major gaps between policy and practice.



Gender Machinery To effectively implement gender policies and guidelines, adequate gender staff must be available and able to lead and support gender mainstreaming efforts. The Ministry of Women, Youth and Child Affairs (MoWYCAs) is the lead ministry responsible for ensuring gender mainstreaming across all other ministries. At regional levels, there are WYCAs bureaus and at zonal and woreda levels, WYCAs offices. The names and responsibilities of these various entities changes by regional government. Regardless, for each region, the zonal and woreda offices are responsible for reviewing zonal and district budgets, plans and programs and this is done to some extent. At district levels, they work with gender advisors or gender focal points from other sector offices and other sector staff including in irrigation, extension and cooperative promotion. At kebele levels, the MoWYCAs has established volunteer gender positions who are typically women and the only female members of the kebele cabinet. Generally, “In district and kebele, cabinets, women tend to be pigeonholed into women’s positions such as women’s affairs, health, and education rather than security, finance, and agriculture” (Cohen and Mamusha 2011: 20). Level of Staff Gender Mainstreaming Capacity, Skills and Tools The MoWYCAs has developed Gender Mainstreaming Guidelines (2010) which all government sectors are meant to abide by. In these guidelines, the goal of achieving gender equality is defined as a shared responsibility of the government, NGOs, community based organizations and other development partners. It is defined as a responsibility of both women and men and not as a “women-specific issue.” Operational Approach To achieve the MoWYCA’s goals, the ministry’s main operational approach is to integrate its targets and indicators into the long and short term plans of all sectors. For reporting, monitoring and evaluation, it is supposed to review progress by reviewing all implementation reports by all sectors, conduct annual monitoring and mid-term and final evaluations. The Women’s Development and Change Extension Package (2006-present) provides specific funds and initiatives to support female farmers’ increased agricultural opportunities. The agricultural packages, however, are limited to women’s traditional roles in poultry production and horticulture. There are no packages to support women to break into more high-value value chains that irrigation services could support. Primary and secondary data show that there are some initiatives to support rural women in extension services but only in a limited way. A main strategy of the MoWYCA is to build community-based organizing structures for women and youth to engage in their own and community development. These Community Mobilization processes support the formation of women and youth development groups comprised of 25-30 members and 1-5 networks comprised of the leaders of the development groups. They use these groups to facilitate political campaigning; women and youth’s access to different rural development packages and to encourage members to organize themselves into saving and credit groups. In Amhara, there were a total of 120 000 women development groups comprised of 3.3 million women and 83 000 youth groups of 1.5 million youth in 184 woredas (Bureau of WYCAs KII, March 5th, 2015). Weaknesses and Gaps Cohen and Mamusha’s (2011) study of women affairs offices, kebele level gender advisors and their associated women’s associations found variations in capacities of this gender machinery between



regions. The study argues that the Tigray district women’s affairs office that they studied was a model of gender sensitivity with its strong efforts to mainstream gender in all agricultural sector plans and had even trained sectoral regional managers in gender mainstreaming. However, the study found that the district level women’s affairs office in Amhara under their study and gender focal points in other sectors did not understand their duties in gender mainstreaming. As a result, quality and level of gender mainstreaming in most agricultural sub-sectors is weak. Most kebele level gender advisors and female leaders tend to be single, widowed, divorced or never married and thus household heads. In these political positions, they gain experience in being more assertive and raising their voices than married women (Cohen and Mamusha 2011: 25). Husbands often discourage their wives from participating in public meetings (Cohen and Mamusha 2011: 25; Walelign 2010). In the SWHISA project, even after five years of implementation and efforts to ensure married women are involved in community management committees in rainwater harvesting, many husbands still represented their wives in these committees. Women were reported to accept this (Walelign 2010). Moreover, the main group of women to benefit from SWHISA supported irrigated agricultural groups were FHHs. The active involvement of FHHs is a good practice but the fact that WiMHHs are not represented indicates that more sustained efforts are needed to change cultural assumptions that household heads can represent the interests of all family members or that WiMHHs do not have their own specific needs and interests that need to be considered as well. Opportunities A good practice of the BoWYCAs staff is to influence other sectors’ prioritization of gender issues by working with other Ministry Sector leadership, the Core Process owners who own responsibility for gender mainstreaming. At regional levels, they will try to work with the BoA and BoW process owners to take ownership. BoWYCAs will ensure that the Core Process owner of SSMI in planning considers equal benefits of female and male households. At woreda levels, WYCAs’ staff conduct joint planning with agricultural and water and SSI and extension and cooperative office staff. They push and advocate for ensuring equal representation and targeting of women in these sectors’ activities. They conduct joint survey work with relevant SSMI, extension and cooperative sectors including on youth. They will work with the volunteer gender advisors and through other sector kebele level paid staff such as the Ministry of Health’s Health Extension Workers (HEWs) and the MoA’s Development Agents (DAs) to support women and youth development groups. They will encourage DAs to support women and youth to access land for cultivation and work with agricultural DAs, HEWs and teachers to work on gender awareness creation. The MoWYCA’s primary objective is to use and support their women and youth development and network groups to build gender awareness and promote women/youth’s economic, social, health rights and thus can further support SSI/MI/extension sectors/staff to reach women. While the MoWYCAs is understaffed and underfunded, it plays an important influential role in overall sector planning in ensuring gender equality, particularly the equal targeting and participation of women as to men in agricultural sector activities including NRM, irrigation related SSI design & construction, irrigation extension services and in WUOs. There are important opportunities to build their support to gender advisors in the SMIS support processes and sub-processes of the MoA and



regional public agencies such as OIDA. They support the gender advisors within the MoA and Ministries of Water Resources to ensure gender is considered by the sub-sectors. They monitor overall sector plans. WYCAs staff also provide some capacity building in the form of informal advice and support, i.e. looking at regional gender advisor reports and provide some gender training. Some gender advisors mentioned that they had participated in gender training in the last two years given by MoWYCAs staff on gender mainstreaming, gender budgeting and gender auditing. They reported that they found the training useful to their own roles of pushing for gender mainstreaming in sectors. However, the one-off training sessions were not enough to fully capacitate them. There are some positive benefits that come from gender advisors cross checking and advising other sectors. In Tigray, the BoA gender advisor explained that when she first came two years ago no staff was reporting sex-disaggregated data but now they are. She pushes other agricultural sub-sectors to increase the numbers of women targeted. She reported that 23.5% of those targeted are women. MoWYCAs Offices also play important roles in addressing gender norms and challenging socio-cultural barriers to women’s equal participation in SSMI, WUOs and accessing extension services. Using the development groups and networks, they support facilitated community conversations to create awareness among communities on the environment, gender and HIV/AIDS, and so on, using the different arrangements (like Development Groups and 1 to 5) The offices support and advice rural women about their land rights as many women face challenges with land certification issues. In some cases, women’s lands may be illegally confiscated but the women do not know where to apply and even do not understand their rights; so the WYCAs offices play advisory roles to help them get back their land. While the woreda women’s affairs offices may lack budgeting and staffing, they are still the main government arm responsible for advocating and supporting women and youth for their rights. The WYCAs Offices work to reduce women’s labor demands and to increase their productivity. Several WAOs described supporting women and youth with fuel saving technology and water pumps, but their role is limited to creating awareness of the technologies. Further base line study work will have to be done to identify to what extent the MoWYCAs are providing labor-saving technologies to rural women. Furthermore, there are differences in the level and quality of women’s organizing by region due to multiple factors. Several studies suggest that the WYCAs development and one to five groups are not necessarily very functional; however, their depth of organizing varies by region (Cohen and Mamusha (2011:26). In Tigray, due to the civil war experience of actively involving women alongside male freedom fights, there is a stronger culture of women’s organizing and civil rights activism and citizen demand for accountability from government. In contrast, such activism among women’s groups was not found to the same degree in other regions. Strong women’s associations are generally found where they have been supported by NGOs and active and capacitated women’s affairs offices. This is important to SMIS’ capacity building in gender. Women’s associations that have been capacitated and supported have been important vehicles for advocating for women’s rights to agricultural services including credit and extension services (2011:26).



There is stronger institutional collaboration and linkages at woreda levels between gender advisors and or focal points in the SSMI sub-sectors of NRM/MoA and Woreda Women’s and or WYCA’s Offices. Women’s Affairs Office staff will work directly with Woreda Agricultural Office, Cooperative and Water office staff in joint planning and survey work. They will support these sectors to ensure women and youth are targeted and participating in different rural agricultural extension packages and in different community activities. One example is in Kebele and Woreda Land Administration Committees responsible for recertification of land. These committees aim to ensure women and men equally own land. In Tigray, the MoWYCAs staff at regional, zonal and woreda levels worked with staff from the agriculture, water and cooperative sectors to conduct survey work. They had data on the number of female headed households who had access to alternative water resources such as communal land and how many had irrigated land by hectares. Based on this analysis, the SMIS project would do well to strengthen inter-linkages and collaboration with MoWYCAs and BoA/BoW and public irrigation agencies in joint work to support rural women and youth farmers in irrigated agriculture. It can strengthen the regional BoWYCAs’ capacity and engagement with providing gender mainstreaming capacity building to the irrigation sectors. However, the priority must go to investing in and supporting the assigned gender and social development advisors and focal points that are working within the irrigation sector bureaus and offices to build their respective teams’ gender mainstreaming capacity and commitment first and foremost.

4.3.2. GENDER ADVISORS AND FOCAL PERSONS IN RELEVANT IRRIGATION SECTOR BUREAUS AND OFFICES In 2010, a GoE Proclamation (691/2010) mandated each ministry to ensure women and youth affairs are integrated into all policy, project and program development. Women and Youth Affairs Directorates have been set up in each ministry and are responsible to share their quarterly and annual progress reports with the MoWYCAs. The MoWYCAs is responsible for supporting these gender mainstreaming efforts across all other ministries and to provide capacity building support such as training. Annual forums are supposed to take place to share experiences and map out future directions (MoWYCAs 2010: 12). The regional gender advisors are charged with ensuring gender considerations are integrated into all sector program management cycles. The MoA’s Women and Youth Affairs Directorate (WYAD) and gender and youth focal persons in all departments are meant to support development of youth and women friendly agricultural services and integration of gender mainstreaming in all activities. In all four regions, there are gender advisors at regional Bureau levels for the relevant Ministries of Agriculture and Water and or for the public irrigation agencies (OIDA/Oromia and IDSAA/SNNPR) involved in SSMI development and irrigation extension. For example, two years ago, the Oromia Irrigation Development Agency (OIDA) was established to look after all irrigation development in the region. At the time of the SMIS rapid capacity assessment in February and March, 2014, OIDA had one gender advisor at regional levels and gender focal points at zonal levels. At zonal and woreda levels in the Ministry of Agriculture, not all regions have gender experts or gender focal points. In Amhara, there are gender and youth experts at zonal and woreda levels and in SNNPR, gender mainstreaming experts in the agricultural offices. However, there are no gender advisors or experts at zonal and woreda levels in Tigray and Oromia regions.



Strengths in the MoA Gender Machinery The Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) has made strong policy commitments to supporting gender equality and addressing gender discrimination that puts rural women farmers at a greater disadvantage than male farmers. It has set some concrete gender goals and sector priorities including gender targets (e.g. to target at least 30% of FHHs in all extension services). It has shown leadership in addressing gender issues for the whole Government of Ethiopia. It developed gender mainstreaming guidelines (2013) for all agricultural sectors and a Women’s Affairs coordination system. Guidelines cover to some degree, all capacity building components of the SMIS project: natural resource management system; watershed and small scale irrigation schemes; agricultural technical and vocational educational training systems; agricultural extension system; Ethiopian horticulture development system; information and knowledge management systems; and agricultural inputs system. The MoA’s gender mainstreaming guidelines aim to shift from a women-specific program focus in projects and programs that is described in the guidelines as having failed to address the underlying causes of gender disparities. The guidelines define a more gender transformative approach that “recognizes the issues of gender inequality are at all levels, in all sectors and involves all members of society” (MoA 2013: 8). The guidelines have some practical user friendly tools that deal with all sub-sectors of the agricultural sector. It is understood that gender mainstreaming must ensure that: 1) all development efforts are geared towards addressing the experiences, needs and priorities of both men and women at all levels; 2) Developed outcomes benefit women and men equally and 3) Gender disparities are not continued or made worse. In 2014, another important achievement was conducting a Federal and Regional Specific gender audit process lead by the MoA WAD staff and ATA. The audits found that the MoA had a positive and inclusive working environment; and has some gender sensitive affirmative action and human resource policies to address gender gaps in staffing. For example, all four regions have developed their own regional Civil Servant Laws and guidelines of the Civil Service Commission for equal treatment in human resource management and affirmative action measures. The federal policy is to allocate 30 percent of opportunities for training and education for female staff. Another strong practice of the MoA has been to promote gender advisors into the senior management team. The WYAD Director of the MoA, Gender Advisor in Tigray BoARD and Gender Mainstreaming Support Process Coordinator in the SNNP’s Irrigation Development and Scheme Administration Agency (IDSAA) are in the senior management teams. In Tigray, the Regional MoARD Gender Advisor explained during the KII for the SMIS capacity needs assessment that she had recently been promoted to the senior management team by the Core Process Head. Her promotion had made it easier for her to have her voice heard than when she had worked solely with subject matter specialist such as irrigation experts. The MoA has a “forum of female staff members” to facilitate discussions on common concerns among women staff. In Tigray, while there is a regional gender advisor, there are no assigned gender experts at zonal and woreda levels. Instead, there are gender focal points of which gender is an add-on to their other main responsibilities. Lessons learned in gender mainstreaming show that when gender is an additional task it is often side-lined by the immediate priorities of that staff’s position.



The gender advisors or focal points at regional, zonal and woreda levels within the MoA and water sectors’ main role is to check for equity in targeting and equitable participation of women and men beneficiaries in sector services including in SSMI and extension. All the gender advisers or focal points interviewed stated that they support gender mainstreaming mainly through reviewing sector and sub-sector plans for equitable participation and benefit of women and men looking at sex-disaggregated data. Based on reviewing all planning documents for each sub-sector, they will write comments or feedback to the SSI sub-processes if they identify low participation of women in the sector activities. In SNNPR, the BoA has Gender Mainstreaming Support Process staff at regional, zonal and woreda levels. The various processes within the ministry have Gender Mainstreaming Strategic Plans including Extension, Input Supply, Natural Resources with specific targets for male and female beneficiaries (SNNPR Gender Audit 2014: ii). In AHEFEROM WOREDA, central zone, in Tigray, the WYCAs Office staff carried out joint supervision with relevant sectors on a cluster basis to support women in their irrigated fields and would even send official letters to the office of finance not to endorse any budgets unless gender gaps are addressed first. The Regional Bureau or Agency advisors will cross-check reporting from the woreda sector plans. The Tigray Regional Gender Advisor explained that she checked the SSI, extension and NRM sector plans on an annual and quarterly basis and checked reporting from 34 woredas in the region. These gender staff are also responsible for monitoring gender results for MoA projects. In Tigray, these include nine projects: AGP, ATA, EAAP, HAPB, SLM, FAO and PSNP. The MoA gender staff reported being involved in activities to support women’s economic empowerment such as in poultry production, vegetables and fruits and sheep and goat fattening. They share annual work plans with MoWYCA staff and get some support from them in terms of how to push their ministry staff to consider gender issues. They organize some gender training in gender analysis and gender mainstreaming but due to small budgets, this is very limited. For example the Tigray Gender Advisor offered a full day training to all extension experts because the extension process staff invited her to give the training. This collaboration reduced the costs making it possible for her to give the training. In Libo Kemkem woreda in Amhara, the WYCAs Office gave a basic gender training to 23 sectors. Another responsibility of the gender advisors is ensuring gender equitable hiring practices and affirmative action. Gender advisors in the water and agricultural sectors and public irrigation agencies main strategies and approaches for ensuring gender mainstreaming in SSMI development is by reviewing irrigation and NRM department quarterly reports and annual plans and tracking changes to women’s lives. At woreda levels, additional strategies are carrying out joint supervision with relevant sectors to irrigation points to verify whether women are equally involved. Challenges and Gaps for WYCAs and Gender Advisors in SSMI Sectors Gender advisors are not actively involved in strategic planning and design The WYAD gender advisors’ main roles are to cross-check sub-sector annual and quarterly plans for equitable targeting and participation of women and youth in planning, implementing and reporting. The approach is based on reviewing reported sex-disaggregated data and gender balance in targeting rather than playing an active role in the actual design of annual activities. A major



challenge is that they are only one person deep to monitor all sub-sectors and processes of the MoA. The SSI government staff reported, however, receiving support and advice from the MoA gender advisors. To what extent these gender advisers in the water and agricultural sectors are able to influence decision-making must be cross-checked with further gender analysis studies. Inadequate financial and human resources There are major gaps between policy commitments and practice. At the organizational level, regional, zonal and woreda WYCAs staff and gender advisors in the water and agricultural sectors interviewed in the CNA identified shortage of financial and human resources and capacity as major barriers to being able to fulfill their mandates. They further pointed to socio-cultural barriers due to low prioritization of gender among the sub-sectors and among their colleagues. At woreda and kebele levels, MoWYCAs does not have as much influence or capacity because they only have volunteer gender advisors. At community levels, women are under-represented in informal and formal decision making structures due to social, cultural and economic barriers. Their needs and concerns are not being heard. In all regions, limited budgets was identified as a major challenge for providing capacity development such as for training, experience sharing visits among women and youth development groups and for general capacity building activities. The woreda women’s affairs offices tend to receive the lowest budgets of all other woreda offices. Their staff have limited power and effective advocacy and negotiation skills to influence leaders and staff in the various sector offices (Amhara Woreda Interview, March 17th, 2015). Leaders do not prioritize gender. Other studies on MoWYCAs capacity have found similar findings (Jones et al 2010). There are inadequate numbers of gender experts or gender knowledgeable staff to fully integrate gender issues into the sector (CNA assessment data and LIVES 2014: 12-14), particularly at woreda levels and in the irrigation processes. With only one gender advisor at regional bureau levels to ensure gender mainstreaming in all agricultural sub-sectors including SSMI, community participation and extension services, they are unable to fulfill their role. Moreover, gender advisor positions may not all be filled. The Amhara Gender Audit (2014) found that while there are supposed to be gender and youth affairs experts under the extension processes at all levels. In March 2015, three out of ten zones and 85 out of 138 woreda agricultural offices had not yet hired these experts at the time of the gender audit in the spring of 2014. Due to limited budgets, the Bureau gender advisors rarely go out to the field unless they have additional funds from donor funded projects or mainstream sector staff invite them along for a visit or to conduct a training. One challenge pointed out by several gender advisors is that they are only able to influence at the planning or monitoring phases but are much less involved in actual implementation activities because they have no budget to carry out field visits, training and or specific capacity building activities with targeted women and youth. One regional gender advisor from the water sector explained “I do not participate in strategic planning but I review them” after the fact (KII, March 3, 2015). They are mainly counting numbers rather than fully engaging in influencing or working with the sector.



Lack systematic attention to gender, of a sector-wide gender mainstreaming policy or strategy and action plan The 2014 Gender Audit Reports for the four SMIS targeted regions and national Gender Audit report stated that a major gap with the MoA capacity to mainstream gender is the lack of an organizational wide gender mainstreaming policy or strategy at federal and regional levels. Moreover, while there are affirmative action policies, there remain major gaps in gender balanced staffing with most female staff in junior levels with lower educational achievements. Nationally, female staff make up only 30% of MoA staff and almost no women are found in senior, middle management or lower level decision making positions (Federal Gender Audit report 2014: ii-iii). This same gender imbalance in staffing was found in Amhara, Tigray, SNNP and Oromia. At the programming level, an important finding of the MoA Gender Audits for all four regions was the lack of practical gender mainstreaming guidelines. It was found that the MoA Gender Mainstreaming Guidelines were too generic and not practical for MoA staff such as subject-matter experts and development agents working directly with rural male and female farmers (Gender Audit reports 2014). Another gap was the fact that the MoA did not define any minimum requirements based on the GM Guidelines and thus staff was not necessarily using them. Another common gap at national and regional levels is the lack of using a needs assessment or situational analysis or gender analysis to inform project planning and design. As a result, planning documents reviewed in the 2014 MoA Gender Audit showed that there are no gender sensitive indicators except for collection and breakdown of some sex-disaggregated data for some activities. Lack of staff awareness, knowledge and commitment at all levels from leaders, experts to beneficiaries In the SMIS CNA, almost all the gender advisors in the agriculture, water, public agencies and MoWYCAs identified their need for additional training in gender mainstreaming, gender analysis and how to integrate gender into the SSMI sector. Additional suggestions were training in gender sensitive M&E, gender auditing, mobilization and facilitation skills, practical application of micro irrigation technologies, and leadership. There is a lack of accountability and responsibility among decision makers and technical staff to implement gender mainstreaming as one of their main duties. Usually it is considered as a task for the Women, Children and Youth Affairs Offices. The audit results and this SMIS CNA indicate that staff commitment, awareness and understanding of gender concepts and approaches is limited. There is ongoing gender biases in the irrigation sector that continue to assume irrigation is only for household heads and high value crop producers which happens to be mainly men. These biases lead to neglecting women’s roles and needs and interests in irrigated agriculture and to their rights to be supported to break into more lucrative irrigated agriculture. Most staff continue to assume that gender is a women’s specific issue. There is also the assumption that simply by ensuring equal numbers of women and men in activities, gender equality will be achieved. These perspectives ignore the underlying power dynamics between women and men or between younger and older generations that may undermine the capacity of less powerfully positioned individuals from taking advantage of new opportunities. In Amhara, gender advisors interviewed identified lack of awareness of gender inequalities at all levels of the SSMI sector from leaders, experts to beneficiaries. They also identified lack of



knowledge on how to mainstream gender (Tigray gender advisor interviews, March 2015). There is a need for greater senior leadership championing gender equality such as by putting gender objectives as part of their job descriptions and performance evaluations. Narrow view of the category of “women” as mainly female headed households A major gap found in the SMIS CNA data and 2014 MoA gender audits is the over-focus on female headed households as the main target group for ensuring and tracking women’s participation in SSMI activities. The 2014 Gender Audit and this CNA results shows that while there are efforts to ensure women’s participation in the irrigation and extension services and in horticulture and livestock development, there is too much attention on female headed households largely because they own land. This practice excludes many female farmers whose needs and interests may be neglected due to assumptions that these women are benefitting through their husbands’ participation in irrigation activities. Weak gender sensitive monitoring and evaluation system and narrow focus only on female headed households Another major limitation with sex-disaggregated data found in all four regions was that the data only tracks for male and female headed households. This narrow view neglects the diversity of women such as married women in male-headed households and whether they benefit or not from project activities (Federal Gender Audit 2014: iii). Other gaps raised in the federal and regional MoA gender audit reports was that while WAD staff have the technical expertise to build capacity of MoA staff, and they have organized some training, these capacity building initiatives are very limited. Lack of practical user-friendly gender analysis and gender mainstreaming tools Gender advisors in the MoA, water sector and MoWYCAs have gender mainstreaming policies and tools to support their work. The weakness is in their capacity to share and use these tools for their work. One gap is that these tools have not been effectively socialized among these gender advisors to enable them to train their staff. Tools include the MoWYCA’s Gender Mainstreaming Guidelines; and a monitoring tool for assessing capacity of women/youth groups (performing assessment). Weak inter-linkages and networking with other complementary gender initiatives Another major problem is the lack of systematic linkages at all levels between the various processes and individuals responsible for different steps in SSMI development and management and related irrigation extension support to SSMI farmers. There is a lack of inter-linkages at all levels and of accountability and coordination with other sectors in planning for gender in irrigation initiatives from design to all the irrigation and agricultural extension support services. In Amhara, a major barrier to women’s equitable participation was the poor planning processes as mainly top down and difficult to implement and non-participatory in nature. There is weak linkages between agricultural/irrigation extension and gender advisors and WYCAs office staff. Many gender advisors stated that they have no working relationship with irrigation extension services apart from verifying annual plans.



In summary, the major gaps and challenges are:

• Lack of awareness and ongoing attitudinal negative gender biases at all levels from leaders, experts, and beneficiaries; accordingly gender issues are not prioritized and when considered, they are not well addressed in the planning and implementation process;

• Knowledge gaps on what is gender and gender mainstreaming; • Lack of human and financial resources to carry out capacity building on gender for the the

MoWYCAs and for assigned gender staff in water and agricultural sectors; • Weak gender capacity and inadequate staffing at zonal, woreda and kebele levels; • Women are not well represented, if at all, on Task Forces and Committees. When they are,

they have a limited voice due to cultural norms. • Regional, Zonal and Woreda Staff do not have a good understanding of gender equity and

equality – some have participated in training, but not all. Some understand basic concepts (i.e. difference between sex and gender), but very few have an understanding of gender analysis;

• There is a lack of accountability and responsibility among decision makers and technical staff to implement gender mainstreaming as one of their main duties. Usually it is considered as a task for the Women’s Children and Youth Affairs;

• There is no or little coordination and collaboration among the various organizations; and • High staff turn-over leads to challenges in mainstreaming gender (trained staff leave the

office and the new comers do not have training). Opportunities Key opportunities and good practices to build on are: Strengthening WYCA Offices’ initiatives to support women and youth organizing to access land, irrigation and other agricultural input services Work through MoWYCA’s strong decentralized structures and support to women and youth groups as a way to reach out to women and youth that are already organized and ready to engage in social and economic change. There are many strong female farmer role models and women’s groups that can be supported to share their knowledge to inspire other women and groups to self-organize and engage in irrigation initiatives in ways that comply with their needs and interests. Possible initiatives and linkages to build on or link into are:

• Work with SSME Bureau to support selection of women and unemployed youth to gain access to ATVETs after grade 10; help in selection of these beneficiaries to receive training; these women and landless youth have no land and support them to increase their own agricultural productive on family farm

• Support youth programs in NRM/land rehabilitation- to rehabilitate land and create IGAs • Can reach women and youth through active organizing of MoWYCAs supported women and

youth development groups. The Woreda level WYCAs Offices efforts to organize experience sharing between different women and youth groups such as for less active groups to meet with more successful farmers who have adopted and benefitted from new technologies.



To work with the MoWYCAs Women and Youth Development Groups and Networks (1-5 armies) to access existing organized groups and to build upon opportunities to support existing initiatives such as women’s groups’ efforts to access collective irrigated land. There are opportunities and entry points to work with MoWYCAs at all levels in identifying and engaging them in ensuring best practice/gender appropriate interventions for women, and female and male youth such as in conducting gender transformative nutrition and BCC training and wider awareness raising on HTPs. In Tigray, WYCAs Offices were working with SSMI/extension relevant offices and DA staff on identifying female farmer role models to organize with five other women farmers to build other female farmers’ capacities and to advocate to ensure women farmers have access to irrigation inputs such as treadle pumps thus to ensure affirmative action (20% of beneficiaries are women). There are opportunities to identify all the good practices that the WYCAs and gender advisor staff are utilizing to push and advocate for women’s equal participation and women-friendly and youth-friendly agricultural services. Strengthening the existing roles and capacities of gender advisors and sector irrigation implementers in gender sensitive planning, design, implementation and M&E The most significant opportunity is to enhance assigned gender experts’ roles in reviewing all other sector planning processes for degree of gender sensitivity and to ensuring participation of women farmers. Strengthening collaboration and inter-linkages between government and NGOs Another key and vital opportunities is to strengthen the synergies and linkages between the various MoA projects working in land rights certification, support to women and youth and SSMI. Projects like AGP, PSSIP, SLMP, PSNP and HAPB and ATA MI Initiative have strong gender considerations and sex-disaggregated targets and women-specific activities. There are additional donor-funded national and local gender experts within these projects that know how to conduct gender analysis and can offer greater support and innovative approaches to share and bring into SSMI processes and departments. Another important opportunity is to work closely with regional NGOs that have strong gender capacity and are already working closely with the government and in SSMI development and other related agricultural value chain development and improving agricultural services to rural male and female farmers like accessing rural financing. Two good examples are ORDA in Amhara and REST in Tigray. ORDA provides gender training to government staff and supports FHHs in vegetable production. It also works with woreda level women’s affairs offices and has facilitators who facilitate Community conversations where discussions are held on health, environment, saving, and HIV/AIDS as cultural barriers that must change for women farmers to equally benefit from agricultural sector services. Strengthen translation of progressive gender policies and relevance to SSMI sector Policies such as the Federal Land Administration Proclamation of the 1997, which confirms the equal rights of women with respect to the use and administration and control of land is one example. Efforts must be made to understand women’s and men’s different uses of land and water and how to ensure both landowners and land users benefit from existing and new SSMI schemes supported by the government under the future SMIS project.



There are opportunities to make existing gender mainstreaming guidelines and manuals user friendly and standardized for all relevant sectors to ensure gender analysis and mainstreaming is systematically integrated into all SSMI sector activities along with ensuring regular training based on proper budgeting Important opportunities are their key focus on establishing women and youth specific groups at kebele and community levels to create self-organizing structures and entry points to mobilize women and youth around building their awareness and knowledge of their rights, to support them in savings and credit groups and to link them to other sector initiatives and activities as a means of directly improving rural women farmers lives and access to services including SSI, and irrigation extension services. These groups are substantive. For example, Building on women’s increased leadership representation in management committees at community levels and in government sectors There are opportunities to take advantage of improved policy environment and greater women’ leadership in community management committees of farmer groups and to invest and expand this leadership, especially considering favorable policies such as the new cooperative proclamation for water user associations that stipulates equal representation of women in leadership. One strategy would be to encourage sector process owners to promote all regional gender advisors to be in the senior management. Building on more favorable policy and program environment for gender equality by creating stronger accountability structures at all levels In all regions, it was recognized that in recent years, there have been improvements in gender policies, legislation and programs supported by greater investments in ensuring needed gender staffing and tools. These positive steps have brought increases in number of women owning land with land certificates and increasing numbers of women in leadership positions. At the same time, it must be emphasized that there continue to be major challenges for international and local civil society organizations due to the Civil Society Proclamation that prohibits most of these types of organizations in working on women’s rights issues. By developing a specific sector-wide gender mainstreaming policy for the irrigation sector, it will become possible to create stronger accountability at all levels such as encouraging government sectors to instate gender objectives in all job descriptions and performance reviews. There are opportunities to decrease women’s heavy work burden through expanding and building on lessons learnt from current initiatives to provide female farmers with labour-saving devices. Farmers’ involvement in SSI scheme development and management and in benefiting from increased water access for farming often demands more time and labor for participating farmers. If women are already overburdened with domestic and intensive farming chores, they may be discouraged from participating in SSI schemes.

4.4. SSMI Development Specific Gender Policies and Infrastructure

Several GoE agricultural and water resource management policies explicitly recognize rural women’s rights and the need for special measures to enable them to equally take advantage of agricultural opportunities. These policies include: The National Environmental Policy (1997); the Ethiopian Water Resource Management Policy (1998); Policy on TVETS (2008); National Water Strategy of Ethiopia



(2001); SSI Capacity Building Strategy for Ethiopia (2011); and National Nutrition Strategy and Program (2008). The GoE’s Agriculture Sector Policy and Investment Framework emphasize increased investment in irrigation development. The GoE priorities are to develop micro, small scale and larger irrigation to increase productivity to achieve food self-sufficiency and food security at household and national levels as well as to build domestic agro-industries and increased export earnings (GoE 2011:2). The National Water-Resources Management Policy’s (2001) overall goal is “to enhance and promote all national efforts towards the efficient, equitable, and optimum utilization of the available water resources of Ethiopia for significant socio-economic development on sustainable basis.” It supports a socially equitable integrated approach:

• Advocates for an integrated watershed management approach • Multi-use approach of ensuring water supply and sanitation, irrigation and drainage,

watershed management and hydraulic structures • Respect for the environment and natural systems – all development projects must respect

protection and conservation, operational and maintenance • As much as conditions permit, ensure that the provision of basic necessities of water at the

household level are fulfilled and to ensure that all other allocations of water after the basic needs shall be based on equitable and efficient socioeconomic development criteria.

• There is recognition of the need for women’s full equity and rights.

Based on a comprehensive Small Scale Irrigation Situational Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment (MoA 2011), gender specific capacity gaps identified were:

• Clear credit supply arrangements and policy were not observed. The small holder cannot get any loans, even if available, as she has nothing to put as mortgage. Women-headed households are less favored in getting access to credit through group collateral.

• Success of a scheme depends on inclusion of considerations of social and environmental issues. Past experiences have also shown that failure or malfunctioning of some of the SSI schemes is related to poor consultation with the beneficiaries. This is because the planning and implementation approach was top-down and hence not demand-driven.

• The concept of integrated irrigation water use is not well addressed right from the planning and implementation periods. As a result, the societies living adjacent to the irrigation schemes are forced to fetch drinking water inappropriately or fetching water from distant areas. In addition, due to inadequate facilities set for livestock drinking water, main irrigation canals are being damaged by open livestock interference.

• Involvement of women in small-scale irrigation schemes is one of the areas where gender equality can be assured. However, gender parameters are not well captured in the development of irrigation projects. As a result the role of women in decision making processes at all stages of schemes development is generally lacking. In addition, the participation and consultation of WUAs right from planning through implementation are also limited.



While not mentioned, another important reason is that women have rights to productive resources and are important economic agents to agricultural production and productivity. To tackle these and other limitations for the development of the SSI sub-sector in the country, the MoA developed the SSI Capacity Building Strategy in 2011. The overall objective of the SSI Capacity Building Strategy is to undertake infrastructural, institutional and human resource capacity building, which will help the country to optimize the efficient use of water resources with improved land management of smallholder irrigated agriculture development, contribute to improved food security and to alleviate poverty. The SSI Capacity Building Strategy focuses on developing the capacity at different governance levels in irrigation infrastructure development, water and crop management, institutional capacity, research on irrigated agriculture, input supply and marketing, knowledge management and information systems. It has key guiding principles for implementation which support equitable development of SSMI schemes. These principles are:

• Water is a natural endowment, commonly owned and its fair distribution shall be exercised; • SSI development shall be based on a participatory approach and integrated framework; • Participation of all stakeholders particularly user communities and women will be promoted

in the relevant aspects of water resources management; • Irrigation in general, should be integrated while maintaining environmental sustainability;

and Capacity building is a long-term process that builds on what has been achieved (2011: 7).

The MoA SSI capacity building strategy document has six strategic directions. While the document lacks a clear gender strategy, it emphasizes in Strategic Direction (SD) 1 on improving existing and developing new irrigation infrastructure the importance of improving community participation in SSI planning and implementation through awareness creation and guidelines and to ensure it is community demand-driven. In this SD, there are many gender dimensions to cover in the development of standards and technical guidelines for irrigation pump selection, operation and maintenance and in developing knowledge and practical skills of smallholder farmers in promoting low cost and appropriate household irrigation technologies (HIT) including household water harvesting structures (MoA 2013). These equity-based irrigation policies are important to the success and sustainability of SSMI schemes. SMIS gender mainstreaming strategy should be aligned with these policies. Gender reviews of past irrigation projects in Ethiopia (Awulachew 2005) and internationally (Van Koppen 1998; IFAD 2012) further support the importance of gender mainstreaming in SSMI scheme development. Studies show that ignoring gender issues and women’s needs and concerns of water at household and community levels in SSMI development can exacerbate inequities in resource allocation, worsen women’s access to land and water and reinforce male-biases and advantages in farming systems. In this way, women/youth’s interests and needs are marginalized. They are further disempowered (IFAD 2012:10; Van Koppen 1998). Such an approach neglects women’s significant contributions to rural livelihoods and rights to reach their full socio-economic potential. By paying attention to how irrigation can improve women controlled farming crops and livestock combined with increasing their access to inputs like credit and labor saving technologies, women will likely



produce more and more diversified crops and thus contribute more to household food and income security. While overall household wellbeing is often improved in irrigation projects, e.g. increased productivity and income, benefits may not be equally shared within households and in a community. Such gender blindness has often led to prioritizing male dominated farming interests and needs such as water use priorities in cash crop agriculture and larger livestock production/marketing. It has often led to single use irrigation schemes rather than best practice standards of multi-use systems. Lack of gender responsive participatory design, planning, construction, implementation, monitoring and management can lead to ineffective and even the abandonment of a SSMI scheme in itself. A major planning framework and tool for capacity building of SSMI schemes under the SMIS project is to build the buy-in and capacity of relevant targeted government partners in the step-by-step approach, Participatory Irrigation Development and Management (PIDM). It is based on integrated watershed management and SMIS will be integrating gender responsive participatory approaches throughout each step. Responsible public institutions at federal and regional levels will be trained in the PIDM approach, including training-of-trainers (ToT) to have the approach cascaded down to zonal and woreda levels. Adoption of PIDM is based on lessons learned from the previous SWHISA project (2005-2011) implemented in Amhara region.

4.4.1. INSTITUTIONAL COMMITMENTS AND GENDER MACHINERY IN SSMI SPECIFIC PROCESSES AND

INSTITUTIONS In the SMIS capacity assessment, Core Process Owners and heads of the relevant institutions and core processes responsible for irrigation development responded to questions related to institutional staffing, policies, training and capacity development of staff and systems and practices based on Questionnaire 1100. Gender specific questions were asked about gender mainstreaming policy commitments and extent of gender mainstreaming and consideration of gender issues in staff training and capacity building. Strengths and Gaps Most managers interviewed identified gaps rather than strengths in their organization’s institutionalization of gender. The only positive strengths identified by most managers interviewed was that the internal hiring and promotion practices and personnel policies were gender equitable, non-discriminatory and fair. These findings also comply with the MoA Gender Audit findings in all SMIS targeted regions and nationally that the working environments tend to be inclusive, harassment free and non-discriminatory. Senior leaders in the 1100 KII felt budgeting was generally moderately gender responsive. In terms of gaps, a good indicator of gender sensitivity within an organization is its gender balanced staffing from senior management to lower levels. The CNA data collected on male/female balance in the irrigation core processes and departments across the agricultural and water sectors shows that men dominate at all levels. A good example is in the case of the Irrigation and Drainage Work Process for the Amhara Design and Supervision Works Enterprise (ADSWE). Out of 115 existing staff, only six were female staff of which only three were engineers.



In the MoA, most female staff are in the lowest levels due to much lower educational levels. Among development agents, there is only 1 female DA for every 15 male DAs (MoA 2013). By region, in Amhara, women staff represent only 19% of the MoA staff; with low or no representation of women in decision making positions; In Tigray, women account for 30% of total MoA staff and only 15% in senior positions; in SNNPR, there is also major gender imbalances in staffing generally and in senior management levels; and in Oromia, women account for 33% of total staff and even less at woreda levels at 12% and only 19% in higher official and expert categories (Regional Gender Audit 2014:ii). About half of the irrigation institutions and or core processes had some sort of assigned gender advisor. When asked to what extent the gender advisor is involved and consulted in decision making related to SSMI scheme development, most respondents stated it was not at all or minimal. Most leaders interviewed stated that their bureau or agency has some sort of gender strategy, or policy and action plan. There was a range of responses as to whether the policy or strategy was actually being effectively implemented from limited to moderate to a great extent with the most common answer being only moderately. Most senior managers interviewed felt that staff did not have adequate knowledge and support in the form of tools, training and access to a gender advisor, to carry out their work with gender awareness. In capacity building of staff, senior managers interviewed stated that gender sensitive capacity needs assessments are rarely-to-never conducted to identify staff training needs. In training programs to build the capacity of staff, most senior leaders identified that no accommodation is made for women in training programs. Women’s representation in the various training processes typically ranges from 10-25%. Women’s participation in the training programs was rated as minimal to mediocre. There were variations in core SSMI development processes’ staff opinions on whether their institution or process had the necessary and useful gender mainstreaming guidelines and manuals to help them address gender issues in all stages of SSMI development. In SNNPR, most stated there were such guidelines whereas in Amhara and Oromia, there were mixed views. In Tigray, most respondents stated that there were no such guidelines. In terms of whether the institutions involved in SSMI development integrate gender issues into any training covering any step in SSMI development such as on design or construction or tendering, the most common answer was that this was only done to a moderate or small extent. Strengthening Linkages and Partnerships In Oromia, Tigray and SSNPR, offices interviewed stated that they sometimes collaborate or seek out other government or non-government organizations to improve their mutual practice and gender impact. In Amhara, respondents stated that this was not done. Level of Participatory Planning and Design In project planning, senior leaders in the CNA 1100 KIIs gave a range of responses as to whether planning processes are participatory and inclusive of all stakeholders from to a small extent, to moderately to greatly. These results suggest inconsistent practice and lack of a systematic and institutionalized participatory approach to SSMI development. Likewise, core processes and departments responsible for SSMI scheme development from selection to design to construction and Operations and Maintenance FGDs using the 1200-1300 guidelines held similar opinions. They



identified that procedures and participatory approaches to ensure women, including female headed households, are equally represented and involved in each step of SSMI development is very limited to not existent. In Amhara, most discussants felt this was almost never done. Similar practices were identified in the case of youth and socially vulnerable groups. Ensuring youth and vulnerable groups are represented and involved in these processes were identified as almost non-existent. Implementation Most leaders in the 1100 KII believed that consideration of different roles, needs and interests of different stakeholders including women and men and vulnerable groups are only modestly considered in the implementation of activities. The key challenges and problems that have arisen in the various stages of SSI scheme development for ensuring gender equity named were: women’s low participation and leadership; women’s lack of decision making power; and male farmers’ interests tend to be prioritized. M&E and Impact Most senior managers interviewed in the 1100 KIIs felt that M&E systems were gender sensitive but that sex-disaggregated data collection was not consistently carried out and the data was not necessarily used to inform project activities. One good practice found was that the gender advisors in the bureaus of agriculture and the bureau of WYCAs worked with these irrigation sector units at woreda levels to collect data and then this sex-disaggregated data was used by gender advisors to track women’s level of participation in irrigation activities. Good practices were found in Oromia and Tigray. In Oromia, OIDA staff had gender disaggregated data on the number of FHH land owners and numbers that had irrigated land and number of hectares. In Tigray, the Bureau of WYCAs had the same sort of data. This data is important to identify who is benefiting from irrigation schemes but there are gaps in terms of no data on married women or youth in male headed households. More information is needed to understand how this sex-disaggregated data is effectively used or not. Gender Impact When asked whether their offices’ work on SSMI development has an impact on women’s empowerment and gender equality most offices stated that positive changes were small to mediocre. In Amhara, the most common answer was that the SSMI schemes never contribute to such changes.

4.4.2. LEVEL OF GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN SSMI DEVELOPMENT Strengths and Gaps Questionnaire 1200-1300 was used to ask staff from responsible core processes in design, study, scheme management and NRM from the public agencies, and water and agricultural sectors questions on the degree of gender sensitivity in SSMI development. Specific questions were asked about level of gender mainstreaming using the PIDM process as a model. In FGDs, issues raised are that women farmers are not genuinely consulted in selection, detailed study and design processes. Responsible government bodies generally lack capacity and tools to do gender sensitive participatory consultations and planning and analysis through the step by step process of SSMI development. They often informally make efforts to consult with women but such practices are not systematically done and vary between woredas within and between regions. For example in Oromia, OIDA generally has a ten person scheme identification team comprised mainly of



engineers and not always a gender expert. In OIDA, the main tools used by relevant processes in SSMI development are JICA supported tools. These tools have some considerations of gender. They will have to be properly reviewed to see to what degree gender and social equities issues are considered, and quality of participatory approaches offered and how practical and user friendly they are. In each step of the SSI scheme development, from identification/selection criteria, feasibility studies to design, tendering and supervision of construction of SSI Schemes to transfer of O&M responsibility for SSI schemes, relevant staff identified that consideration of women's and men's different needs, roles, and interests are not equally considered. There are major gaps between policy and practice. Main reasons are policymakers and project staff lack a real commitment to gender and awareness of gender issues at project design and implementation phases; there is weak capacity among project and government staff in how to consider gender supported by relevant and useful tools; lack of gender disaggregated data for evidence building, and due to informal cultural norms that pervade all levels of government and in some cases, in SSMI projects (IFAD 2012; Van Koppen 2002; MoA 2013). There is a major challenge in the irrigation sector because many of the key government and private representatives of planners, engineers, extension staff and decision-makers do not consider gender as an important issue; and are often locked into the misconception that women are not farmers. Moreover, there is a gap in how irrigation is seen as more an end in itself rather than as a tool for going from rain-fed subsistence agriculture to more commercialized higher productive farming and marketing systems. In SSMI scheme identification and selection, regional bureaus and regional OIDA bureau staff have some good practices in place to address social inequity issues. They have as criteria gender and social exclusion issues. In Tigray, the BoWR has a socio-economic advisor who also deals with gender. She will ensure that women farmers are consulted. She has designed several tools for helping other staff to conduct participatory and socially equitable consultations for the social and gender studies of the feasibility studies. In her work, she will verify community interest along with checking for water availability, poverty issues and availability of suitable farm land.



4.4.3. MICRO-IRRIGATION PROMOTION Micro-irrigation has the potential to increase productivity and production and household income and nutrition. It enables farmers to harvest more crops per year and can offer women in particular opportunities to grow high value crops like vegetables. It can increase household income from $147/ha to $323/ha per year (ATA 2011:6). Strengths and Gaps Component 3 of the SMIS project will be dedicated to the development of micro irrigation techniques and water/labor saving technologies with a special focus on technologies suited for targeting the specific needs and interests of women and youth. Choice of irrigation technology will have different environmental, social and nutritional implications and technical issues and impacts on agricultural production. For example, “Nkonya et al. (2011) found that women are less likely than men to own, access, or use smallholder irrigation technologies, particularly pumps…irrigation water use—and the associated value chain—also matters. If irrigation is not used for marketable, highly profitable crops, then farmers either will not adopt or will disadopt the technology quickly” (Van Koppen et al 2012 (ref/page?). Moreover, for capacity building in micro-irrigation to be most effective, it must consider the role of irrigation extension services to offer value-chain enhancing support such as access to women, youth and men friendly rural financing and consideration of nutrition sensitive interventions. Some of the same irrigation scheme core processes and institutions that work in SSI scheme development also work on MI development. In all regions the main sources of water for the micro/household irrigation are rivers and streams, and rainwater and in Amhara, SNNPR and Tigray to some extent, groundwater. The most common types of lifting devices installed are hand-driven pumps and motorized diesel pumps. Male headed households, female headed households, married women and youth were all identified as the main beneficiaries to varying degrees of the installed micro-household irrigation systems. The most common beneficiaries were MHHs and FHHs and the least common were married women and vulnerable households and individuals. These results confirm with previous findings that FHHs are over-targeted and WiMHHs and youth are neglected. When asked whether specific social groups were a specific target groups for the development of micro/household irrigation, a common response was that youth and vulnerable groups are not specific target groups. In most FGDs, it was identified that no gender guidelines were available in their micro-household irrigation development manuals to ensure equal access of women and men.

4.4.4. OPPORTUNITIES, GOOD PRACTICES AND LESSONS LEARNED IN SSMI DEVELOPMENT Growing evidence shows that a key factor to success of SSI and micro irrigation is full consideration of the social, economic, environmental, natural, gender and nutritional issues in SSMI development on the affected communities involved. The government of Ethiopia has also recognized the need for such holistic approaches in its integrated watershed management approach. Considering the high costs of irrigation development and potential benefits in all these development outcomes, selection and feasibility reviews and development of irrigation schemes must move beyond simple technical considerations to looking at environmental sustainability, nutrition and health impacts and gender equality and women’s empowerment. There are opportunities to strengthen relevant government



institutions’ capacities, systems, tools and skills particularly in strengthening participatory gender sensitive approaches in all stages of the PIDM approach. One way to reconsider irrigation systems is to look at them within a broad social, economic, environmentally-sustainable livelihoods framework that examines the physical, economic, social and environmental needs of affected women and men, young and old. This sustainable livelihoods approach would move away from only looking at the technical and agricultural production benefits of irrigation scheme development. The positive and negative effects of irrigation interventions on different household and community members such as irrigators, non-irrigators, children and women and landowners and land users can then be examined using gender and social analysis within a sustainable livelihoods perspective throughout the PIDM. “Measuring and understanding such differences, followed by improving design and implementation to maximize gender, health, and nutrition outcomes, could transform irrigation programs from focusing solely on increased food production toward becoming an integral component of poverty-reduction strategies” (Domenech and Ringler 2013:5). This perspective is supported by the Government of Ethiopia’s irrigation sector policies own sound situational and institutional assessments and the recognition that all irrigation development must be formulated in sustainable and socially equitable ways. These principles are based on key lessons learnt that focusing only on technical aspects of schemes and ignoring environmental sustainability and or the full involvement and participation of affected communities and different community members within households and between households have led to the failure of many irrigation schemes in Ethiopia. One review of donor-supported SSMI schemes in Ethiopia showed that projects that ignored unequal gender relations in SSMI under-performed (Awulachew 2005). The author demonstrates that ensuing women’s equal participation and benefit is often a condition for successful take up and maintenance; “In projects in which women’s irrigation activities were taken away, and reallocated to men [due to men’s interest in controlling profitable on and off farm activities], this even led the scheme collapse or women leaving settlement activities, returning to their original villages” (2005:29). Lack of participatory planning and design and single-use irrigation focus brought limited results to whole communities and to balancing domestic and agricultural farming/marketing needs and interests; and sidelined women-dominated farming systems such as horticulture. Studies on irrigation projects that ignored gender issues and sustainable livelihoods issues such as social, economic and productive assets showed the many negative effects including worsening existing gender and social inequalities. Effects included:

• Lack of appropriate technologies • Women/youth/marginalized groups left out of decision making and existing marginalization

reinforced; • Women rejecting schemes (Awulachew 2005) • Increasing workloads of women and girls • Gender inequalities perpetuated • Opportunity lost of empowering women to reach their potential • Reinforced marginalization of youth and FHHs and men’s domination in agriculture • Problems with the uptake of the SSI scheme itself.



For example, while horticulture is more a women’s crop domain, reviews have shown that with SSMI schemes, husbands/men may take over because they have easier access to household and community resources. “Family farm or household income may see improvements but women have lost their control over land and income » (IFAD 2012: 10). Key to success is use of participatory methodologies and planning processes from the selection criteria, feasibility studies, design, and construction to eventual transfer of operation and maintenance to end users or the water user organizations. Key approaches are livelihoods-based planning and design and use of PRA techniques (FAO 2001). One lesson learnt from gender reviews of irrigation projects is that understanding intra and inter household gender dynamics in agricultural and household reproductive and productive and gender differences in incentives in terms of capital and labor in engaging in irrigation activities must be taken into consideration in designing SSI schemes (FAO 2001). Other gender reviews of irrigation projects have shown the need to ensure participatory gender sensitive planning and implementation (FAO 2001; 2012). At design phase, a gender lens within a livelihoods systems approach to the farming systems must be captured to identify the availability of women’s and men’s work in the household and wider community and expected impacts of the interventions on women‘s and men’s income, time use and social power. Innovative approaches should be used to ensure affected female and male project beneficiaries are involved from the beginning using important participatory approaches already defined in the PIDM approach of local farmer/project committees with representation of all stakeholders and with explicit efforts to include landowners and land users. Labour contribution of project beneficiaries in construction can be very significant and cost effective. “Few types of construction cannot be carried out by women if they are provided with suitable tools and guidance” (World Bank 2009: 231). A major goal of the SMIS project will be to integrate gender guidelines, tips and elements into the PIDM approach and process to ensure women's and men's different needs, roles, and interests are equally considered in each step of the SSI scheme development, from identification/selection criteria, feasibility studies to design, tendering and supervision of construction of SSI Schemes to transfer of O&M responsibility for SSI schemes to WUAs and or irrigation cooperatives. Procedures and participatory approaches will be developed to ensure that women, including WiMHHs and FHHs, youth and other vulnerable groups are equally represented and involved in each step.



Much can be learned from the SWHISA project’s gender mainstreaming efforts. There were gender guidelines developed in the PIDM manual but most of the gender mainstreaming concepts, strategies and tools relevant to the PIDM work were in separate documents and sometimes as a parallel process rather than being fully integrated. The SMIS project should take as a best practice the aim to ensure that at least 20% of community participants and decision makers are women. As another consideration, as the lead on gender mainstreaming in the MoA, WYAD’s gender mainstreaming guidelines and tools provide important guidance and minimum requirements on ensuring equitable participation in all project and program design, planning, implementation and M&E. It provides clear guidelines on participatory planning which links to the national SSI capacity building strategy for Ethiopia’s focus on enhancing community participation and ownership of SSI schemes. It states:

• Participatory planning methods should be used to ensure women and men equally contribute their labor, knowledge and resources as well as equal benefit.

• Provide additional support to women (e.g. literacy, management/leadership skills with agricultural technology operations;

• Consider religious and other barriers in designing agricultural technologies such as irrigation technology should be appropriate to be operated and maintained by women;

• Ensure women’s representation in decision making is part of the core program rather than a side agenda;

• Ensure equal access to land and other productive resources, like improved livestock varieties, irrigation and ensure the use of community management structures and possibility of women’s organizations. Women’s participation should not merely be to increase their number but to help them to be able to influence decisions on the management of the project (MoA 2013).

Gender-based barriers/constraints are that women farmers often do not own the means of production; face major limitations; and because irrigation agriculture is often focused on higher yield crops; men may take over. To be gender responsive and equitable, special measures in design must

Good practice guidelines to consider in the SMIS from SWHISA gender mainstreaming in PIDM planning processes are: During all stages of the PIDM approach, the specific needs and preferences of female farmers must be taken into account with regard to the planning, design, and management of the irrigation system. During the planning and design stages, female farmers will be represented in the Planning Committees and Design Committees respectfully in order to ensure that their specific needs and preferences are incorporated into the design of the rehabilitation/modernisation or new construction, including provision of social structures. At least 20% of the seats of the Management Committees (MC) of the irrigation cooperatives are to be reserved for female farmers to ensure the specific needs and preferences of female farmers are taken into account during the planning and execution of the O&M activities. Support to irrigation extension program activities will focus on the specific needs of female farmers, including interventions aimed at reducing their workload through the introduction of simple, low-cost equipment. To address women’s low active participation in Awareness meetings due to presence of male villagers, government/SMIS project staff must arrange separate meetings with female farmers to ensure they have the opportunity to be fully informed about the planned rehabilitation/modernisation or new construction, the formation and capacity building of irrigation cooperatives and the implementation of irrigation extension programs (SWISHA PIDM Procedure Manual 2011).



be put in place to ensure at the least, a do-no-harm and to even challenge and improve women’s status such as by prioritizing multi-use design; ensuring clear gender guidelines in all stages of SSMI development; and ensuring women’s equal participation and benefit in WUOs. These kinds of strategies are not currently deliberately implemented by GoE sectors working in SSMI development. In feasibility studies, in mapping and technology selection it is important to effectively consult all stakeholders; to look at future predictions; to consider indigenous knowledge; differences in gender roles and responsibilities in crops and farming and select appropriate technologies based on gender differences with attention to explore non-traditional roles and opportunities. For example, women can be supported to break into more lucrative value chains through increasing their knowledge and access to inputs and markets. There must be consideration of the means to address differences in need and priorities arising from differences in activities and responsibilities in water use; and identification of opportunities to address inequalities of access and control over water resources (FAO 2001). In recent years, increasing emphasis is placed on the participatory planning and implementation of irrigation schemes, and on management transfer. Irrigation institutions need to evolve from the execution, operation and maintenance of schemes, to a more coordinating and facilitating role. In order to estimate institutional capacity for the integration of socio-economic and gender issues and participatory irrigation planning, FAO recommends to:

• Assess the capacity, at the macro and intermediate levels, of irrigation and agricultural service institutions to work in a participatory manner with all different groups of stakeholders;

• Evaluate their motivation to work with and support women and men farmers and farmers from resource poor households;

• Identify constraints and propose solutions, such as the training of existing staff or recruitment of additional staff.

• Assess at the field level, the importance of and access to local groups and institutions for different socio-economic groups and for both women and men. (E.g. use Venn diagram)

• Consider at the field level, the opportunities and constraints for establishing or strengthening WUAs for new or rehabilitated schemes, and the opportunities for various social groups and women and men, to actively participate in decision making processes. (FAO 2011: 22)

• Must consider existing land ownership/use patterns to identify opportunities and constraints to women and men and different socio economic groups accessing the irrigation schemes.

The SMIS project must incorporate these kinds of participatory good practice guidelines into the revisions of GoE relevant SSMI sector targeted institutions in its capacity development strategies. Strategies identified to promote more equitable access to water and irrigated land for women and men could, depending on the local situation and in co-ordination with the community, include measures to:

• Apply and experiment with gender transformative household level interventions to engage husbands and wives in irrigation extension services or flexible household membership in



WUAs to support more cooperative gender equitable relations and benefit in SSMI development. Membership may be based on dual ownership of land and thus dual membership in the WUA whereby married women and men are members and have a voice in decision making.

• Conduct more in-depth research into the local legal position of women and men concerning their access to and control over natural resources;

• Support national, regional and local advocacy groups that aim to enhance and enforce the legal rights of women;

• Provide legal education for women and men, as well as for government and other organizations’ staff;

• Allocate irrigated plots to women identified as heads of farm households; • Put the title to irrigated plots in joint names of the couple or divide family land between

husband and wife/wives with individual titles; • Promote collective land and water rights for women, especially for women from marginal

groups; • Promote the organization of women groups to claim and protect their rights; and • Pay attention to measures that secure land and water rights of women in male-headed

households, so that they are able to continue to farm the land upon the death of the husband or after divorce.

• Discussions should be started with the farmers, village councils and government representatives concerning the allocation of plots on an individual basis as compared to a household basis. Consequently, a decision needs to be made regarding equitable and efficient plot distribution (FAO 2011: 29).

Based on this discussion, the SMIS project will have to support the SSMI sectors to strengthen inter-linkages with other agricultural projects and services to pay careful attention to gender sensitive value chain; women and men’s input supplies needs and interests; special attention to women’s labor saving technology needs and use of participatory M&E.

4.5. Policy Responses to Water User Associations

This section is based on a literature review of the quality of women’s participation in WUAs and results from the recent SMIS capacity needs assessment. Questionnaire 1300 was used to ask the responsible government processes and institutions involved in supporting WUAs questions about the quality and quantity of services they provide to these groups. Questions covered the establishment, formation and registration of these groups as legal entities to asking about how they build capacity of the groups in financial and administrative management to O&M and water management. The main government processes were within the Ministry of Agriculture and affiliated with the national Cooperative Promotion Agency (CPA). Gender questions were integrated into the questions asked. Generally informal WUAs are supported to become formal irrigation cooperatives (ICs) following national Cooperative Promotion Agency (CPA) Policies and Acts. As the costs of maintaining SSI schemes are relatively high, the main policy directive guiding the establishment and formation of WUAs is to formalize them into irrigation cooperatives with proper by-laws. A new national Water User Proclamation has just been issued which sets gender quotas in management committees. As



most regional governments have not yet developed new policies based on the new law, they still set up cooperatives based on the previous proclamation which encourages 30% representation of women in cooperative executive committees (two to three out of seven). The main policy directives used by regional bureaus and zonal and woreda offices are the Cooperative Promotion Agency’s main generic manuals for establishing cooperatives. These manuals have one gender sensitive criteria of ensuring management committees have two female members out of seven. Recently, JICA has worked with the Oromia regional government to develop specific manuals on how to establish and develop irrigation WUAs. For example, the Irrigation Water User Association Formation and Development Manual was recently finalized and has some gender and social equity considerations. The two and only main gender guidelines are: No member or potential member shall be discriminated against based on sex, age, education, and ethnicity. The minimum requirement is that irrigation WUAs (IWUAs) have at least two female members out of seven on the management committee. While this is a good start, the main gap is providing tips and participatory tools on how to ensure women and youth representation and active participation in meetings and membership. Such tips might include creating women only spaces to prepare their perspectives before meeting with men or holding meetings at times when women are more available.

4.5.1. ACCESS AND PARTICIPATION IN WATER USER ORGANIZATIONS Water user groups, associations and irrigation cooperatives are generally male-dominated.12 One reason is that generally as community-based groups become more formalized, women’s participation tends to decrease, while that of men increases (World Bank 2009: 63–70). Women are much more likely to be members of informal self-help groups, like village level saving and loan groups, than of more formal groups due to the greater social and economic gains they experience in these informal groups. Women tend to self-organize around domains under their direct control, such as small vegetable production and marketing (Pionetti et al., 2010: 1). These gender based differences and preferences should be considered in rethinking how to make WUAs more women and youth friendly. Innovative ideas are creating plural organizational structures within the ICs so that informal groups of women and youth might also be members of the ICs as sub-groups (World Bank 2009). Even though there are more women members in WUA management committees, they may not actively or freely voice their needs and concerns due to male-dominated discussions. In final decision making, their perspectives may be neglected (MoA 2013; Yami 2013). Moreover, the women represented in WUAs are mostly FHHs because a criterion for membership is being a household head and landowner. Married women are generally excluded from these groups all together because the male household head is assumed to represent the “whole household unit.” The problem with this assumption is that women and men in households often do not have the same interests and priorities and thus this assumption marginalizes women’s interests and her economic interests but also often women’s primary interest in the wellbeing of children and the household such as to invest directly in children’s education. Men may be more interested in reinvesting in their cash cropping. Recent research indicates that women members take on a more passive role and end up missing “meetings and events due to work burden at home, inconveniences of meeting schedules, feeling

12 Women represent only 20 percent of agricultural cooperatives (Woldu et al 2013).



that they do not bring any change whether they participate or not, influences of husbands (for WiMHH) and other reasons” Socio-cultural barriers contribute to this lack of motivation and interest among women (MoA/ATA 2015: 17-18). These women must be provided with leadership and more women-friendly services to motivate their participation and leadership. In addition, leaders at all levels must be engaged in questioning negative gender stereotypes and discrimination against women and other groups. A key challenge is their lack of voice and influence in decision making. Important to note that it is more likely to be more well off FHHs landowners with some financial means who are able to meet the need for money and ownership of productive resources like land that are able to access cooperatives. These women also may have more experience in engaging in male-dominated groups as single women. There needs to be positive discrimination to provide less well-off women with increased financial and technical support. Based on the literature review, the main barriers to women and youth’s low participation and leadership in WUOs are:

• Biased membership criteria - Exclusionary or male/educated/wealthy farmer biased criteria of membership and leadership selection; i.e. must have livelihoods assets like land. Women represent only 20% of membership in cooperatives (Woldu et al 2013).

• Women’s lack of ownership of productive resources of land and credit are major barriers. They are key conditions for membership. Only 18.6% of landowners are women and 57% of non-landowners are women in Ethiopia (MoA 2013: iv). Mainly FHHs meet this criteria and they represent the majority of women members in ICs.

• Women’s weak agency - Women’s lower social, economic and educational status; low self-confidence; and fear to speak out all influence their lack of interest and motivation to join formal farming groups. They hesitate to be a part of a male-dominated organization and lack leadership skills and experience.

• There are differences between female household heads and married women. Female household heads may have easier access and interest to join more formalized farmers groups like WUOs. FHHs are more likely to own land and to be less constrained by husbands or male relatives in their mobility.

• Women and men’s perceptions of male and female farmers are shaped by dominant and biased gender norms. There is a general acceptance that for married women, it is better for their husbands to represent them as the socially recognized household heads and decision makers.

• Studies show that land ownership, women and youth’s low literacy, lack of leadership skills, weak asset-ownership, age, ethnicity, and so on also influence access and participation of women and youth to common interest groups (AGP 2014).

• Lack of gender sensitivity of project staff and WUO management involved in establishing WUOs (IFAD 2012a: 12). E.g. group leaders’ limited knowledge of how to mobilize FHHs and youth (MoA 2013; Yami 2013). Moreover, there is a need for staff that are genuinely committed to changing gender and socially based inequalities and are willing to make significant changes rather than simply making lip-service such as just increasing numbers of women in certain targeted activities without trying to increase women’s ability and voice



and men’s acceptance and openness to share decision making with female members and leaders.

• Gender roles and responsibilities – rural women face particular challenges to engaging in WUAs and may be discouraged from joining due to the increased demands required in operation and management of the SSMI schemes/technologies that may create additional time and labor demands to their existing heavy work burdens. SSI schemes and WUA’s may demand members to irrigate at night, however for women farmers this may be difficult due to security concerns. Water distribution systems may not offer this flexibility (World Bank 2009; 230).

• Gender misconceptions – Women are often not considered real farmers because they dominate in small-scale less profitable agriculture and remain invisible and under recognized as “family/Household farm » and unpaid laborers, controlled by husbands (World Bank and IFPRI 2010: Waller 2013);

Women are assumed to be physically weak and thus it is inappropriate for them to do physically demanding work such as plowing seen as male-domain. One multi-country study found that women were excluded from the WUOs because it was assumed that women do not physically irrigate fields, seen more as men’s domain (IFADa: 2012: 11) In the CNA 1300 FGDs, the main strategies listed by those interviewed to facilitate effective involvement of farmers in the formation of WUOs is through regular joint preparation meetings with farmers. FGD participants also identified that typically FHH landowners will equally participate as male land owners but married women or landless FHHs and youth will not be involved. They have no procedures in place to consult with youth or other vulnerable groups. Strengths and Achievements in Government Support to WUAs From the formation of WUAs to registration to capacity building in administrative and financial management to water management, the responsible core processes have some forms of procedures in place to ensure women, including female headed households, are equally involved. They use informal strategies to involve farmers such as informal meetings. In the formation and registration of WUAs, they are guided by the national Cooperative Societies Act for the WUOs to become irrigation cooperatives. Most stated that they follow the regional and federal cooperative promotion legislation that at least 30% of members on the management committees should be women. Registration of WUOs is mainly done through The main guidelines have some gender considerations but staff had mixed views on whether the CPA’s guidelines were gender sensitive or ensured women’s active representation including in leadership. No considerations are provided in the manuals to engage youth. The main strategies for ensuring equitable participation are initial awareness campaigns, information meetings and regular management committee representation. Gaps and Weaknesses The main gaps they face for equally targeting and involving women, is the general lack of women’s participation, conflicts between farmers and socio-cultural barriers preventing women’s



participation. FGD groups identified the need for training in participatory and conflict resolution methods to overcome these gaps in equity. While there are minimum requirements in place to ensure representation of women in the WUOs and its management committee, there are no requirements for youth or vulnerable groups. The majority of these core processes follow cooperative policy to ensure 30% of Management Committee must be female. The Cooperative Offices are involved in WUO capacity building in administrative and financial management but have no guidelines to consider gender issues to ensure equitable and inclusive membership, participation and leadership. In M&E, there were mixed views on whether the respective units/processes collected sex-disaggregated data and whether activities contributed to the empowerment of women and gender equality. These results indicate a lot more systematic and rigorous gender sensitive M&E capacity building support must be given. Opportunities One important opportunity is the current policy quota system of minimum numbers of two women in a seven member management committee. There is an opportunity to encourage other quotas in membership representation of women and men, of youth and landowners and land users. By increasing women numbers, a critical mass can help build up women members’ confidence and sense that WUAs and ICs are women-friendly spaces too. Working with the WYCAs offices, gender advisors in other sectors and or linking with existing women’s leadership training programs, opportunities must be created to build women’s capacities in leadership and group management. These trainings could also be integrated into the regular administration and financial and water management training components. Another good practice is experimenting with different kinds of organizational pluralisms to move away from the traditional WUA model of being comprised only of landowners and only of female and male headed farmers. A key issue in accessing irrigation projects is landownership. A gender and socially equitable way of addressing the fact that not all water users are land owners is to create special measures to ensure landowners and land users both have access. Innovative ways is to support existing women and youth groups that may already be renting land for communal gardens or NRM projects and to support them to be sub-groups of WUAs (World Bank 2009). Moreover, in water user associations’ labour contributions in SSI/MI, ensure fair and equitable employment opportunities (World Bank 2009: 233). Mechanisms are needed to ensure that women and youth, particularly the most marginalized, are included in the membership, decision-making committees and the irrigation professionals of the WUAs. Specifically, WUAs can:

• Abolish the one member per household rule, and allow dual or multiple membership within a single household;

• Reserve positions for women farmers in WUAs to ensure proper representation of the needs of all farmers;

• Allow men to designate their wives as members and vice-versa, and establish liberal membership recruitment procedures;



• Set targets for the percentage of women members in WUAs that correspond to the actual participation of women in irrigated agriculture;

• Ensure that women members also play a decision-making role in the associations.This may, for example, require specific training and support to overcome cultural constraints, e.g. women who are not used to speaking in public or in mixed groups.

• Separate preparatory meetings might also be required in which women prepare their points of view and reach consensus on certain issues, which they can then present in the mixed meetings; and

• Give both women and men responsibility for water management, such as the operation of gates, guarding the water flow or the distribution of water while being responsive to women’s additional work burdens (FAO 2001)

The SMIS project has been designed to strengthen public and private organizations capacity to support the whole irrigated agricultural system. It has a strong commitment to strengthening and creating linkages between government initiatives and donor –funded projects and programs supporting agricultural growth and sustainability. There are opportunities to link SMIS supported SSMI schemes with other gender sensitive agricultural support and irrigation projects and programs such as in gender sensitive value chain development and micro financing being promoted under LIVES (See Annex 3). Irrigated agriculture is often focused on higher yield crops and even if a crop may be more women-owned, men may take over traditionally female controlled farming such as horticulture as the economic benefits increase due to increased access to irrigation. In Ethiopia, there is cause for concern if investments in high value agricultural value chains ignore women. “If this gender concern is not properly addressed, it will affect the long term sustainability of the envisioned growth and transformation of the agricultural sector in Ethiopia” (LIVES PIP 2012; 12). Lack of identification of gender-based farming systems leads to seeing households as one entity when women and men may have different controlled farming systems and thus different practical needs and strategic interests in irrigation schemes. A central opportunity is to build on the good practices and lessons learned of what works and does not work from past participatory SSMI projects in Ethiopia and internationally. A key project to learn from is the SWHISA project that was implemented in Amhara in 2005-2011. It was a six-year undertaking implemented by the Amhara National Regional State of Ethiopia with support from the Canadian International Development Agency. SWHISA’s purpose was to strengthen the capacity of institutions involved in water harvesting to work together effectively on strengthening farmers’ associations, communities and families in planning, designing, implementing and managing sustainable water harvesting and use of water for irrigation. Gender and HIV/AIDS were cross-cutting issues that were mainstreamed into the implementation of SWHISA in all technical and capacity building related to the project intervention components. The SWHISA project used the PIDM participatory step by step process in SSI scheme development to build community ownership and sustainability based on integrated watershed management principles. At all stages of the PIDM, the specific needs and preferences of women and men farmers were considered with regard to planning design, and management of the irrigation system. To ensure this, Planning Committees and Design Committees were set up with targets of



at least 20% of the seats being filled by female farmers. A final gender impact assessment of the SWHISHA project (Mantegbosh 2010) found that the following interventions were effective:

• Focused on increasing women’s participation in sustainable water harvesting (SWH) • Building awareness and gender sensitivity among government staff and farmers • Focused on increasing women’s economic empowerment through increasing their access to

technologies including reducing their work burden through low-cost labour-saving devices • Focused on increasing women’s representation and leadership in government

The impact evaluation also showed as one significant result that 25% of participants were FHHs. A weakness was that there were fewer married women targeted especially in decision making structures. Ongoing challenges were men representing their wives in WUOs and women’s limited access to credit and saving schemes (Mantegbosh 2010). Additional innovative efforts were sending extension worker couples; providing labour-saving tools; designing specific training sessions with FHHs and married women to ensure their knowledge, participation and engagement in household irrigated agriculture; and ensuring a safe and secure place free from harassment and violence. The final gender impact assessment (Mantegbosh 2010) concluded that while SSI may increase women’s incomes more is needed to increase her self-confidence and to promote gender respectful and joint shared decisions making in the couples. A key issue is developing more gender transformative approaches to change cultural attitudes adopted by women themselves and perpetuated by wider community structures and power holders. In order to maximize on the potential benefits of SSMI schemes for improved household nutrition and food security, gender and nutrition-sensitive behavior change and awareness-raising of women and men on gender equality and nutrition must be integrated into capacity building of extension, ATVET curriculum and in support to WUOs. Several successful projects in Ethiopia, particularly IFAD’s Participatory Small-scale Irrigation Development Program (PASIDP) in Amhara region had as a core component to its project to support equitable land tenure as a condition for SSI selection and development. Amhara has a particularly strong regional land registration and recertification institutional capacity. The Amhara revised proclamation No 133/2006 on Rural Land Administration and Use gives priority in land allocation to women, disabled and orphans and requires gender balance in land administration and land use committees. These new legal commitments offer opportunities for SMIS to support stronger collaboration and linkages between the main government institutions responsible for land policies and cooperative offices supporting WUAs to become ICs. Another innovative component of the recertification and registration systems had been to set up a decentralization system of elected Land Use and Administration Committees (LACs) at village levels to be involved in land registration and certification. According to one study, as of 2012, in Amhara, about 25% of Land Administration and Use Committees members and 38% of grassroots supportive bodies involved in local level formal government land administration were women (Romano 2013: 8). In this same study, it was found that as of 2013, in Amhara, out of 3.5 million households that have registered their land holdings, 52% are registered in the name of both spouses, 27% are registered to women and 21% to men (Romano 2013: 8). These changes to land certification in



favour of more equitable and joint land ownership should be considered in the selection and development of SSMI. One selection criteria for the piloting and modernizing of SSI schemes could be to select communities and districts with more equitable land rights already in place.

4.6. What are the Linkages Between Gender Equality and Nutrition to Successful SSMI?

One of SMIS cross-cutting themes is to address nutritional issues by strategically supporting government partners to develop and support irrigated agricultural activities that support rural households’ crop diversification in ways that support greater nutritional and diet diversity. As a key element of SMIS is strengthening government sector inter-linkages and synergies, there are key opportunities to support nutrition-sensitive activities or indirect interventions such as in agriculture, water and sanitation that positively affect nutrition outcomes. The challenges are poor coordination and capacity for nutrition support to create the multi-sectoral response for this multi-faceted issue. There are opportunities for the SMIS project to support promoting nutrition sensitive interventions by working with MoH and MoA linkages and PSNP and AGP.

4.6.1. KEY GENDER AND NUTRITION ISSUES The majority of Ethiopians are rural smallholder farmers who are unable to meet food, nutritional and income security. Despite some improvements in nutrition indicators for Ethiopia, women and children are disproportionately represented among those most vulnerable to poor health and nutrition. Forty percent of children under age five are stunted, 9 percent are wasted, 25 percent are underweight (EDHS 2014). Malnutrition is the underlying cause of 57% of child deaths in Ethiopia, with some of the highest rates of stunting and underweight in the world. Quality of diet of infants and children is very low; only 4% meet the minimum dietary diversity threshold of four food groups (Ethiopia Nutrition Situation Analysis (2010)). A major issue is micronutrient deficiency such as low iron, vitamin A, iodine and zinc. Anemia rates among children 6-59 months remain high contributing to morbidity and mortality. Iron deficiency is the cause of half of all anemia cases. Among women 15-49 years of age, 26% are malnourished and 17 percent have anemia (EDHS 2011). These deficiencies can affect physical and mental functions and growth, brain development in pregnancy, vision and increased disease risk. Contributing factors to under nutrition include widespread poverty, limited employment opportunities, poor infrastructure, high population pressure, low education levels, inadequate access to clean water and sanitation, high rates of migration, and poor access to health services. Underlying household agricultural production and marketing factors include farmers’ low knowledge and education, smallholder plots (averaging half a hectare), limited crop diversity and lack of access to improved productive technologies, irrigation and agricultural markets and so on. Another issue is the lack of awareness and knowledge among rural women and men farmers and institutions ‘including universities and TVETS, woreda offices, DAs and health extension workers (HEWs) at kebele levels as well as donor-funded projects and programmes” on nutrition (EKN 2014: 25). High rates of malnutrition are directly related to women and girls’ low economic, social, health and nutritional status (EDHS 2014). There is a direct correlation between a mother’s health and social status and therefore, ability to properly care and feed her child, and her child’s wellbeing, including health and nutritional status (EDHS 2014). Women generally reinvest their small incomes, time and



energy in basic household needs and livelihood for the overall wellbeing of the household. In times of crisis, underlying gender bias coupled with women and girls’ lower decision-making and bargaining power mean that household coping strategies, like selling off assets and eating less, may put women and children at a greater disadvantage. Unequal gender dynamics mean women and girls have much lower nutritional and health statuses and less bargaining power as compared to men and boys to actively participate in household decision-making and to access and have control over food and cash allocations critical to proper child care and child health and nutrition. Very few studies have shown the direct positive and negative effects of SSMI irrigation on the nutritional status of rural households (Domenech and Ringler 2013). Irrigated agriculture can lead to increased crop production, increased numbers of harvests per year and crop diversification for greater nutritional crop production (Domenech and Ringler 2013: 8). One study in Ethiopia found that by supporting diversification of household production in remote areas where households have low access to markets saw improvements in nutrition and dietary diversity (Aseyehegn et al. 2012). To what degree household members benefit from increased food production and crop diversification, however, depends on household decision making on agricultural production, consumption and sale. Evidence shows that women’s empowerment has direct benefits to improved household health and wellbeing largely because of women’s primary roles and interests in daily household health and nutritional wellbeing. For these reasons, special attention must go to ensure women and girls’ equitable access and control of resources while also ensuring women and broader institutions support gender equality including male farmers, community and government role models and leaders, SSMI experts and senior government management. Close attention must be paid to possible negative effects of irrigation projects on household nutrition and health such as the increased demands for labor brought on with irrigation systems (Aseyehegn, Yirga and Rajan 2012). This can risk increasing women’s already heavy labor and time constraints as family farm laborers. Irrigated agricultural requires more agricultural inputs such as increased use of pesticides, fertilizers and other chemicals. These chemicals can bring risks of negative health and nutritional impacts. Gender inequalities within the household and between households may lead to diversion of needed nutritious dense crop selection, production and consumption or income for food to cash cropping.

4.6.2. LINKAGES WITH POLICIES The GoE has recognized the urgent need to improve the nutritional status of rural farming households, particularly women and children who are disproportionately vulnerable to poor health and nutrition.13 In 2008, it developed a National Nutrition Strategy and a National Nutrition Program (NNP) that was revised in 2013 and is supported by donors such as the World Bank, UNICEF and USAID. The current NNP focuses on preventive community based nutrition (CBN) but a new phase is set to start in 2016 for another four years. The NNP recognizes the multiple root causes of nutrition-related challenges in Ethiopia including deeply rooted family and community cultural beliefs such as food taboos and root causes of low agricultural productivity. The program focuses on women and children.

13 See Annex 2 for a detailed analysis of key gender and nutrition issues in SSMI development and systems.



One key program is the Community-based Nutrition (CBN) program which takes a life cycle approach to support improvements in nutrition for adolescents, mothers, children and infants by focusing on behavior change strategies at family and community levels in child care practices and health seeking behaviors. The CBN focuses on developing nutrition sensitive interventions with agriculture, education, water and social protection sectors. The program is being implemented in SMIS four regions. The program also involves supporting communities to increase local production of complementary foods but on a small scale in 20-50 woredas. A key strategic window for SMIS nutrition sensitive interventions are to promote essential linkages with national, regional, district and kebele level multi-sector coordination bodies such as the national Nutrition Coordination Body. These multi-sector mechanisms implement, coordinate and oversee the nutrition specific and sensitive programs aimed at improving nutrition in multi-pronged ways and to address the direct, immediate causes of under nutrition (UNICEF 2014). The SMIS project support to the promotion of MI and improved SSMI curriculum in A-TVETs and farmer-service provider linkages and services will be linked into the NNP. It will draw from the NNP’s 2013 gender analysis, action plan assessment and gender responsive nutrition programming job guide. A main strategic priority is to support irrigation extension government partners to engage in nutrition coordination bodies to ensure support to nutrition-dense irrigated agriculture and nutrition education among SSMI area farmers.

4.6.3. OPPORTUNITIES There are opportunities through SMIS’ support to SSI schemes and MI technologies to support women specifically to produce high yielding and diverse crops and to ensure other value chain enhancing support activities such as improved seeds, access to credit and MI technologies. This support can have nutritional benefits such as increased access to fresh vegetables, and animal sources. There can also be increased crop diversification and diet diversity to reducing iron deficiency in pregnant and lactating women; and reduce incidences of underweight and wasting among children (Domenech and Ringler 2013: 8). In MI promotion, there must be gender sensitive selection of labor/water-saving technologies. Evidence shows that Treadle water pumps enabled women farmers to irrigate small plots from underground or surface water sources and, in turn, to increase their harvests and incomes (Gill et al 2010: 10). In Ethiopia, there is great potential for micro irrigation technologies such as low cost drip irrigation, small bucket and drip systems, pitcher irrigation, treadle pumps, hand and pulley pumps which are individual based and low cost (Awulachew 2005: 40). At community levels, one opportunity is to find ways to support couple extension services and flexible joint membership in WUAs and ICs in ways that support effective partnership between women and men based on more equal gender relations with shared vision of higher productivity and gains for the whole household.

4.7. Gender and Extension Services

4.7.1. LINKAGES TO POLICIES The GoE has invested much in expanding the quality and quantity of agricultural extension services in the country. It has one of the largest agricultural extension programs in Africa (Ragasu et al 2013).



In 2005, as part of the current GoE’s attempts at good governance reforms, the number of extension agents went from one agent per kebele to three specialized in crops, livestock, and natural resource management. Additional irrigation extension experts will only be added to this basic three member team if there are a significant number of irrigation schemes in the area. In 2011, women received 38.22% of the benefit of public spending on extension services. One study (Ragasa et al., 2013) found that female-headed households and women plot managers are less likely to access extension services compared to male farmers. MHHs are more likely “to be visited, to attend community meetings, and to visit demonstration plots and research centers. That said, the study found that female headed households with more male members are more likely to be visited and to participate in various extension events) than female-headed households comprised primarily of women” (Farnworth et al. 2015: 25). Moreover, de jure female heads of household have significantly less access to community meetings and to radio than de facto (where the man has emigrated for work) female heads. The Women and Rural Development Package (2006-present) is a central policy strategy the MoA developed to address significant gender disparities in access and the need for women-friendly extension services for rural women farmers. To this day, rural women farmers produce significantly less than male farmers and have lower technical adoption and input use due to lower land size and unequal access to needed agricultural extension services and general gender insensitivity of the system (Ragasu et al 2013).

4.7.2. MAIN BARRIERS TO GENDER DISPARITIES IN EXTENSION SERVICES The main barriers to women’s participation in extension services are:

• Limited capacity of implementers and gender experts on how to practically mainstream gender in their services and how to facilitate WiMHHs and FHHs’ active participation. They assume having their nominal representation is enough. Assigned gender unit experts often lack skills on gender mainstreaming.

• Other issues are husbands may not allow women to do to extension training or demonstrations. Some courses are for farmers with higher education than women farmers who generally have low literacy levels.

• Gender expert machinery is not fully in place – gender positions are in place at regional levels but not in all regions at zonal and district levels. District level gender unit positions are functional in Amhara but there are still gaps in SNNPR and almost none in Tigray and Oromiya (WYAD/MoA/ATA 2015: 14).

• Limited resources and budgets- in most regions and districts, there is no proper allocation of budget to district level gender units).

• Limited institutional support including leadership – gender is not prioritized.

A recent WYAD/MoA and ATA study (2015) involved direct consultations with rural women farmers about the gaps in extension services and about their practical needs and strategic interests. For women, the obstacles are;

• Negative attitudes and gender stereotypes are a significant challenge. There is an ongoing male-biased assumption that women farmers do not know about agriculture or that they do



not know how to lead. Most development agents are men and tend to speak with the head of the household, which excludes most women, and are unable to speak to women due to cultural taboos such as a man should not speak with a married woman alone or due to gender stereotypes that “women are not farmers,” and so they may prioritize male farmers, particularly wealthy educated ones. Other stereotypes and misconceptions to avoid are assuming target groups are “head of household”, or “cash crop/subsistence crop farmer” or that targeting women means supporting them only in traditionally stereotypical women controlled crops such as vegetables and not supporting them to increase their production of high value crops like coffee or teff.

Many women interviewed in the WYAD/ATA study explained that they are not comfortable voicing their opinions in front of men due to their lack of experience and education in leading and managing more formalized groups. Women are often seen as a “passive receipt of information and technology” (MoA/ATA 2015: 18). There is limited understanding of women and youth needs and interests, and a general failure of developing women-friendly services and technologies. The main reasons why WiMHH are not participating or being targeted include: married women are preoccupied with their domestic duties and may be constrained by their husband’s control over their mobility. The WYAD/MoA/ATA (2015) study found that extension services made no efforts to accommodate to these gender based barriers. There is also a misconception that if an extension agent speaks to the husband about a farming issue even if it is about women’s farming, the husband will relay that information back to the wife. This is often not the case of what happens in couple communication (2015: 12).

Level of Gender Mainstreaming in Irrigation Extension Services In the Capacity Needs Assessment questionnaire (1400-3300), specific questions were asked in FGDs with irrigation extension processes from the BoA about the degree of gender sensitivity and participatory approaches used in planning, implementation and M&E, in training and in typical extension approaches such as demonstrations and farmer field days. In the extension planning process, most subject matter specialist (SMSs) and DAs at zonal and district levels will consult with farmers on an informal basis in terms of consulting them on existing water sources such as rivers and streams, and opportunities for irrigation scheme selection. All irrigation extension processes interviewed in all four regions and at all levels stated that they only involve women SS/MI farmers in planning to a small extent. When asked whether they use gender sensitive participatory planning methods with farmers, responses were mixed. This lack of consistency suggests that in each region, there is no institutionalized participatory method used. Moreover, other studies confirm this finding that generally extension services are gender neutral, male-farmer biased and service-driven rather than demand or client driven (Cohen and Mamusha 2011: WYAD/MoA/ATA 2015). In Amhara, all FGDs groups stated that no gender sensitive participatory planning methods are used to consult with farmers. The wider literature and the SMIS CNA results show that like agricultural extension services generally, planning processes are driven by top-down decision making. Regional plans are filtered down to zonal and then to district levels. In irrigation extension planning, DAs will consult with farmers, mainly a selection of farmer leaders, about their needs and priorities and integrate these into woreda level plans. The zonal offices will have to fit the district level plans into the already set



regional priorities. In all the regional interviews, except Amhara, FGDs identified that gender issues are considered in the various planning steps from conducting awareness raising with community members to collecting district plans and adjusting zonal and district plans to regionally set plans.

4.7.3. STRENGTHS AND GAPS According to a recent gender assessment of agricultural services in Ethiopia, there are increasing numbers of women accessing agricultural services largely due to increasing efforts to devise more women-friendly extension services through programs like AGP. Strategies have included and involved collaboration with WYCAs bureaus and offices and efforts to create community-based structures that are closer to the places where women work and live such as using: development groups, 1-to-5 networks, FTCs and selection of female model farmers (WYAD/MoA/ATA 2015). Other strategies have been offering training, consultations, practical demonstrations, experience sharing visits, field days and regular advisory services and use of electronic and print media to share best practices in agriculture. Similarly, in the CNA 1300 FGDs, irrigation extention experts stated that their main extension communication approaches are using demonstrations, farm field days, community media and use of farmer role models. FGD groups identified that they considered the needs and interests of female and male farmers when designing demonstrations. Recent research suggests that for illiterate female farmers the use of community–based structures such as CIGs and multi-media is appreciated by them (MoA/ATA 2015: 10). In terms of actual time spent visiting SSI/MI farmers on their plots; the CNA 1400-3300 results shows that it is only district and some zonal staff who regularly visit farmers. These district level DAS and SMS in the irrigation extension processes stated that they visited female SSI/MI farmers as much as male farmers and equally provided advice to female farmers and or linking them to suppliers/MFIs and cooperatives for supply inputs/credit. Generally, requirements for inputs for individual farmers are based on: asking the farmers directly, on land size and based on the SSI/MI design. Many FGD groups felt that they responded to the different needs, roles and interests of female and male farmers in determining inputs and credit. In SMIS targeted regions of Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and other regions, the WYAD/MoA/ATA (2015: 11) study found that there are efforts to engage women in garden farming such as fruits and vegetable production, poultry farming, sheep/goat fattening and dairy production. In addition to this, there are also limited cases where women were empowered to engage in the production of field crops. In terms of gaps, recent reviews of the agricultural extension system in Ethiopia (WAD/MoA/ATA 2015; Cohen and Mamusha 2011) found that services tended to be top down, non-participatory, one-way, not client-oriented, and gender blind. Extension packages tend to be generally inappropriate and irrelevant to farmers’ needs with no special extension approaches or communication channels tailored to women farmers’ needs and interests. These studies found that because of the ongoing patriarchal domination of most community and government formal institutional political organizing and decision making, rural women tend to prefer more informal flexible community based groups. They are more likely to choose and access agricultural information and technologies through informal extension services such as using their own social networks and peer farmer role models (WYAD/MoA/ATA 2015: 10).



In the CNA 1400-3300 FGDs, when asked whether they had been trained in gender sensitive participatory planning such as how to conduct a gender analysis or to ensure participation of women and youth, the majority of FGD groups stated that they had never participated in any training of this sort. The majority of FGD groups in all four regions rated their training skills in ensuring SSI/MI female farmers’ participation and needs and interests are equally addressed in training content and facilitation as relatively weak ranging from extremely low to fair. Respondents stated that women farmers’ involvement in these planning processes is very limited. Male headed households dominate; have FHHs and a few married women. Married women are under their husband who represents the household and is the landowner (ZOIDA focus group, Feb 26, 2015, Arsi zone). Interviews showed that irrigation extension core process staff do not have participatory planning methods or tools for facilitating consultations and advice to SSMI farmers. While respondents felt they were able to identify the different needs roles and interests of women and men farmers in supply chain and credit facility needs, they rated their capacity to actively involve women and men as inadequate. In terms of knowledge on how to monitor and evaluation services of SSI/MI using a gender analysis, most FGD groups felt their skills were fairly weak. There were also mixed results on whether collected data was disaggregated by sex and age indicating that there is likely no consistent and systematic approach. None of the irrigation extension service providers have gender mainstreaming guidelines or tools specific to extension training. When organizing and planning training, they may consult with women and men farmers beforehand but they do not have specific strategies for ensuring women’s equal participation in the training. While there are increasing numbers of women farmers being reached by extension services, one challenge is that these increases in numbers of women accessing these services are mainly FHHs. The CNA 1400-3300 found similar trends of focusing on FHHs. In general, out of the total extension beneficiaries, FHHs account for 15% in Amhara, 35% in SNNP, 12% in Oromia and 49% in Tigray regions. Another challenge is that formal extension services are generally gender blind and assume women and men farmers and wealthy, middle and poor farmers have the same needs and interests. There are no specific extension approaches and communication channels tailored to respond to the diversity of individual and farmer groups and needs (WYAD/ATA 2015). According to the WYD/ATA study, women have practical needs such as need for labor and time saving technologies and home management and nutrition support to promote healthy consumption practices and women friendly financial services to have reduced complicated procedures. From women’s strategic interests, there are challenges of illiteracy, language barriers, and limited participation of women in management committees

Women also have strategic interests such as the need for adult literary education, establishing or capacity building of women-friendly saving and credit associations, women’s empowerment through leadership training and efforts to change community and women’s attitudes.



One other gap is the lack of female A-TVET teachers and a shortage of female extension workers (Mogues et al (2011)). According to a LIVES project gender assessment of level of gender balance in staffing in extension services, 18% of staff are female, whether in agriculture, livestock or cooperatives. Female staff participation varies greatly with level of education. Female representation is higher at the junior levels and highest at the certification and diploma level. Specifically, the total percentage of female DAs per region is: only 26% in Amhara, 11% in SNNP, 13% in Oromia and 17% in Tigray Regions (WYAD/MoA/ATA 2015: 10). Lack of equal female extension agent staff’s participation and leadership tends to mean that women’s concerns and interests are not necessarily on mainstream agendas. This same issue can be said for younger generations. If they are not represented, their concerns are likely to be neglected. There is a need for improvements in training modalities to increase gender awareness among field level development agents (MoA 2013). Opportunities will exist to improve gender in the SMIS component 2. Core institutions are the Agricultural Technical Vocational Education and Training Colleges where DAs receive their training. They offer training in topics related to SSI and irrigated agriculture and since 2010, they have started to develop more soft skill curriculum such as on gender. Still there are major gaps. Several donors such as DFATD and the Dutch are investing in A-TVETS to support government priorities to make the curriculums more gender sensitive and to build capacities in participatory approaches and techniques. The recent GoE policy pushes for greater gender equality in access. One recent study found that “Both male and female agents offer services to women farmers. However, accountability remains almost entirely upward. Until recently, the extension approach in Ethiopia has focused on top-down promotion of technology packages and DAS are not trained in soft skills like participatory approaches to outreach to female and youth. Agents’ incentives cause them to focus on promoting fixed technology packages rather than on adapting the packages to local needs and desires or integrating modern technology with farmers’ own knowledge.” (Cohen and Mamusha 2011: V).

4.7.4. OPPORTUNITIES AND GOOD PRACTICES TO BUILD ON The WYAD/ATA 2015) study consulted women farmers directly about their needs and interests in extension services including in irrigation. Women’s preferences for extension approaches and services were to:

• Access extension information through women-only extension groups, women friendly technologies and women friendly training such as facilitated in local languages, close to their locality and in the right time and season, and illiterate-friendly with lots of illustrations and demonstrations. These preferences are based on the fact that women often get extension services from informal sources, such as their neighbors, peer groups, social networks (farmer based associations) and in limited scales from husbands. Even though development groups and 1-to-5 networks are favorable structures for promoting extension services, the WYAD/ATA study found that many were not even functional in many regions (WAD/MoA/ATA 2015).



• Participate in practical demonstrations of technologies and to practice the learned skill followed by on the job support

• Engage in experience sharing sites to further observe best practice san learn • Use electronic media such as radio or mobile phones to share agricultural information such

as input supply, distribution and price updates and use of illustrative posters and stories of farmer role models using the radio

• Have house to house advisory services to allow women to openly express themselves and to communicate their ideas and to not take up as much time; near their cooking and domestic chores;

• Focus on women friendly technologies and enterprises – to design demonstrations, training and experience sharing visits based on their enterprises such as fruits, vegetables, poultry management and ruminants fattening and dairy production; and support made through value chain platforms linked to markets

• Engage in women only development groups to meet every week and to focus on common concerns and interests; to work as a platform to be exposed to new practices from other women and to share experiences and should be facilitated by female DAs.

Women stated that they did not like current extension approaches based on a lecture method, being trained along with men in the same group and having to participate in demonstrations focused on male-biased technologies and did not appreciate the daily 1-5 army meetings (MoA/ATA 2015: 13-14). These are important strategies for the SMIS’ support to irrigation extension services. There are opportunities to create joint initiatives with other gender mainstreaming and women’s empowerment programs/projects and institutions. These include both gender mainstreaming focused and projects providing specific agricultural services to women such as:

• Amhara and Tigray – IFAD, AGP, HAP, ENGIN (nutrition), LIVES, and in Amahra ORDA and in Tigray, REST

• Tigray specifically; GRAD, ILRI, CASCAPE and SG 2000 • Oromiya – Agri-service Ethiopia • SNNPR – Send a Cow

AGP is building SSI schemes and is focused on women and youth common interest groups such as offering appropriate credit services. Another opportunity is to learn from the SWHISA participatory irrigation extension program. It focused on the specific needs of female farmers including labor-saving interventions to reduce women’s heavy workload through the introduction of simple low-cost equipment. At community levels, one opportunity is to find ways to support couple extension services and flexible joint membership in WUAs and ICs in ways that support effective partnership between women and men based on more equal gender relations with shared vision of higher productivity and gains for the whole household. For example, in several SSI projects in the Southern Highlands of Peru gender sensitizing training with women and men brought greater dialogue and joint planning between women and men, older people and youth and among family members (IFAD 2012:9; World Bank 2013).



4.8. Concluding Remarks

Promoting gender equality is necessary to improvements in agriculture, health and nutrition at all levels and in small scale and micro-irrigated agriculture (FAO 2011). Success of any SSMI project in Ethiopia requires all community stakeholders and interests represented and fully participating from design and planning to transfer of responsibility of SSMI schemes to WUOs. Such gender-equitable participatory approaches will increase and ensure representation of all interests; more diverse ideas and solutions generated; equitable benefit and sense of ownership to reduce risks of water conflicts or worsening existing gender and social inequalities (World Bank 2013). Positive impacts of more gender-sensitive irrigation projects can:

• Reduce women’s time and workload in fetching water • Improve access to livestock for male and female and other family members’ livestock • Empower women to increase their productivity and access, control and decision making

power • Can respond to diverse community member interests; and thus lead to greater sustainability

and more direct costs go to end-users. A good approach is multi-use SSMI schemes that are designed and developed to support a multiple use water system for domestic, productive, WASH and other needs.


5. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION

Based on parts one and two of this gender review, this last part provides recommendations for action meant to inform the development of a gender mainstreaming strategy for the SMIS project. In the SMIS logical model, the commitment is to mainstream gender and nutrition considerations across all activities where appropriate. Based on the situational and institutional capacity assessments and findings, this gender review recommends the following priority strategies and actions: A major finding from the Gender Review findings was the lack of SSMI sub-sector specific gender mainstreaming guidelines and accountability structures for ensuring gender is addressed across all the sub-sectors involved in SSMI. There is general lack of leadership, staff gender knowledge and commitment and coordination across SSMI sub-sectors. One important good practice standard is the need for integrated cross-sector gender mainstreaming strategies and action plans to ensure better coordination, leadership and human and financial resource allocation to ensure gender and nutrition issues are effectively and systematically addressed. Recommendation One: Development of regional gender mainstreaming strategies, action plans and a gender and irrigation taskforce for the SSMI sub-sectors. These regional strategies should cover gender mainstreaming in SSMI development, WUA capacity building, irrigation extension support and access to appropriate MI/input supply and farmer-service provider linkages. Policies and action plans must be based on GoE irrigation and water resource management and gender policy commitments and guidelines. These various policies have specific gender targets, are based on principles of social equity; and recognize the need for special measures to ensure women and youth’s equitable participation and benefit and development of multi-use water systems. Regional gender strategies must define clear levels of accountability; allocation of adequate human and financial resources and a gender sensitive M&E system. A national and regional gender and irrigation taskforces can be set up represented by relevant staff from the MoA, MoW, MoWYCAs and public irrigated agencies to lead on gender mainstreaming across the SSMI sector.

Recommendation Two: SMIS should prioritize building the capacity of the relevant public and private institutions’ gender experts and focal persons and leadership to then be able to build the capacity of all SSMI sub-sections. The capacity-building approach must strengthen the existing gender machinery, good practices and application of existing policy directives and guidelines, translated into practical user-friendly and appropriate gender mainstreaming, women’s empowerment and gender transformative minimum requirements and standardized guidelines and tools for all sub-sectors. Recommendation Three: Development of special measures to support women to overcome gender-based constraints and equally access and take advantage of project activities. Together with partners, as well as with the beneficiaries themselves, mechanisms must be identified and strengthened to bring women into planning and decision-making on higher-level decision making bodies, as well as into local-level bodies such as the kebele councils and water user organizations (WUOs).

5. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR ACTION


Stand alone gender specific activities should be designed and implemented to support married women in male headed households (WiMHHs) and female headed households (FHHs). These women must be supported to have the confidence and skills to improve their self-esteem and ability to engage in decision making in all stages of SSI scheme development and in accessing and managing water from SSI schemes. Gender specific interventions should also be promoted to engage male farmers, community leaders and government staff in valuing and respecting women’s rights to access and use the SSI water and to appreciate women’s valuable position, contributions and partnership in irrigated agriculture for overall household wellbeing. These activities can be supported through partnerships with other sectors and complementary projects. Recommendation Four: Leveraging complementary government, donor and NGO projects and interventions, explore, promote and pilot women/youth friendly irrigation extension packages in MI technology promotion (hand drilling technologies), labor-saving technologies, improved farming practices and farmer-service providers linkages such as women and youth friendly rural financing services. Other good practices are piloting gender transformative household methodologies that involve couples and household members in exploring gender inequalities and the benefits of more gender equitable relationships.14

Recommendation 5: Support development of practical gender and social development minimum requirements, guidelines, participatory planning techniques and tips appropriate to each thematic intervention area. The gender review showed the need to strengthen integration of gender responsive participatory planning into the participatory irrigation planning and management approach (PIDM) to be adopted in SMIS supported modernized/piloted SSI scheme development. These participatory planning tools must be tailor-made and user-friendly. Another strategy is to support development of guidelines based on government gender quotas to ensure women and youth participation in all consultation processes. One directive is having 30% of women represented in management committees in WUAs. Tools and activities must be developed to support relevant government staff at all levels on how to reach out, target and ensure women’s equal voice and participation in all decision making processes. A possible and detailed five year action plan is found in Annex Three.

14 E.g. in irrigation extension capacity building in gender responsive HHMI, explore and adopt and pilot test gender transformative high value agricultural value chain development and marketing methodologies for women-friendly technologies and personal, household and community social and cultural behavior change for promoting more gender equitable relations in SSMI community management. An example of a gender transformative approach would be adoption of evidence based household transformation methodologies tested by Save a Cow in SNNPR (See http://www.ifad.org/knotes/household/cs_ethiopia.pdf.

http://www.ifad.org/knotes/household/cs_ethiopia.pdf


6. REFERENCES

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ATA/TAK IRDI. (2014). Rapid Assessment of Opportunities and Challenges for female farmers in benefiting from Teff, Wheat and Maize Value Chain (VC): Final Report. Addis Ababa: ATA.

ATA (2011). Working Strategy Document: Realizing the Potential of Household Irrigation in Ethiopia: Vision, Systemic Challenges and Prioritized Interventions. ATA: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

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Awulachew, S.B. et al. (2005). Experiences and Opportunities for Promoting Small-Scale/Micro Irrigation and Rainwater Harvesting for Food Security in Ethiopia. Working Paper 98. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: IWMI.

Breene, Mary. (2014). Agricultural Training in Ethiopia. KfW.

Cohen, Marc and Mamusha Lemma. (2011). Agricultural Extension Services and Gender Equality An Institutional Analysis of Four Districts in Ethiopia. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01094.

Domenech, Laie, and Claudia Ringler. (2013). The Impact of Irrigation on Nutrition, Health, and Gender: A Review Paper with Insights for Africa south of the Sahara. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01259.

Davis, Kristin et al. (2010). In-Depth Assessment of the Agricultural Extension System of Ethiopia and Recommendations for Improvement. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01041. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: IFPRI.

Domenech, Laia and Ringler, Claudia. (2013). The Impact of Irrigation on Nutrition, Health, and Gender: A Review Paper with Insights for Africa South of the Sahara. IFPRI Discussion Paper 1259. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

EDHS. (2014). Ethiopia Mini-Demographic and Health Survey. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Central Statistical Office.

ESNSF. (2013). Gender and Social Development Impact Report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: DFATD.

Fafchamps, M., B. Kebede, and A. R. Quisumbing. (2009). “Intrahousehold Welfare in Rural Ethiopia.” Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 71 (4): 567–599.

FAO. (2012). Passport to Mainstreaming Gender in Water Programmes: Key Questions for interventions in agricultural sector. Rome, Italy: FAO.

(2011). The State of Food and Agriculture: Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gender Gap for Development. Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.

(2011). FAO Ethiopia Country Programming Framework 2012-2015. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: FAO.

Farnworth, C. and Kathleen Earl Colverson. (2015). “Building a Gender-Transformative Extension and Advisory Facilitation System in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Journal of Gender. Agriculture and Food Security Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp 20-39, 2015

6. REFERENCES


Gill, Kirrin et al. (2010). Bridging the gender divide: How Technology can advance women economically. ICRW:

IFAD. (2012). Gender and Water: Securing water for improved rural livelihoods: The multiple-uses system approach. Rome, Italy: IFAD.

LIVES. (2012). Livestock and Irrigation Value Chain for Ethiopian Smallholders Project Implementation Plan. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: ILRI/IWMI.

Meinzen-Dick, Ruth et al. (2012). Engendering Agricultural Research, Development and Extension. Washington, D.C.: IFPRI.

Meizen-Dick, R. et al (2012). Putting Gender on the Map: Methods for Mapping Gendered Farm Management Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. IFPRI Discussion Paper 01153.

MoA. (2014). Gender Audit Report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: MoA and ATA.

(2014). Amhara National Regional State Bureau of Agriculture Gender Audit Report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: MoA and ATA.

(2014). SNNP Regional State Bureau of Agriculture Gender Audit Report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: MoA and ATA.

(2014). Tigray National Regional State Bureau of Agriculture Gender Audit Report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: MoA and ATA.

(2014). Oromia National Regional State Bureau of Agriculture Gender Audit Report. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: MoA and ATA.

(2013). Gender Mainstreaming Guidelines. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: WYAD/MoA.

(2013). Summary of SNNPR, Oromiya, and Amhara Regions CIG and IG Assessment Report. Comiled by FAGP-CU.

(2011). Small-scale Irrigation Situational Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Directorate of National Resource Management, Ministry of Agriculture.

(2000). Water Resource Management Proclamation. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Federal Government of Ethiopia.

Mogues, T. et al. (2009). Agriculture Extension in Ethiopia through a gender and governance lens. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: IFPRI.

NRM/MoA. (2011). Small-Scale Irrigation Situation Analysis and Capacity Needs Assessment. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Natural Resource Management Directorate.

Okali, Christine. (2012). Gender Analysis: Engaging with Rural Development and Agricultural Policy Processes. Working Paper 026. Brighten, Sussex: Futures Agricultures Consortium.

Oxfam International. (2013). Women’s Collective Action: Unlocking the Potential of Agricultural Markets. Oxfam International Research Report. Oxford, UK: Oxfam International.

Pionetti, C, Berhanu Adenew and Zewdi Abadi Alemu. (2010). Characteristics of Women’s Collective Action for Enabling Women’s Participation in Agricultural Markets: Preliminary Findings from Ethiopia. Oxford: Oxfam Great Britain and Amsterdam: Royal Tropical Institute.

Romano, Chiara. (2013). Land and Natural Resources Learning Initiative for Eastern and Southern Africa (TSLI-ESA). Case Study Report: Strengthening women’s access to land in Ethiopia. Rome, Italy: IFAD.

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Tesfay, A. and Haileslasie Tadele. (2013). The Role of Cooperatives in Promoting Socio-Economic Empowerment of Women: Evidence from Multipurpose Cooperative Societies in South-Eastern Zone of Tigray, Ethiopia. International Journal of Community Development Vol. 1, No. 1, 2013, 1-11

Van Koppen, Barbara, et al. (2012). “Gender Aspects of Small-Scale Private Irrigation in Africa,” IWMI Working Paper 153. Colombo, Srilanka: International Water Management Institute (IWMI).

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ANNEX ONE: KEY GOVERNMENT AND NGOs INTERVIEWED BY REGION AND BY THEME

Theme Target Groups/Institutions/Organizations Gender Advisors/FPs Questionnaire 1100 Theme: Organizational Capacity Specific gender questions were: gender balance in staffing, whether they have an assigned gender expert, existence and relevance of gender policy/strategy/action plan, extent of non-discriminatory policy and working environment, degree of: gender sensitivity in training development, gender responsive budgeting and gender sensitivity in monitoring and evaluation such as collection and gender analysis of sex and age-disaggregated data.

Tigray: Bureau of Water Resources (BoWR) Bureau of Agriculture and Rural Development (BoARD) Bureau of Cooperative Promotion and Market Development (BoCP and MD) (not 1100) Tigray Study, Design and Supervisor Water Works Enterprise Environmental Protection, Land Use and Administration Agency (EPLAUA) (not 1100) Women’s Affairs Bureau (WAB) (not 1100) REST (NGO) (not 1100) Amhara Bureau of Water Resource Development (WRD) Bureau of Agriculture Cooperative Promotion Agency (not 1100) Bureau of Women, Youth and Child Affairs (WYCAs) (not 1100) Oromia Oromia Irrigation Development Agency (OIDA) Cooperative Promotion Agency (CPA) (not 1100) Women and Children’s Affairs Bureau (WCA B) (not 1100) SNNP BoA IDSAA (Irrigation and Development Scheme Administrative Agency) Marketing and Cooperative Bureau (MCB) (not 1100) Bureau of WYCAs (not 1100) Core processes, sub-processes and offices at zonal and woreda levels

Gender advisors/BoARD/Agriculture/OIDA/IDSAA and Water Resources/Water Resource Development Staff from Women, Youth and Child Affairs Bureau and Offices (zonal and woreda levels)

Questionnaire 1200-3100 Theme: Gender Responsive SSI and MI Development Gender specific questions were integrated into the whole questionnaire and covered level and quality of gender mainstreaming in each stage of SSI and MI development from site selection & criteria, conducting feasibility studies, design, tendering, construction and scheme operation and management. There was also a

Same regional, zonal and woreda organizations as in the questionnaire 1100. Specifically processes and organizations responsible for design, construction, and management of SSI schemes at regional, zonal and woreda level

ANNEX ONE: KEY GOVERNMENT AND NGOS INTERVIEWED REGION AND BY THEME


Theme Target Groups/Institutions/Organizations Gender Advisors/FPs specific section on “level of gender mainstreaming.”

Questionnaire 1300 Theme: Water User Associations (WUA) Specific gender questions were: extent of minimum requirements for gender balance in leadership and management; extent of gender mainstreaming guidelines, gender training offered by the organization; degree of gender considerations in support of WUAs and irrigation cooperatives from establishment, registration, training offered in financial and administrative management and O&M of SSMI schemes etc; extent of received gender capacity/training of staff; gender training needs and gaps; and degree of women’s participation and benefit from WUAs and irrigation cooperatives.

Organizations responsible for developing capacity of WUOs/As at regional, zonal and woreda level.

Cooperative Promotion Agency bureau and office staff may have gender focal points but generally have no specific assigned gender advisor.

Questionnaire 1400 Theme: Irrigation Extension Specific gender questions were asked about degree of gender-sensitive participatory extension planning and services offered; equity in services offered such as in advice given, time spent; efforts to address different roles, needs and interests of male and female farmers; availability of gender mainstreaming guidelines and tools specific to extension training for staff and offered to farmers.

Across all four regions: Agricultural extension processes/units/teams at regional, zonal and woreda levels

Where possible, gender focal points or gender and youth experts were interviewed.

Questionnaire 1150 Focused on understanding the role of gender advisors in supporting gender mainstreaming in SSMI government organizations and processes at regional, zonal and woreda levels.15 The names and

15 WAD stands for Women’s Affairs Directorate and WYCA stands for Women, Youth and Child Affairs.

ANNEX ONE: KEY GOVERNMENT AND NGOS INTERVIEWED REGION AND BY THEME


Theme Target Groups/Institutions/Organizations Gender Advisors/FPs titles of these gender advisors and units changed by region. Questions were also asked about the major barriers and opportunities to women and youth equally participating in small scale irrigation and micro-irrigation activities in their region. There were many common themes and regional specific issues raised.


ANNEX TWO: FRAMEWORKS OF ANALYSIS FOR MEASURING LEVEL AND QUALITY OF GENDER MAINSTREAMING

This assessment draws from international best practice standards and frameworks on what organizations and project implementers must have in place to have strong gender mainstreaming and to contribute to gender equality. Both the GoE’s MoA and Canadian/DFATD Gender Mainstreaming institutional mandates and guidelines provide important benchmarks of success to inform the SMIS’ gender mainstreaming strategy. These institutional mandates are based on best practice standards upon which to measure the quality and degree of gender mainstreaming in the three relevant sectors of SMIS (SSMI development, A-TVETS and micro-irrigation). This assessment is informed by these policy benchmarks of success. Following DFATD’s definition of gender analysis, this gender review provided information on:

• The differential perspectives, roles, needs, and interests of women and men in Ethiopia and the regions related to agriculture and SSMI development; including the practical needs and strategic interests of women and men16;

• Relations between women and men pertaining to their access to, and control over resources, benefits and decision-making processes in the sector;

• Capacity of institutions to program for gender equality;

• Potential differential impact of program or project interventions on women and men, girls and boys;

• Social and cultural constraints, opportunities, and entry points for reducing gender inequalities and promoting more equal relations between women and men; and

• Differences among women and men and the diversity of their circumstances, social relationships and consequent status (e.g. their class, race, caste, ethnicity, age, culture and abilities).17

In addition, two international best practice frameworks for measuring capacity in promoting gender are used to inform the analysis: InterAction’s Gender Integration Framework (2010) and the IGWG Gender Continuum. InterAction’s Gender Integration Framework’s four areas of capacity for effective gender mainstreaming provide a good overall picture of what an organization or project must have to achieve gender equality. IGWG’s Gender Continuum defines different levels of gender

16 Practical needs can be defined as immediate necessities (water, shelter, food, income and health care) within a specific context. Projects that address practical needs generally include responses to inadequate living conditions. Strategic interests, on the other hand, refer to the relative status of women and men within society. Strategic interests may include gaining legal rights, closing wage gaps, and protection from domestic violence, increased decision making, and women's control over their bodies (DFATD 2010). 17 Policy on Gender Equality, DFATD (2010).



mainstreaming from gender blind to gender transformative to help assess current gender capacity and practice among government target groups and to envision the level of improved gender integration and impact in SSMI at the end of the SMIS project. FIGURE 1: INTERACTION GENDER INTEGRATION FRAMEWORK (IGWG 2010) A summary of some of the key benchmarks of success for promoting gender equality are outlined in DFATD’s Policy on Gender Equality in the GoE’s MoA Gender Mainstreaming Guidelines (2013). Basic starting points are:

• Strong political will to advance gender equality and women’s empowerment: • Explicit elaboration of goals, strategies and expected outcomes in a policy statement (MoA

2013) • Explicit senior management commitment to gender equality that actively promotes,

demands and monitors gender equality practice and results (MoA 2013), DFATD 2010) • Common understanding to gender equality among all staff on what the organization should

be seeking to achieve gender equality reinforced at a higher level; backed by adequate resources and knowledgeable staff

• All staff are held accountable to ensure the gender policy and or strategy is implemented • Perception among all staff that gender equality issues are a professional and personal

responsibility and with the knowledge and capacity required to address gender • Qualified gender specialists are in place; adequate access to information resources and

contacts (specialists), both within and outside the organization, needed to work effectively on gender equality

• Gender equality is treated as an objective in and of itself DFATD’s policy defines key steps for gender sensitivity in the project management cycle: In the planning process:

• Gender equality is recognized as relevant to every aspect of international cooperation from macroeconomic reform to infrastructure projects;

• Gender analysis is carried out at the earliest stages of the project or program cycle and the findings are integrated into project or program planning;

• Institutional weaknesses or cultural biases that could constrain the achievement of gender equality results are recognized in policy, program, or project design, and strategies are developed to address them;

• Means are identified to ensure there is broad participation of women and men as decision makers in the planning process;

• Clear, measurable, and achievable gender equality results are developed in the earliest phases of the process;

• Gender-sensitive indicators, both qualitative and quantitative, are developed (this requires the collection of baseline data disaggregated by sex, as well as by age and socioeconomic and ethnic groups);

• A specific strategy and budget is provided to support the achievement of gender equality results;

• Partners and implementers are selected on the basis of their commitment and capacity to promote gender equality; and

• Gender equality specialists are involved from the start of the planning process.

During implementation:

• Gender equality specialists are part of project teams;



• External support is sought from women's organizations, key female and male decision makers, leaders and allies;

• The objective of gender equality is not lost in rhetoric or in preoccupation with agency processes;

• There is flexibility and openness to respond to new and innovative methods, and to opportunities for supporting gender equality that present themselves during implementation; and

• There is broad participation of women in the implementation. In Monitoring and Evaluation:

• Gender equality results are expressed, measured and reported on using qualitative and quantitative indicators;

• Data, disaggregated by sex, as well as by age and socio-economic and ethnic groups, is collected;

• Qualified gender equality specialists (especially locally-based ones) are involved in performance measurement;

• Information on progress in reducing gender inequalities is collected and analyzed as an integral part of performance measurement;

• A long-term perspective is taken (i.e., social change takes time); and • Participatory approaches are used, where women and men actively take part in the planning

of performance measurement frameworks, in their implementation, and in the discussion of their findings.

The IGWG Gender Integration Continuum provides three standard levels to assess whether and to what degree institutional practice, projects and or programs are gender- sensitive.18 A project can use these levels of gender mainstreaming to understand where it is currently and where and what it must do to have a greater impact on gender equality.

• Gender blind programs and policies ignore gender differences and treat all beneficiaries the same. Some gender-blind programs or policies may benefit women and transform inequalities without having accounted for gender differences. When gender is not considered at all, interventions may be gender-harmful or exploitative. These strategies or programs may unintentionally widen or exacerbate inequalities between men and women or boys and girls and even reinforce social stereotypes or rely on existing inequalities and social norms to obtain a development end. Such strategies should be avoided.

• Gender sensitive or aware programs recognize the specific needs and realities of women and men, boys and girls based on the social construction of gender roles and respond to them

18 Go to http://www.igwg.org/igwg_media/Training/FG_GendrIntegrContinuum.pdf).

http://www.igwg.org/igwg_media/Training/FG_GendrIntegrContinuum.pdf



accordingly. This level of awareness may be informed by a sound gender analysis that has looked at the specific assets of men and women and assessed how to accommodate their different roles and needs. These approaches, however, may not transform social or cultural barriers that perpetuate uneven gender power relations.

• Gender transformative programs seek to transform gender roles and promote more gender-equitable relationships between men and women. This level of awareness is informed not only by an analysis of the practical needs of males and females based on their respective roles, but also the underlying structural and systemic issues that have created and sustained the different needs of men and women. This type of program is designed to not only meet the practical needs of men and women but also respond to the strategic interests for greater, more sustainable equity between sexes.19

The term gender accommodating refers to interventions that recognize gender differences and inequalities and “[…] seek to develop actions that adjust to and often compensate for them” but without addressing the deeper gender norms or structures that reinforce gender inequalities.20 In this way, interventions may follow a “Women in Development” (WID) approach whereby activities aim to improve women’s health or labor status based on their traditional roles and needs rather than their more strategic interests. This is opposed to a more transformative “Gender and Development” approach which explicitly aims to redress and change power inequalities for more gender and socially equitable dynamics.

19 These concepts of gender-blind to gender sensitive were coined by Naila Kabeer (2003). 20 Greene (2013: 3).


ANNEX THREE: PROPOSED FIVE-YEAR ACTION PLAN: GENDER AND NUTRITION CROSS-CUTTING THEMES

These activities consist of gender & nutrition activities that should be fully integrated into other planned activities per output across Components 1, 2 and 3 and stand-alone gender specific activities per output. What stage the main activity supports in SMIS’ four-stage capacity development model is identified (S1: consensus building, S2: Capacity building; S3: Application and Follow –up and S4: Institutionalization). COMPONENT 1: SSI Capacity Building 1110: Staff of responsible public and private institutions (RPPIs) trained in gender sensitive results-based project irrigation management (RBPM) (S1 and 2)

• Integrate into SMIS annual planning events, internal review and action planning of SMIS

cross-cutting themes. Recognize and reward regional achievements, annually PY1-5 • Ensure at least one gender objective is integrated into SMIS staff job descriptions and part of

performance appraisals (PY1-5) • Conduct assessment on nutrition and SSMI issues to inform nutrition strategy design (Q1)

Design, develop and deliver phased training to SMIS staff on gender concepts and approaches and gender sensitive RBPM (PY1-2) (Consensus building and capacity building) (S1 &2)

• Conduct internal learning needs assessment of SMIS staff on gender mainstreaming (GM) in RBPM and as relevant to staff roles/project component. PY1

• Conduct rapid review of gender analysis (GA) and GM guidelines/tools and training materials • Design phased training and internal SMIS RBPM guidelines and by SSMI theme • Facilitate phased participatory gender training for regional SMIS staff. PY1 & 2 (5 days)

Performance Indicators:

• Five gender action plans developed; budgeted and integrated into annual staff and team work plans annually. Regional staff/teams awarded for cross-cutting theme achievements (PY1-5)

• 100% of SMIS staff report improved skill, knowledge and tools to fully integrate gender in SMIS RBPM and gender and nutrition mainstreaming in their thematic area (SSI and MI development).

Integrate into RBPM training in 1110, gender analysis & gender mainstreaming in RBM tool development and training activities, and M&E of training (S1 and S2)

• Conduct rapid review of existing GM guidelines and training materials for SSI, SSMI in A-

TVETS and MI, particularly gender sensitive M&E, with gender advisors/FPs and with each RPPIs and identify the main gaps. Form recommendations.PY1

• Facilitate review process with all key stakeholders to reach consensus on standard GM approaches and guidelines for SSMI sector. Incorporate findings into project management validation workshop. PY1

• Design/adapt with key PIT and gender advisors/focal points, user-friendly and practical GA and GM guidelines and tips tailored to RBPM in SSMI and related training programs. PY1



• Develop GA/GM toolkit and training program harmonized at project level and adapted to each region. Plan/coordinate with WYAD/MoA, WYAD/MoW, ATA, AGP and LIVES gender units. (PY1-2)

• Start with pre TOT of gender and nutrition champion facilitators and roll out TOT to regional level, and in targeted zones and woredas (PY1-2)

Performance Indicators:

• GM guidelines for SSI, SSMI in ATVETS and MI adopted and approved by RPPIs • At least 320 staff of the private sector and 1,600 government staff received gender

mainstreaming training and women’s leadership promotion related to development of SSI and micro irrigation by end of PY5

1120: Essential institutional linkages for SSI & MI development explored, documented, promoted and strengthened. Establish and facilitate a gender and irrigation task force (forum) of relevant stakeholders (PY1-5) (S1-4)

• Explore and support national and regional WYAD/MoA to facilitate and establish a task force on gender and irrigation of key stakeholders (Government sub-sectors, NGOs and donors (E.g. WYAD/MoW, ATA gender program, AGP, LIVES, IDE) (PY1)

• Support development and approval of a ToR nationally and by region (PY1) • Support facilitation, development and monitoring of joint activities/resource pooling with

WYAD/MoA and Regional Bureau Gender Advisors/BoA/OIDA/IDSAA biannually and annually (P1-5)

• Identify and develop joint activities for improving intneral gender sensitivity, systems and practices within RPPIs such as with WYAD, ATA Gender Program or ATTAVE (for A-TVETS).

Consultation with key stakeholders on nutrition issues in irrigated agriculture with partners at federal and regional level (PY2) (S1)

• Facilitate identification of nutrition relevant issues in irrigated agriculture relevant to SSMI development using the gender and irrigation forum with regional bureau gender advisors and WYAD (PY2)

• Collaboratively identify key participants and speakers and organize consultations at national and regional levels (PY2)

• Hold consultation and review key recommendations of action for application in 2210 and 3300 with regional gender advisors of RPPIs (PY2)

Performance indicator:

• Regional and national gender and irrigation taskforces established and meeting quarterly (PY1)

• Gender and irrigation sector situational analysis jointly developed and resourced by task force (PY1)

• 1 joint gender and SSMI initiative implemented and jointly monitored per region (E.g. SMIS supports implementation of ATA Gender Transformative HHMI Program interventions in piloted/modernized SSI schemes)



1140: Responsible public institutions implement agreed approaches to systematic capacity development, including TOT Design, develop and conduct regional collaborative gender and nutrition situational analyses (Diagnostics) at household, community/Scheme and service provider levels relevant to developing SSI schemes, SSMI in ATVETS and MI (PY1) (S1, 2 & 3)

• Identify and facilitate consensus among RPPI gender advisors/focal persons and complementary projects (e.g. ATA, AGP) on ToR (includes consultation with women and men farmers on obstacles and solutions)

• Adapt/adopt socio-economic analysis and participatory tools relevant to SSMI context with relevant gender advisors/FPs from RPPIs

• Conduct and support the situational analysis with RPPIs’ gender advisers and SSMI staff • Data analysis and report writing including identification of mechanisms and procedures to

address gender inequalities • Conduct validation workshop with RPPIs gender advisers and for key stakeholders

Performance indicators:

• Gender situational studies of gender and SSMI issues and constraints and regional RPPIs’ effectiveness in responding to gender inequalities in communities completed with clear recommendations for action.

Integrate into development of irrigation capacity development guidelines and accountabilities, gender guidelines to ensure gender sensitive training approaches and designs that accommodate to women government staff & community members’ roles, needs and interests • Collaboratively design gender guidelines to integrate into irrigation CB guidelines with PIT and

gender advisors/FPs from SSMI sectors; and integrate into development of irrigation CD guidelines and accountabilities activities (PY1 – 2)

Develop capacity of regional gender/youth advisors and FPs and other key staff in the MoA, MoW and assigned public irrigation agencies and specific sub-sectors targeted by SMIS to be “gender and youth in irrigation” competent trainers/facilitators (PY1-3) (S2).

• Include SMIS and GoE regional gender/youth advisers in capacity development activities in training and support on how to facilitate/train and provide job-embedded support.

• Coaching and mentoring support for regional gender advisors/FPs trainers/facilitators to implement the agreed upon systemic CD approach (PY3-4)

Performance indicators: All RPIs have gender sensitive minimum requirements in training/capacity building program designs and implementation to increase women’s representation and active participation.



1210 Relevant, good quality, technical standards, guidelines and manuals adopted for identification, planning and design of SSI schemes Integrate practical tailor-made gender and socio-economic analysis guidelines and participatory planning tools into development of technical standards, guidelines and manuals for SSI schemes and make the PIDM approach more gender responsive (PY1-2)

• Conduct a gap analysis of existing gender and SSI scheme development guides/manuals with RPPIs gender advisers/FPs and with key organizations (PY1)

• Develop and revise user-friendly relevant gender and SSI scheme development standards, and gender sensitive participatory planning guidelines/tips (E.g. gender and social economic analysis guidelines for identification, feasibility studies, design, construction and O&M) (PY2)

• Support gender advisors from RPPIs to facilitate stakeholder review and approval (PY2) 1230 Responsible public and private institution staff trained and supported on integrated watershed-based SSI development and management as per 1210/1220. Integrate into training and support, design and implementation of training and application support (job-embedded support, coaching and mentoring), on how to conduct gender and socio-economic analysis and facilitate gender sensitive participatory planning for all stages of SSI scheme development. Plan future monitoring and support as needed.

• Collaboratively conduct learning needs assessment and design gender and SSI scheme training with gender advisers/FPs. Integrate into SSI scheme development training material and planning.

• Facilitate discussion and consensus with relevant bureaus • Start with pre TOT of gender and nutrition champion facilitators and roll out TOT to regional

level, and in targeted zones and woredas integrated into SSI scheme development training • Support gender advisors/FPs and selected SSI scheme RPPI staff to support zonal and

woreda level staff to apply gender analysis and sensitive participatory tools on SMIS supported schemes where relevant.

Performance Indicators: At least 320 staff of the private sector and 1,600 government staff received gender responsive PIDM training including on gender and socio-economic analysis, participatory planning tools and women’s participation facilitation and accommodation techniques in SSI scheme development by end of PY5 1310 Standard guidelines and manuals available for organisational development and registration of WUOs/IWUAs and application of irrigation service fees Integrate into inventory development, gap analysis and guidelines and manuals developed, gender guidelines and tips for promoting gender equitable water management and women’s leadership promotion techniques to increase women’s quality of participation.



1320: Responsible public organisations (RPOs) trained and supported in formation, organisation and registration of WUOs/IWUAs: Integrate into development of a comprehensive gender-responsive capacity development program for RPOs staff, gender issues and guidelines and tips for the establishment and organizational development of WUAs21

• Integrate into capacity needs assessment of identified staff, gender assessment criteria • Conduct inventory and gap analysis of gender responsive training programs for supporting

WUAs with gender advisors from RPPIs • Develop and field test training materials by PIT and gender advisers within RPOs at regional

level • Submit to SSI core team within MoA for approval with WYAD/MoA and regional bureau

gender advisors • Start with pre TOT of gender advisors and selected SSI and Cooperative Promotion staff and

roll out TOT to regional level, and in targeted zones and woredas integrated into SSI scheme development training

• Support gender advisors/FPs and selected RPO staff to support zonal and woreda level staff to apply gender knowledge and tools in support to the formation, organisation and registration of WUOs/IWUAs

1330: Responsible public organisations trained and supported to establish SSI operation and maintenance practices among WUOs/IWUAs: Incorporate into design/approval and implementation of comprehensive gender responsive capacity building program, gender responsive participatory strategies/techniques to increase women and youth active participation (voice) and mechanisms for their more equitable engagement/benefit in O&M management of SSI scheme22

• Integrate into capacity needs assessment of identified staff, gender assessment criteria • Conduct inventory and gap analysis of existing gender responsive training programs with

gender advisors from RPPIs • Develop and field test training materials by PIT and gender advisers within RPOs at regional

level • Submit to SSI core team within MoA for approval with WYAD/MoA and regional bureau

gender advisors • Start with pre TOT of gender advisors and selected SSI and Cooperative Promotion staff and

roll out TOT to regional level, and in targeted zones and woredas integrated into SSI scheme development training

Support gender advisors/FPs and selected RPO staff to support zonal and woreda level staff to apply gender knowledge and tools to nurture gender sensitive SSI operation and maintenance practices among WUOs/IWUAs 21 These gender tools include conducting a gender analysis, using gender sensitive participatory planning tools for farmer mobilization, gender equitable organizational development support (E.g. to encourage WUA to develop a by-law of at least 30% representation of women)) (WUO bylaws and internal rules) and practical guidelines/tips on how to support women’s leadership in WUAs to facilitate women’s membership and representation and women’s decision making power in management (E.g. building women’s self-esteem and training in communication and management skills). May also include gender transformative household methodologies and community conversations to build male and female gender sensitivity and respect for women’s rights and contributions to irrigated agriculture based on joint strategies and linkages with other complementary gender programs.

22 E.g. during scheduling of water delivery or rotation plans for night irrigation should be avoided for women because socially, it is not acceptable or can be dangerous for women to go out at night for their turn to maintain the water.



1340: Responsible public organisations trained and supported in M&E of WUOs/IWUAs performance: Integrate gender performance criteria into development of comprehensive gender responsive CD program for M&E of WUA performance. Use benchmarks such as meeting 30% female representation in management committee, gender balanced leadership and membership and gender sensitive organizational policies & practices (E.g. strategy to increase women’s leadership or to promote dialogue among male and female members on WUA issues and other gender topics).

• Integrate into development of comprehensive gender-responsive CD program, and with RPO gender advisers/FPs or selected staff, gender-sensitive M&E skills building related to governance, and administrative and financial management of WUO, including assessment and collection of ISF; Gender-responsive M&E skills related to scheme operation, maintenance and water management by WUO; and gender responsiveness criteria of success

• Integrate into tool/training review (inventory); development of WUO performance criteria; material submitted for approval by RPOs, and pre TOT and roll out to regional, zonal and woreda levels, gender considerations working collaboratively with RPOs gender advisers or FPs

• M&E of the use of new skills by the trained staff. 1350: In pilot SSI schemes, responsible public organisations supported in the training and support of WUOs/WUAs in sustainable scheme management (S3 & 4) (PY3-5)

• Integrate into selection of pilot schemes appropriate for the formation, registration and capacity development of WUOs, specific gender criteria of an intervention area with households with more joint land ownership and FHHs

• Participatory gender sensitive M&E of conducted CD activities at regular intervals related to 1320, 1330 and 1340

Performance indicators:

• # and quality of gender sensitive trainings conducted (disaggregated by sex of participants) • In SMIS supported WUAs, # of WUAs with improved gender sensitive organizational

practices and services such as reach 30% target of female leadership and participation)

1410 - Responsible public organizations supported to strengthen existing research-extension-farmer linkages to facilitate promotion, introduction and adoption of appropriate technologies and practices related to irrigate agriculture. Integrate into support to strengthen research-extension-farmer linkages activities, identification of and mechanisms for strengthening linkages between gender and nutrition specific research –extension – farmer activities to facilitate promotion and adoption of women and youth friendly HHMI and water/labor saving technologies and practices (E.g. nutrition-dense high value crop production). (PY1-3) (S1 and S2)

• Integrate gender and nutrition issues and identification of relevant linkages in SWOT assessment, consensus workshop and design of capacity development program or forums on linkage mapping and strengthening mechanisms (PY1)



• Facilitate discussion and development of joint piloting of research-extension-farmer linkage initiatives focused on female farmers’ (FHHs and WiMHHs) adoption of women-friendly technology and practices with WYAD and regional bureau gender advisors & gender and irrigation task force (1120) (PY2)

1420 Adaptation/development and provision of relevant manuals, guidelines and training materials on: irrigation agronomy, irrigation extension, OFWM, IPM and management of soil fertility.

• Integrate into inventory, adaption/development and provision of relevant manuals, guidelines and training materials, gender responsive guidelines including gender analysis in irrigated agriculture at farmer/household levels, relevant to irrigation agronomy, irrigation extension, OFWM, IPM and management of soil fertility with special attention to women (FHHs and WiMHHs) and landless youth farmers.

1430 Responsible public organizations trained and supported on irrigation agronomy, irrigation extension, OFWM, IPM and management of Soil fertility

• In identification of trainees/trainers and design and development of CD program including job-embedded support, integrate gender and nutrition considerations into all topics and practical guidelines, tools and best practices to ensure women and men’s needs, interests and roles are equally addressed.23

1440. Responsible public institutions’ staff trained and supported to facilitate farmers’ access to agricultural support service and technologies Integrate into gender responsive CD program for relevant regional BoA staff, gender and nutrition specific content and activities to strengthen staff capacities to provide targeted services to women farmers to access women-friendly irrigated agriculture support services and labor/water-saving technologies. Increase women’s access to appropriate MFI or women/youth friendly savings and credit to access irrigation technologies and community-based nutrition programs. Possible Indicators: 2210 MoA, MoE, BOA and BoTVETs supported to ensure that national irrigation occupational standards meet the requirements of sustainable SSI & MI development. Integrate into support to RPPIs to ensure national SSMI relevant national irrigation OS , gender mainstreaming guidelines and participatory planning methodologies for gender responsive and sustainable SSMI development. Integrate into needs assessment of SSI and MI curriculum and training programs and gap analysis, review of gender mainstreaming OS and level of gender and nutrition considerations and specific topics in SSI and MI curriculum and training programs Working with RPPI’s gender advisers, and interface with MoWYCAs, MoA, MoE, BoA, and BTVET & relevant projects (e.g. ATTSVE) ensure that the national irrigation occupational standards incorporate essential gender and nutrition issues and application of gender and nutrition analysis, gender sensitive participatory irrigation planning techniques and gender and nutrition issues in irrigation agronomy, extension etc.

23 Such guidelines and tools will include how to do gender/nutrition sensitive value chain analysis, and to respond to male and female (FHHs and WiMHHs) farmers’ different needs and interests based on respective roles and unequal status in irrigated agriculture.



2220 MOA and MOE supported to develop/revise, and systematically pilot practical SSI and MI curricula and training programs, including instructor manuals and student texts, based on experiential learning practices. Coordinate with staff of RPPIs and selected A-TVET staff to support development and pilotig elements of the revised curriculum with application of gender/nutrition analysis in irrigated agriculture and agronomy, gender sensitive irrigation extension and participatory planning techniques in the context of SSI and MI.24 2310 Technical and instructional capacity needs of instructors responsible for SSI/MI courses are identified Define the minimum qualifications needed for instructors and the capacity gaps for them to be able to effectively implement gender mainstreaming and nutrition sensitive components of the National irrigation occupational standards. 2320 ATVETs instructors trained and provided with support on technical competencies related to SSI and MI development, irrigated agriculture practices and participatory extension techniques and relevant gender mainstreaming Identify and/or prepare training or upgrading materials on GA, GM, and gender sensitive participatory techniques including gender transformative household methodologies that instructors would need to achieve the required levels of competency and deliver training.

• Integrate into capacity needs assessment, gap analysis and review of existing training materials and programs, gender mainstreaming and gender in SSI and MI, working with relevant gender advisers/FPs from selected A-TVETS and RPOs (BoA, BoE etc).

• Develop CD program for A-TVET instructors with relevant gender advisers/FPs from ATVETS and other RPOs

• Support responsible A-TVET departments, to develop and use gender sensitive M&E with appropriate gender sensitive performance indicators

2330 - A-TVET instructors trained and supported on using effective instructional practices, and student assessment strategies, based on national instructor standards. Integrate into CD program, gender sensitive instructional guidelines to ensure accommodation to female students where necessary. 2340 Support the procurement of essential instructional equipment such as reference material based on identified priorities Participate in identifying essential instructional equipment required for effective instruction of students in relation to the curriculum for gender and nutrition mainstreaming in SSMI components of the National irrigation occupational standards 3110 - Responsible public institutions supported to identify and promote area-specific HHMI technologies, systems and practices and including O&M. Integrate into assessment of potential PPIs, HHMI technologies, systems and practices and existing manuals and guidelines, gender and nutrition sensitive criteria for the identification of and 24 Women friendly services may involve more practical demonstrations; working with existing women’s groups and women farmer role models; using female DAs and SMS and exposing women farmers to new higher value crops and value chain support alongside enhancing their traditional value chains; using multi-media and working in local languages.



promotion of most optimal area-specific HHMI technologies, systems and practices such as women and youth friendly HHMI for high nutritional-value improved crops & production. 3120 - Responsible public institutions supported to identify and promote area-specific HHMI technologies, systems and practices and including O&M. Input on gender responsive and women and youth friendly specific and nutrition sensitive guidelines and brochures for HHMI technologies and practices. 3130 - Responsible public and private institutions trained and supported in application of selected HHMI technologies and practices. Input on gender responsive and gender specific women and youth friendly technologies and extension service methodologies and gender transformative techniques in training and job-embedded support of responsible public institutions in applying selected HHMI technologies and practices. 3140 - Support demonstrations on FTCs, and training of farmers on appropriate HHMI technologies Input as appropriate for inclusion of gender and nutrition awareness as part of HHMI farmer training at FTCs. 3150 - Responsible public institutions supported to monitor and evaluate Performance Of HHMI technologies. Assist responsible public institutions in the development of gender and nutrition sensitive and women/youth specific indicators for M&E of HHMI performance. 3310 – RPIs supported to promote the results of demand-driven applied-action research to farmers Identify and support RPI staff to develop and improve female/youth/landless women and men’s access to accessible/appropriate gender responsive services and rural financing through MFIs or informal/formal women/youth friendly savings and credit associations/cooperatives. 3320 – Staff of RPIs trained on irrigation agronomy, irrigation extension, and OFWM technologies for HHMI Train responsible RPIs as necessary or in conjunction with 1430 on gender and nutrition issues related to HHMI. 3330 - Staff of responsible public institutions trained and supported to facilitate functional linkages between farmers and service providers.

• Staff of RPPIs trained and supported to facilitate functional linkage between female and male farmers and service providers

• Conduct situational analysis on ways female and male farmers can purchase micro irrigation technologies and spare parts (linked to 1140) PY1.

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