gender policies in the context of the transformation of
TRANSCRIPT
Gender Policies in the Context of the Transformation of the Labour Market
Dr Irene Yap Tsue Ing & Dr Roman J. Zytek
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18 October 2017
Institute of Policy Studies, Universiti Brunei Darussalam
Disclaimer : This presentation was prepared in our personal capacity, and do not necessarily represent the views of the institutions or other members of the institutions we are currently associated with.
Outline
Background ◦ The hard data
Implications◦ Where are all the men?
◦ “Men need not apply”?
Underlying Cause◦ From demand for testosterone to demand for soft skills
Policy Options? ◦ Mandates and quotas to treat the symptoms?
◦ The Golden Age of Idle Man?
◦ Genuine reforms?
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Background
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Some observations and statistics
Economics and Statistics Unit within AMBD
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Recruitment by credentials
75% 25%
Trend at workplace…e.g. AMBD
Overall gender ratio within AMBD in 2016
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62%
38%
Source: AMBD Annual Report 2016
Not uncommon to have this scene at an internal meeting…
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By composition of positions…
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0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Executive Management
Senior Management
Middle Management
Junior Management
Confidential Secretary
Assistant Officers
Support Staff
AMBD Male to Female ratio as of 2016
Male
Female
Source: AMBD Annual Report 2016
Nation-wide…more males than females
Employed persons in Brunei Darussalam (LFS 2014)
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43%
57%
Source: Labour Force Survey 2014, JPKE
Gender pay gap* (LFS 2014)
Educationattainment
Average hourly income (B$) Gender pay gap (%)
Male Female
Primary & below 4.2 2.3 45.0
Secondary 6.2 6.1 2.4
Technical/Vocational 9.7 9.3 4.9
Pre University 11.9 9.1 23.4
Other post secondary level
15.2 15.7 -3.8
Tertiary 22.7 19.6 13.6
9Source: Labour Force Survey 2014, JPKE
• In general, education attainment average hourly earnings
* Figures include both local and foreign employees
Gender pay gap (LFS 2014)Employees Average hourly income (B$) Gender pay gap
(%)Male Female
Local 11.0 11.2 -1.8
Non-local 7.4 4.6 37.0
Total 9.9 9.6 2.4
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Source: Labour Force Survey 2014, JPKE
• Negative gender gap higher wage earned by local female employees (B$2,270 per month) compared to their male counterparts (B$1,940 per month) in Brunei.
• In the OECD, the median full-time wage for women is 85% of that for men. The wage gap due to historical patterns, chosen occupation and “motherhood penalty” (The Economist, 2017)
• Not clear if the wage gap in OECD countries persists for new hires.
Brunei Darussalam’s graduates
In 2015 3% y-o-y 4% y-o-y
By absolute number, more female graduates entering the job market…
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2095
1347
1623
2086
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Technical/Vocational Tertiary
2014 Graduates
Male Female
18001395
1462 2140
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
Technical/Vocational Tertiary
2015 Graduates
Male Female
Source: JPKE Statistical Yearbook 2015
How does this affect labour force?Education trend will affect the composition of labour force.
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51%49%
Working age population
57%
43%
Labour force
57%
43%
Employed
Male
Female
51%49%
Unemployed
41%
59%Outside labour force
Source: Labour Force Survey 2014, JPKE
Comparing with the rest of the world
13Source: World Bank (http://data.worldbank.org/)
For secondary level, Brunei has similar FTM ratio with others
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
1.1
1.2
1970 1979 1988 1997 2006
Rat
io
Years
International Comparison: Ratio of Females to Males in Secondary Education
Brunei Darussalam United States
World Middle East & North Africa
2015
Comparing with the rest of the world
14Source: World Bank (http://data.worldbank.org/)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
1970 1979 1988 1997 2006 2015
Rat
io
Years
International Comparison: Ratio of Females to Males in Tertiary Education
Brunei Darussalam United States World Middle East & North Africa
Tertiary level, Brunei has higher FTM ratio (nearly 2:1)than world’s average
Implications
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What does this trend imply?
Stock and Flows◦ More female compared to male graduates
◦ Males failing/dropping out along the education ladder
The social impact ◦ Marriage market imbalance
◦ Assortative mating
◦ More women remain single or settle for lower educated men
Changes to family structure ◦ Women as ‘bread winners’
◦ Unemployed husbands
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Underlying Causes
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Supply Meets the Changing Demand
Deindustrialization-Automation-Robotics (see for example Juhn, Ujhelyi, and Villegas-Sanchez 2012)
◦ Reduce the demand for muscles/physical strength.
◦ Increase the demand for capital goods.
◦ Increase the demand for soft and hard (non-cognitive and cognitive skills).
Increase in the share of services◦ Allow for more flexible work arrangements.
◦ Increase the demand for soft skills.
Increase in the share of knowledge/information◦ Increase the role of soft & social skills as they are the foundation for continuous
learning of hard, cognitive skills (Deming 2015)
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PolicyRecommendations
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Possible Solutions
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Study why male students drop out from education Genetic or social causes? Understand parental behaviour and its consequences (Aizer & Cunha 2012)
Reform education to meet the demands of male students Emphasize broader skills vs. narrow vocational training Role of internships Continuous learning (eliminate restrictions, cutoffs)
Emphasize soft skills necessary for learning hard skills Special focus on soft skills in early education, ages 0-12 (Cunha and Heckman 2010) Be wary of international tests of hard, specific skills & knowledge (such as OECD
PISA), their possibly misguided impact on education
Liberalize labour markets to allow part time work, including work from home for men and women
How will the society adapt to this trend? History offers some cautionary lessons in adaptations (The Economist 2016)
Some Interesting Readings
Aizer, Anna, and Flávio Cunha, 2012, “The Production of Human Capital: Endowments, Investments and Fertility,” NBERWorking Paper No. 18429.
Albanesi, Stefania and Ayşegül Şahin, 2013, “The Gender Unemployment Gap,” Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Reports, no. 613.
Alesina, Alberto and Paola Giuliano, 2013, “Culture and Institutions,” NBER Working Paper No. 19750.
Alesina, Alberto and Paola Giuliano, 2013, “Family Ties,” NBER Working Paper No. 18966.
Autor, David, 2015, “Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation,” Journal of Economic Perspectives—Volume 29, Number 3, Summer 2015, pages 3–30.
Baker, Michael and Milligan, Kevin, 2013, “Boy-Girl Differences in Parental Time Investments: Evidence from Three Countries,” NBER Working Paper No. 18893.
Baker, Michael, Jonathan Gruber, and Kevin Milligan, 2015, “Non-Cognitive Deficits and Young Adult Outcomes: The Long-Run Impacts of a Universal Child Care Program,” NBER Working Paper No. 21571.
Bertrand, Marianne, Patricia Cortés, Claudia Olivetti, and Jessica Pan, 2016, “Social Norms, Labor Market Opportunities, and
the Marriage Gap for Skilled Women,” NBER Working Paper No. 22015.
Bertrand, Marianne, Jessica Pan, and Emir Kamenica, 2013, “Gender Identity and Relative Income within Households,” NBER Working Paper No. 19023.
Cremer, Helmuth, Pierre Pestieau, and Kerstin Roeder, 2012, “United but (Un-)Equal: Human Capital, Probability of Divorce and the Marriage Contract,” IZA DP No. 7038.
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Some Interesting Readings
Cunha, Flavio and Heckman, James J., 2010, “Investing in Our Young People,” NBER Working Paper No.
16201.
Deming, David J., 2015, “The Growing Importance of Social Skills in the Labor Market,” NBER Working
Paper No. 21473.
Doepke, Matthias, and Fabian Kindermann, 2016, “Bargaining over Babies: Theory, Evidence, and Policy
Implications,” NBER Working Paper No. 22072.
Doepke, Matthias, and Michèle Tertilt, 2009, “Women’s Liberation: What’s in It for Men?” The Quarterly
Journal Of Economics, November 2009.
Doepke, Matthias, Michèle Tertilt, and Alessandra Voena, 2011, “The Economics and Politics of Women's
Rights,” NBER Working Paper No. 17672.
Doepke, Matthias, and Michèle Tertilt, 2016, “Families in Macroeconomics,” NBER Working Paper No. 22068.
Dupuy, Arnaud, and Alfred Galichon, 2014, “Personality Traits and the Marriage Market,” Journal of Political Economy, Vol. 122, No. 6 (December 2014), pp. 1271-1319 Published by: The University of Chicago Press.
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Some Interesting Readings
Eika, Lasse, Magne Mogstad, and Basit Zafar, 2014, “Educational Assortative Mating and Household Income Inequality”, Federal Reserve Bank of New York Staff Reports, no. 682.
Goldin, Claudin, Katz, Lawrence F. and Kuziemko Ilyana 2006, “The Homecoming of American College Women: The Reversal of the College Gender Gap”, NBER Working Paper 12139.
Greenwood, Jeremy, Nezih Guner, Georgi Kocharkov, and Cezar Santos, 2016, “Technology and the Changing Family: A Unified Model of Marriage, Divorce, Educational Attainment, and Married Female Labor-Force Participation,” American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics 2016, 8(1): 1–41.
Heckman, James J., Pinto, Rodrigo R. and Savelyev, Peter A., 2012, “Understanding the Mechanisms Through Which an Influential Early Childhood Program Boosted Adult Outcomes,” NBER Working Paper No. 18581.
Hsieh, Chang-Tai, Erik Hurst, Charles I. Jones, and Peter J. Klenow, 2013, “The Allocation of Talent and U.S. Economic Growth,” NBER Working Paper No. 18693.
Jacob, Brian, and Jesse Rothstein, 2016, “The Measurement of Student Ability in Modern Assessment Systems,” NBER Working Paper No. 22434.
Juhn, Chinhui, Ujhelyi, Gergely and Villegas-Sanchez, Carolina, 2012, “Men, Women, and Machines: How Trade Impacts Gender Inequality,” NBER Working Paper No. 18106.
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Some Interesting Readings
Juhn, Chinhui, Yona Rubinstein, and C. Andrew Zuppann, 2015, “The Quantity-Quality Trade-off and the Formation of Cognitive and Non-cognitive Skills,” NBER Working Paper No. 21824.
Lavy, Victor and Edith Sand, 2015, “On The Origins of Gender Human Capital Gaps: Short and Long Term Consequences of Teachers’ Stereotypical Biases,” NBER Working Paper No. 20909.
Lee, Soohyung, Lesley J. Turner, Seokjin Woo, and Kyunghee Kim, 2014, “All or Nothing? The Impact of School and Classroom Gender Composition on Effort and Academic Achievement,” NBER Working Paper No. 20722.
Leibbrandt, Andreas and List, John A., 2012, “Do Women Avoid Salary Negotiations? Evidence from a Large Scale Natural Field Experiment,” NBER Working Paper No. 18511.
Lin, Dajun, Randall Lutter, and Christopher J. Ruhm, 2016, “Cognitive Performance and Labor Market Outcomes,” NBER Working Paper No. 22470.
Lordan, Grace, and Jörn-Steffen Pischke, 2016, “Does Rosie Like Riveting? Male and Female Occupational Choices,” NBER Working Paper No. 22495.
Lundberg, Shelly, and Robert A. Pollak, 2013, “Cohabitation and the Uneven Retreat from Marriage in the U.S., 1950-2010,” NBER Working Paper No. 19413.
Pollak, Robert A., 2016, “Marriage Market Equilibrium,” NBER Working Paper No. 22309.
Pratt, Gill A. Pratt, 2015, “Is a Cambrian Explosion Coming for Robotics?” Journal of Economic Perspectives, Volume 29, Number 3, Summer 2015, pages 51–60.
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Some Interesting Readings
Reuben, Ernesto, Paola Sapienza, and Luigi Zingales, 2015, “Taste for Competition and the Gender Gap Among Young Business Professionals” NBER Working Paper No. 21695.
Scott-Clayton, Judith, Peter M. Crosta, and Clive R. Belfield, 2012, “Improving the Targeting of Treatment: Evidence from College Remediation,” NBER Working Paper No. 18457.
Soares, Rodrigo R. and Falcao, Bruno L. S. 2008, “The Demographic Transition and the Sexual Division of Labor”, Chicago Journals, Vo. 116, no. 6 (December 2008), pp. 1058-1104.
The Economist, 2014, “The return of the stay-at-home mother - After falling for years, the proportion of mums who stay at home is rising,” 19 Apr 2014. The Economist, The Economist Newspaper Limited, London 2014.
The Economist, 2015, “Gender, education and work: The weaker sex,” 7 March 2015 The Economist, The Economist Newspaper Limited, London 2015.
The Economist, 2016, “Of men and mayhem: Young, single, idle males are dangerous. Work and wedlock can tame them,” 23 Jan 2016. The Economist, The Economist Newspaper Limited, London 2016.
The Economist 2017, “The Gender Pay Gap”, 7 October 2017. The Economist, The Economist Newspaper Limited, London 2017.
World Economic Forum 2016, “The Global Gender Report 2016”, available from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/GGGR16/WEF_Global_Gender_Gap_Report_2016.pdf
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