gender inequality and women’s empowerment 2005-06 national family health survey (nfhs-3)
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Gender Inequality and Gender Inequality and Women’s EmpowermentWomen’s Empowerment
2005-06 National Family Health 2005-06 National Family Health SurveySurvey
(NFHS-3)(NFHS-3)
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Why Measure Gender Inequality and Why Measure Gender Inequality and Women’s Empowerment in NFHS-3?Women’s Empowerment in NFHS-3?
Important Important public health consequencespublic health consequences for women for women and childrenand children
Strategic themeStrategic theme of NPP 2000 of NPP 2000
Theme: Empowering women for improved Theme: Empowering women for improved health and nutritionhealth and nutrition
Millennium Development Goals 3 & 4Millennium Development Goals 3 & 4
MDG3: Promote gender equality and empower MDG3: Promote gender equality and empower womenwomen
MDG4: Eliminate gender disparity in educationMDG4: Eliminate gender disparity in education
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Content of PresentationContent of Presentation
Selected indicators of gender disparity Selected indicators of gender disparity
Access and control over resourcesAccess and control over resources
Women’s decision making roleWomen’s decision making role
Freedom of movementFreedom of movement
Acceptance of gender unequal normsAcceptance of gender unequal norms
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Gender Disparity in LiteracyGender Disparity in Literacy
AgeAge
SexSex
Literacy Literacy rate (%)rate (%)
Gender Gender Disparity Disparity
15-4915-49 MaleMale
FemalFemalee
7878
555529%29%
20-2420-24 MaleMale
FemalFemalee
8484
646423%23%
15-1915-19 MaleMale
FemalFemalee
8989
747417%17%
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Gender Disparity in Media Gender Disparity in Media ExposureExposure
Not only are fewer women than men Not only are fewer women than men literate but fewer are also regularly literate but fewer are also regularly exposed to mediaexposed to media
Percentage of men and women age 15-19 Percentage of men and women age 15-19
regularly exposed to print media, TV, radio, or regularly exposed to print media, TV, radio, or
cinemacinema
Men Men 88%88%
Women Women 71% 71%
Gender DisparityGender Disparity 19%19%
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Employment: Another Area of Employment: Another Area of Gender DisparityGender Disparity
43
29
8779
Employed Employed forcash
Women Men
Among the population age 15-49 Men are 2 times as likely to
be employed Men are 2.7 times as likely
to be employed for cash
Among the employed, 64% of women vs. 91% of men earn cash
Female share of population employed for cash in non-agricultural occupations is 22%
Percent
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
The majority of employed women The majority of employed women are engaged in agricultural workare engaged in agricultural work
Type of Type of workerworker
Occupational Distribution (%)Occupational Distribution (%)
WomenWomen MenMen
ProfessionalProfessional 77 77
SalesSales 44 1414
Service Service 77 55
Production Production 2222 3737
AgriculturalAgricultural 5959 3333
Other Other 22 44
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Does employment empower Does employment empower women financially?women financially?
NFHS-3 asked married employed women NFHS-3 asked married employed women and men who controlled their own and men who controlled their own earnings and who controlled the spouse’s earnings and who controlled the spouse’s earnings (if relevant)earnings (if relevant)
20% of employed married women said 20% of employed married women said they earned at least as much as their they earned at least as much as their husbandhusband
24% of men with an employed wife said 24% of men with an employed wife said that their wife earned at least as much as that their wife earned at least as much as themthem
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Control over Women’s Earnings as Control over Women’s Earnings as Reported by Currently Married Women Reported by Currently Married Women and Menand Men
24 20
57 63
1615
Women’s report about Women’s report about their own earningstheir own earnings
Men’s report about Men’s report about their wife’s earningstheir wife’s earnings
Mainly wife
Husband & wife jointly
Mainly husband
Percent
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Are some women more likely than others to NOT Are some women more likely than others to NOT participate in the use of their earnings?participate in the use of their earnings?
8
39
13 10
21 21
6
21
15-19 40-49 Urban Rural None 12+ Lowest Highest
Percent of currently married women
Residence Wealth IndexEducationEducationAge
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Do married women have access to Do married women have access to any other financial resources?any other financial resources?
68
45
15
5
Participate in decision on howhusband's earnings are used
Have money which they candecide how to use
Have a bank or savings accountthat they themselve use
Have taken loan frommicrocredit program
Percentage of women who:
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Education, employment, or wealth do not Education, employment, or wealth do not ensure that women have money that they ensure that women have money that they controlcontrol
60
55
56
Have 12+ years education
Are employed for cash
Belong to the highestwealth quintile
Percentage of women age 15-49 who have money which they can decide how to use
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Do married women participate in other Do married women participate in other household decision making?household decision making?
DecisionsDecisions
Make Make decision decision alone or alone or
jointly with jointly with husbandhusband
Own health careOwn health care 6262Making major household Making major household purchasespurchases 5353Making purchases for daily Making purchases for daily household needshousehold needs 6060
Visits to her family or relativesVisits to her family or relatives 6161
All four All four 3737
None of aboveNone of above 2121
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
46 45 41 39 45
Age 40-49 Urban 12+ yrs ofeducation
Employed Wealthiest
• Older women are much more likely than Older women are much more likely than younger women to participate in household younger women to participate in household decisionsdecisions
• Differentials by other characteristics are smallDifferentials by other characteristics are small
• However, less than half of even the oldest, However, less than half of even the oldest, urban, more educated, employed or wealthier urban, more educated, employed or wealthier women participate in all four decisionswomen participate in all four decisions
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
What are some of the other hurdles What are some of the other hurdles that prevent women from attaining that prevent women from attaining
gender equalitygender equality??
Limited freedom of movementLimited freedom of movement
Gender norms that promote men’s Gender norms that promote men’s control over women. NFHS-3 asked control over women. NFHS-3 asked women and men questions about norms women and men questions about norms regardingregarding
Wife beatingWife beating A husband’s right to have sex with his wife A husband’s right to have sex with his wife
irrespective of his wife’s wishesirrespective of his wife’s wishes
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Percentage of women age 15-49 who Percentage of women age 15-49 who are allowed to go alone to:are allowed to go alone to:
51
48
38
33
4
Market
Health facility
Places outside thevillage/community
All three places
None of the threeplaces
The majority of women have little freedom of movement. Only one-third go alone to all three destinations: the market, health facility and outside the village or community.
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Percentage who agree that a husband is Percentage who agree that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife if she:justified in hitting or beating his wife if she:
54
29
35
30
14
20
25
4137
24
13
8
26
29
23
51At least one reason
Goes out without telling him
Neglects the house or children
Argues with him
Refuses to have sex
Doesn’t cook properly
He suspects she is unfaithful
Shows disrespect for in-laws
Women Men
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Percentage who agree with at least one reason Percentage who agree with at least one reason for wife beatingfor wife beating
WomenWomen MenMenAge 15-19Age 15-19 5353 5757
Urban Urban 4444 4343
12+ years education12+ years education 3131 3434
Employed for cashEmployed for cash 5959 6262
WealthiestWealthiest 3737 3535
Delhi: Delhi: A highly A highly urbanized stateurbanized state 3232 2828
Although urban, educated, employed and wealthier persons are less likely to agree with wife beating, these characteristics are not sufficient to supplant beliefs in gender inegalitarian norms
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Attitude towards refusing sex with husband Attitude towards refusing sex with husband by Situation, Women and Menby Situation, Women and Men
79
82
79
84
70
78
68
77
Knows husband has a sexuallytransmitted disease
Knows husband has sex withother women
Is tired or not in the mood
All reasons
Women Men
Percentage who agree that a wife is justified in refusing to have sex with her husband when she:
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Percentage of men age 15-49 who Percentage of men age 15-49 who consider that, when a woman refuses to consider that, when a woman refuses to have sex with him when he wants, he have sex with him when he wants, he has the right to:has the right to:
Get angry and reprimand her - 20%Get angry and reprimand her - 20%
Refuse her financial support - 6%Refuse her financial support - 6%
Use force to have sex - 6%Use force to have sex - 6%
Have sex with another woman - 4% Have sex with another woman - 4%
NFHS-3, India, 2005-06
Key FindingsKey Findings
Women are disadvantaged absolutely and Women are disadvantaged absolutely and
relative to men in terms of access to education, relative to men in terms of access to education,
media exposure, and employment for cash.media exposure, and employment for cash.
The majority of married women do not have the The majority of married women do not have the
final say on the use of their own earnings or all final say on the use of their own earnings or all
other household decisions asked about.other household decisions asked about.
Traditional gender norms, particularly those Traditional gender norms, particularly those
concerning wife beating, remain strongly concerning wife beating, remain strongly
entrenched. entrenched.