gender and the rural economy

12
Genderview Newsletter Genderview Issue 07, 2013 Gender and Development for Cambodia (GADC) Content highly influential in guiding Cambodia’s development. Before exploring possible interventions, it is important to identify the areas of gender inequality within the agricultural sector, which are evident across a range of areas. Agriculture plays a central role in Cambodia’s economic and social structures, contributing to approximately 32% of GDP and employing 80% of the country’s workforce, providing the foundations for millions of people’s livelihoods. Of those working in agriculture, 53% are women and 47% men 2 . Consequently, agricultural reforms and interventions can impact a vast amount of people and are There are more women than men in agriculture sector, but it is seen that men always dominant on this task because of inequality gender. According to a gender profile of the agricultural sector by SIDA 3 , women-headed households (WHH) own on average 1.1 hectares compared (Continue on page 2...) This issue of Genderview explores gender issues in Cambodia’s rural economy. The rural economy is immensely important to Cambodia, with 80% of the population living rurally and agriculture employing 80% of Cambodia’s workforce 1 . Agriculture is the mainstay of Cambodia’s rural economy. Although the rural economy provides many livelihood opportunities, we can see substantial gender inequality in agriculture sector in the country. This Genderview will outline the current situation for women in the rural economy, specifically in farm landholding, access to agricultural technologies, and extension services identifying significant roadblocks to women’s economic empowerment, before outlining potential reforms and opportunities that could provide vital benefits for women in rural areas. The vast number of women working in agriculture means that reforms that boost the productive and economic capacity of agriculture in Cambodia, can play a central role in not only improving gender equality, but enhancing Cambodia’s development prospects. Gender and the rural economy ............ 1 Agriculture in cambodia...............1-2 The importance of women’s Economic empowerment in agriculture......2 Land: the foundation of agriculture ........................................ 3 Agricultural technology and extension services .................................. 3-4 System of rice intensification (SRI): hope for gender equality in agricultural extension services............................5 Conclusion.......................................5 About GADC and reference.............6 GENDER AND THE RURAL ECONOMY AGRICULTURE IN CAMBODIA

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This issue of Genderview explores gender issues in Cambodia’s rural economy. The rural economy is immensely important to Cambodia, with 80% of the population living rurally and agriculture employing 80% of Cambodia’s workforce1. Agriculture is the mainstay of Cambodia’s rural economy. Although the rural economy provides many livelihood opportunities, we can see substantial gender inequality in agriculture sector in the country.

TRANSCRIPT

Genderview Newsletter

Genderview Issue 07, 2013

Gender and Development for Cambodia (GADC)

Contenthighly influential in guiding Cambodia’s development. Before exploring possible interventions, it is important to identify the areas of gender inequality within the agricultural sector, which are evident across a range of areas.

Agriculture plays a central role in Cambodia’s economic and social structures, contributing to approximately 32% of GDP and employing 80% of the country’s workforce, providing the foundations for millions of people’s livelihoods.

Of those working in agriculture, 53% are women and 47% men2. Consequently, agricultural reforms and interventions can impact a vast amount of people and are

There are more women than men in agriculture sector, but it is seen that men always dominant on this task because of inequality gender.

According to a gender profile of the agricultural sector by SIDA3, women-headed households (WHH) own on average 1.1 hectares compared (Continue on page 2...)

This issue of Genderview explores gender issues in Cambodia’s rural economy. The rural economy is immensely important to Cambodia, with 80% of the population living rurally and agriculture employing 80% of Cambodia’s workforce1. Agriculture is the mainstay of Cambodia’s rural economy. Although the rural economy provides many livelihood opportunities, we can see substantial gender inequality in agriculture sector in the country.

This Genderview will outline the current situation for women in the rural economy, specifically in farm landholding, access to agricultural technologies, and extension services identifying significant roadblocks to women’s economic empowerment, before outlining potential reforms and opportunities that could provide vital benefits for women in rural areas.

The vast number of women working in agriculture means that reforms that boost the productive and economic capacity of agriculture in Cambodia, can play a central role in not only improving gender equality, but enhancing Cambodia’s development prospects.

Gender and the rural economy............1Agriculture in cambodia...............1-2The importance of women’s Economic empowerment in agriculture......2 Land: the foundation of agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3Agricultural technology and extension services..................................3-4System of rice intensification (SRI): hope for gender equality in agricultural extension services............................5Conclusion.......................................5About GADC and reference.............6

GENDER AND THE RURAL ECONOMY

AGRICULTURE IN CAMBODIA

Continue from page 1

Gender and Development for Cambodia (GADC)

THE IMPORTANCE OF WOMEN’S

ECONOMIC EMPOWERMENT IN AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURE IN CAMBODIA

...to men-headed households (MHH) owning 1.5 hectares, meaning that WHH hold 30% less land than MHH. On its own, this highlights deeply embedded gender inequality in the agricultural sector, but the inequality runs much deeper than just land ownership.

The SIDA report found that access to tractors was reported only for MHH, while MHH also have much higher access to rice mills and threshing machines. In terms of credit access, which can play a fundamental role in improving agricultural productivity, 37% of all agricultural households take out loans for agricultural production, business and other purposes. Of the 37%, the ratio of MHH to WHH loans is a staggering 5 to 1, meaning that 5 men take out loans for every woman. Furthermore, women are more likely to take out loans for household consumption, highlighting their often precarious livelihood and lack of productive investment, whereas MHH took out loans for agricultural purposes. Without access to credit, it is often extremely difficult for women to make the necessary investments to boost their agricultural productivity.

With less access to land, technology and credit that require significant attention and reform, in order for women to gain more from agriculture and in turn reduce gender inequality.

as social norms that restrict women’s movement face little financial pressure to change.

Although addressing broader income inequalities is important, changes in agricultural production for women on their own have significant potential to empower women. It is widely recognised that income-generating activities that are controlled by women have a greater positive impact on society and particularly gender equality, as extra income controlled by women leads to more money being spent on children and women, thus alleviating poverty more so than if additional income is controlled by men4. As women are increasingly dominant in the agriculture sector, improving women’s agricultural productive capacity and consequently income will not only improve women’s livelihoods, but have far greater impact in reducing poverty than interventions targeting only men.

The importance of women’s economic empowerment in the agriculture sector goes beyond the fact that such a vast amount of women rely on agriculture for their livelihood.

First we need to ask why women are mostly agricultural workers. This is because of the social norms that rule their lives such as the Chbab Srey which restricts women’s lives to domestic duties and farm work. They cannot move away for better paid jobs because they are expected to stay close to home and the family. The different opportunities that are emerging in Cambodia’s developing economy are not shared equally between men and women. In the cities garment factories may provide women with formal employment but this work is low-skilled and poorly paid so there is less incentive for women to leave agricultural work and their homes. Men dominate higher earning sectors of the economy in construction jobs and managerial positions further widening the gap between women and men’s equal economic participation.

Consequently, men have greater incentive to leave agricultural work. This inequality of opportunity perpetuates broader gender inequality.

If women could earn far greater income outside of agriculture, social norms would be under increased pressure to accept that women should have more freedom of movment.

Land is central to agriculture, yet continues to be plagued by gender inequalities. As previously highlighted, WHH on average have much less land than MHH (1.1 hectares compared to 1.5 hectares), while 21% of WHH are landless and 34% have less than one hectare. Additionally, women have far less secure land access – 70% of Cambodia’s land titles are joint titles5, where men usually have control over land. As men migrate to seek employment, women may work on the land, but have little security over its future.

Gender and Development for Cambodia (GADC)

Research on gender and sustainable agriculture6 shows that when women don’t own land, accumulated resources are diverted to non-productive assets, such as gold, whereas if women have land ownership, they are more likely to invest in their land. This investment, such as irrigation systems, then boosts agricultural production and generates a positive cycle of income and development. Despite these distinct benefits, women often fail to obtain secure land titles in Cambodia due to reasons such as the cost of titles, lack of understanding the law, women’s inferior social status compared to men and a general lack of resources7.

Finally, women’s take up of technical change and agricultural extension services are heavily dependent on women’s control over resources – land being one of the most important resources8. Thus, addressing the issue of land ownership is a fundamental first step in enhancing gender equality in Cambodia’s rural economy.

According to the minister for agriculture, forestry and fisheries, 64% of total cultivated land was ploughed with use of mechanised tractors and tillers in 2012. The sector also witnessed more than 100% increase of power tractors in the same year compared the year 20119.

Women and men are not on equal foot in agricultural mechanisation in the country. Power tractors, pumps and harvesting machines are owned and operated by men.

Women own and operate any of these new technologies in exceptional cases. The differentiated position of men and women in agricultural mechanisation is largely rooted from gendered design of these machineries, and lack of women’s readiness, which is again caused by systematic gender inequality in the wider society.

For example, power tractors and mechanised...(Continue page 4)

Years of research shows that technology itself is not gender sensitive and can have far reaching impacts on gender relations and equity. Although slowly, agriculture sector in Cambodia has increasingly been mechanised over the last few years.

Mechanised tractors, tillers, pumps, and harvesting machines are increasingly replacing manuallabour in agriculture.

LAND: THE FOUNDATION OF AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY AND EXTENSION SERVICES

...tillers, which generate strong vibration during operation, leave women in difficult position to operate them. Likewise, the pump machines, which require manual force to start up engine, are not user-friendly for women. Male farmers are appropriating new technologies to reaffirm and reconstruct their domination in farming practices. As a consequence of this appropriation, women’s work in agricultural production is seen as secondary to farming.

In general, all these technologies create free time, which can improve agricultural production. But the female farmers lag behind their male counterparts in creating free time as new technologies save labours in male dominated activities such as ploughing, harvesting and watering.

On the other hand, technologies that can replace female dominated labour such as transplantation, weeding and post-harvest activities, including food processing are still very limited. Thus current pattern of agricultural mechanisation in Cambodia is

improved agricultural techniques and other energy/labour saving technology are vital for boosting rural women’s economic empowerment10.

Alternative crops, such as cashews and cassava, can be grown on a small-scale basis and be economically rewarding, although they must be approached with care – if a crop fails or the price drops (as cassava has), women don’t have a rice crop to support consumption. Complementary to these changes is agricultural extension services, which unfortunately in Cambodia are often gender unequal.

AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY...continue from page 3

Gender and Development for Cambodia (GADC)

In order to boost agricultural production for women, technologies must be designed in user-firnedly manner, and create enabling enabling environment for

women to own and operate new technologies.

Like agricultural mechanisation, gender inequality also persists in agricultural extension services – t he non-formal training through which farmers learn new skills, practices and information on farming.

creating free time to male farmers more than female farmers.

In order to boost agricultural production for women, technologies must be designed in user-friendly manner, and create enabling enabling environment for women to own and operate new technologies. This will create more significant economic empowerment of women. In addition to women-friendly agricultural mechanisation, new varieties of rice, alternative crops, better quality seeds, value-adding food processing technologies,

An analysis of agricultural extension services in Cambodia11 shows that it is

an area dominated by men. Despite efforts to make extension services gender-sensitive, only an estimated 5-10% of extension workers are female, while women compromise only around 10% of extension service beneficiaries. This is highly problematic as women make up 53% of the agricultural workforce.

The research indicates that the gendered division of agricultural tasks, women’s onaverage lower education than men and unequal gender power relations are some of the key reasons why men dominate agricultural extension services. Efforts at improving gender-sensitivity in extension services regularly fail to capture these dynamics, such as women being unavailable to attend trainings due to housework and women being unable to actively engage with the content of trainings, as men dominate discussions.This process reinforces unequal gender relations as men continually improve their expert agricultural knowledge, while women’s knowledge is undervalued.

CONCLUSION

Cambodia’s rural economy provides the foundation for millions of livelihoods and is ultimately the backbone of development with increased agricultural productivity making the countryside a feeding bowl for an increasingly industrialised economy. Women are at the centre of this rural economy, yet too often are marginalised from agricultural improvements and better livelihoods. Rural agricultural advances that improve women’s economic empowerment can play an integral role in improving gender equality and boosting Cambodia’s overall development progress.

For this to be realised, women need more secure land access, women-friendly agricultural machineries, more gender-sensitive agricultural extension services, and supportive credit services. These interventions must be guided in a way to boost agricultural productivity and economically empower women. This process can and must play a central role in improving gender equality in Cambodia.

Gender and Development for Cambodia (GADC)

Considering the inequities of agricultural extension services and the need to improve women’s agricultural productive capacity, the implementation of the System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is one example of an emerging field with excellent potential for improving gender equality in Cambodia.

SRI training is implemented by a diversity of NGOs, promoting an alternative rice growing technique that reduces water, rice seed and chemical fertiliser use and costs, while substantially boosting rice yields on average about 50%.

A gender analysis of SRI suggests that women substantially benefit from SRI’s reduced input costs and increased yields, although they can be burdened with more weeding and more complicated transplanting and water management. Land preparation is also more difficult, but as this often a male-dominated task, it is less of a burden for women with access to male labour. In Stung Treng, Phit Nary explains how training on SRI benefits her:

SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION (SRI): HOPE FOR

GENDER EQUALITY IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

SERVICES

First we plough the field so it’s level. Then we select a rice seed named Sen Pidoh and Romduol. For our land, we only need 4kg of rice seed. The seedlings take 10 days to grow before we transplant them. We don’t plant them deep and they have one main stem for transplanting. In the same plot of land we now get 3000kg of rice in one season, instead of 1000kg."

“My family was one of the poorest in the village. We had never participated in training and used traditional agriculture techniques, not SRI. We followed traditional methods and seed selection. We would get a small rice production of about 1000kgs per season. After participating in the training, my family has applied the SRI technique. The theory of SRI has 10 main points that we follow (12 altogether).

Gender and Development for Cambodia (GADC)

Gender and Development for Cambodia (GADC) is a local non-profit and non-political organization. It was admitted to the NGO Good Practice Programme (NGO-GPP) for its compliance with all standards in the Code of Ethical Principles and Minimum Standard for NGO in August 2011.

GADC works in cooperation with the Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC) and members of civil society organizations to advocate for gender sensitive projects/programs, national laws and policies formulation in Cambodia.

GADC’s vision: A just where women and men are equally empowered to participate in development and to access, use, and protect their rights.

GADC’s mission: GADC works to promote gender equality as fundamental human rights, which are necessary for Cambodia’s social, economic and political development.

ABOUT GADC

#89, Street 288, Sangkat Olympic, Khan ChamkarmornPhnom Penh, Cambodia

P.O. Box: 2684 Phnom Penh 3

Phone: +855 (23) 215 137Fax: +855 (23) 996 934

EDITORIAL PERSONNEL:

Ms. Ros Sopheap, GADC Executive DirectorMr. Dustin Barter, Development ConsultantMr. Mozammel Haque, Technical AdvisorMr. Put Sopheak, Programme Director Mr. CHHENG Sambo, Communication and Publication Coordinator

1 . SIDA 2010. National Gender Profile of Agricultural Households2. SIDA 2010. National Gender Profile of Agricultural Households3. SIDA 2010. National Gender Profile of Agricultural Households4. UNESCAP, Gender and Sustainable Agricultural Development Strategies5. Bugalski and Pred 2009, Land Titling in Cambodia: Formalising Inequality6. USAID 2006, Study on Women and Property Rights: Project Best Practices8. Romero-Paris et. al 2009, Women’s Roles and Needs in Changing Rural Asia with Emphasis on Rice-based Agri-culture9. Chan Sarun, KT, 02.03.1310. Romero-Paris et. al 2009, Women’s Roles and Needs in Changing Rural Asia with Emphasis on Rice-based Agriculture11. Ogawa 2005, Are Agricultural Extension Services Gender Sensitive? Cases from Cambodia

REFERENCE:

Genderview Newsletter

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អង��រ��នឌ័រ និងអភិវឌ�ន៍�ើម�ីកម��� (GADC) ៣

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��ឿងយន�ដូច� ��ក់ទ័រ ��សុីនភ��រ�ស់ដី ��សីុនបូមទឹក និង��សុីន���ត�ត់ គឺកំពុង�� ��ើ��ស់ជំនួសឲ���រ�រ��ល��ើ��ស់ក��ំង

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ឧ�ហរណ៍ ��ក់ទ័រ និង ��សីុនភ��រ�ស់ដី �ទូ��ន�ពញ័រ��ំងក��ង��លភ��រ��ល��ើ ឲ�����ីពិ�ក��ើ��ស់��ឿង��សុីន�ំង��ះ។ ដូច����ះ��រ ��សុីនបូមទឹក��ល���វ...

(សូម�នត�ទំព័ទី៤)

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ដី

អង��រ��នឌ័រ និងអភិវឌ�ន៍�ើម�ីកម��� (GADC)៤

តមកពីទំព័រទី ៣

ប���ក��សកសិកម� និង���កម�...

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អង��រ��នឌ័រ និងអភិវឌ�ន៍�ើម�ីកម��� (GADC) ៥

��ព័ន���ពលវប��កម�ដំ�ំ��ូវ (SRI) ៖ ��ចក�ីសង��ឹម ស��ប់សម�ព��នឌ័រក��ង���ផ��ព�ផ��យកសិកម�

��ដ�កិច�ជនបទ������សកម���ផ�ល់�មូល��នស��ប់របរចិ��មឹជីវ�តរបស់���ជន�ប់�ន�ក់ និង���ះឹ���រអភិវឌ���មួយនឹងកំ�ើន

ផលិត�ពកសិកម���ល��ើឲ��ទីជនបទ��យ���ភពផ�ត់ផ�ង់����ងស��ប់��ដ�កិច�ឧស��ហកម���លកំពុង�នកំ�ើន។ ���ី គឺស�ិត�ចំនុច

ក��ល����ដ�កិច�ជនបទ ប៉ុ����ញឹក�ប់���ីមិន���វ�ន��យកចិត��ក់ ឬ�ើកកម�ស់ក��ងវ�ស័យកសិកម� និងមិន�ន��ើឲ��ជីវ�ពរស់�

របស់ពួក���ន�ពល����ើរ�ើយ។ �ររ�កច��ើន��វ�ស័យកសិកម�ជនបទ�នចូលរួម�ើកកម�ស់ក��ង�រព��ងឹ��ដ�កិច�ដល់����ីើម��ីឲ��ពួក��

�ច�ើរតួ�ទីដ៏សំ�ន់ក��ង�រប��ើននូវសម�ព��នឌ័រ និងជំរុញឲ���ន�រអភិវឌ��រួមក��ង����សកម���។ �ើម��ីស��ច�ល���ះ ���ី���វ

�រលទ��ពទទួល�នដីធ�ី��កប�យសុវត�ិ�ព �រ��ើ��ស់��ឿង��សុីនក��ងវ�ស័យកសិកម���ល�យ��ួល��ើ��ស់ �ើយសម��ប

ស��ប់ពួក�� �រទទួល�ន���ផ��ព�ផ��យកសិកម���ល��ើយតប�នឹងតំរូវ�ររបស់ បុរស និង���ី និង�រ�ំ�����ឥណ�ន។

អន��គមន ៍�ំង��ះ ���វ����ើ�រប��ញ និងផ��ព�ផ��យ�ើម��ីប��ើនផលិត�ពកសិកម� និងព��ឹង��ដ�កិច�ដល់���ី។ ដំ�ើរ�រ��ះ

�ច�ើរតួ�ទី��ងសំ�ន់ ក��ង�រ�ើកកម�ស់ សម�ព��នឌ័រ �ក��ង����សកម���។

��ចក�សីន��ិ�ន

�រអនុវត�នូវ��ពលវប��កម�ដំ�ំ��វូ (SRI) �យវ��គ��ងលម�តិ��ើវ�សម�ព��នឌ័រក��ង�រផ��ព�ផ��យកសិកម� និង�រ�ើកម�ស់់ ផលិត�ពរបស់���ី គឺ�ម����យមួយ ដ៏������លនឹងប��ញអំពីស��នុពល��ងល�ក��ង�រ�ើកម�ស់សម�ព��នឌ័រ�ក��ងវ�ស័យ�����សកម���។

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�រវ��គពី��នឌ័រក��ង��ព័ន���ពលវប��កម�ដំ�ំ��វូ�ន�ើក�ើង� ���ទីទួល�នអត����ជន៍ ���ើនពី�រ�ត់បន�យ�រចំ�យ����ើម�ើធន�ន និង�រប��ើនទិន�ផល��ូវ�ម��ប ��ព័ន���ពលវប��កម�ដំ�ំ��ូវ �ះបី����ី���វ ចំ�យក��ំង��ើនក��ង�រដក��សំ�ប និងអនុវត�សកម��ពដកស��ង��ល�នលក�ណៈ ស��គ��ញ�ងមុន និង�រ��ប់��ងធន�នទឹក ក៏�យ �រ�ៀបចំដីក៏�ន់��ពិ�កស��ប់���ី ប៉ុ�����ឿយៗ ��ះគឺ��រ�ររបស់បុរស ដូ���ះ �រ�ៀបចំដីមិនសូវ��ើឲ�����ី�នបន��ក��ើន� ��ើ�រ�ររបស់បុរស�ះ��។ ភិត �រ� រស់� ��ត�ស�ឹង��ង�នពន��ល់ពីអត����ជន៍�� វគ�បណ� �ះប��លអំពី��ព័ន���ពលវប��កម� ដំ�ំ��ូវ��ល�ត់�នសិក��� ៖

“����ររបស់ខ�� ំ គឺ�����រដ៏���ី�បំផុតមួយក��ង ភូមិ។ �ើងមិន��ប់�នចូលរួមក��ង�របណ��ះប��ល �ើយ�ើង��ើ��ស់ប���ក��សកសិកម�����ណី មិន��ន��ព័ន���ពលវប��កម�ដំ�ំ��ូវ�ើយ។ �ើង�ន��ើ��ស់វ�ធី����បង�ប��ើនផល និង �រ��ើស��សពូជ��ូវ�ម��ប����ណី។ �ើង ទទួល�នទិន�ផល��ូវដ៏�ប គឺ����ល��ឹម�� ១០០០គីឡ���មក��ងមួយរដូវ។ ប��ប់ពី�នចូល រួមក��ង�របណ��ះប��ល��ះ ����ររបស់ខ���ំន ��ើ��ស់ប���ក��ស��ព័ន���ពលវប��កម�ដំ� ំ ��ូវ។ ��ឹស�ី����ព័ន���ពលវប��កម�ដំ�ំ��ូវ �នចំណ�ចសំ�ន់១០ ��ល�ើង���វអនុវត��ម (១២ចំណ�ចរួម��)។

ដំបូង�ើង���វភ��រ�ស់ដីឲ����ប��ើសិន។ ប��ប់ មក�ើង��ើស��សពូជ��ូវមួយ����ទ គឺ��ូវ ��នពិ�រ និងរ�ដួល។ ស��ប់ទំហំដីរបស់�ើង �ើង���វ�រពូជ��ូវ��៤គីឡ���មប៉ ុ��ះ។ សំ�ប���វ�ររយៈ��ល១០���ស��ប់លូត�ស់ មុន��ល��ល�ើងយក��ស��ង។ �ើងមិន ស��ង����ើយ �ើយសំ�ប�ំង�ះសុទ��� �ន�ើមធំៗស��ប់យក�ស��ង។ �ើទំហំដី ដ��ល��ះ បច��ប��ន��ើងទទួល�នទិន�ផល��ូវ ���ណ៣០០០គីឡ���មក��ងមួយរដូវជំនួសឲ�� ផល��ូវ��ឹម�� ១០០០ គីឡ���មពី��លមុន”។

អង��រ��នឌ័រ និងអភិវឌ�ន៍�ើម�ីកម��� (GADC)៦

ព័ត៌�នអំពី GADC

�ក�� ីរស់ សុ�ព �យិ�អង��រ GADC�ក Mozammel Haque អ�ក��កឹ��ប���ក��ស���ក��នឌ័រ�ក Dustin Barter អ�ក��កឹ�����ក��វ��វ និងទំ�ក់ទំនង�ក ពុធ សុភៈ �យកកម�វ�ធី�ក ��ង សំបូរ អ�កស��បស���ល���កទំ�ក់ទំនង និង�ះពុម�ផ��យ

�សយ��នផ�ះ��ខ ៨៩ ផ��វ២៨៨ ស��ត់អូ�ំពិក ខណ�ចំ�រមន �ជ�នីភ�ំ��ញ ��ះ���ច��កម���

��អប់សំបុ����សនីយ៍ ២៦៨៤ ភ�ំ��ញ ៣ទូរស័ព� (៨៥៥) ២៣ ២១៥ ១៣៧

ទូរ�រ (៨៥៥) ៩៩៦ ៩៣៤

ឯក�រ�ង

��មុ�រ�រនិពន� និង�ៀប�ៀង

១. SIDA ��ំ២០១០ ឯក�រ��នឌ័រ�តិ������រ��ល

��កបរបរកសិកម�

២. SIDA ��ំ២០១០ ឯក�រ��នឌ័រ�តិ������រ��ល

��កបរបរកសិកម�

៣. SIDA ��ំ២០១០ ឯក�រ��នឌ័រ�តិ������រ��ល

��កបរបរកសិកម�

៤.គណៈក���រ��ដ�កិច� និងសង�មសហ����តិស��ប់

តំបន់�សីុ និង��សុីហ�ិក��នឌ័រ និងយុទ�����អភិវឌ��ន៍

កសិកម���កប�យនិរន�រ�ព

៥.Bugalski និង Pred��ំ ២០០៩ �រផ�ល់ប័ណ�កម�សិទ�ិ

ដីធ�ីក��ង����សកម��� ៖ �រ��ើឲ���នវ�សម�ព�ផ��វ�រ

៦.គណៈក���រ��ដ�កិច� និងសង�មសហ����តិ

���ំតំបន់�សីុ និង��សីុហ�ិក ��នឌ័រ និងយុទ�����

អភិវឌ��ន៍កសិកម���កប�យចីរ�ព

៧.ទី��ក់�រសហរដ����រ�កស��ប់�រអភិវឌ��អន�រ�តិ ��ំ

២០០៦ �រសិក��ពី���ី និងសិទ�ិកម�សិទ�ិ ៖

�ៀបចំ�រអនុវត����ើរបំផុត

៨. Romero-Paris et. al ��ំ ២០០៩ តួ�ទី និងត���វ

�ររបស់���ីក��ងតំបន់ជនបទ�សុី��ល�ន�រ��ស់ប��រ�

យ��ត�ើកសិកម����ក�ើដំ�ំ��ូវ

៩. �ក ច័ន� �រុន, KT, ���ទី ០២ �� មី� ��ំ ២០១៣

១០. Romero-Paris et. al 2009, តួ�ទី និងត���វ�រ

របស់���ីក��ងតំបន់ជនបទ��សុី��លកំពុង���ន�រ��

���ល�យ��ត�ើកសិកម����ក�ើ��ូវ

១១. Ogawa ��ំ ២០០៥ �ើ���ផ��ព�ផ��យកសិកម�យក

ចិត�ទុក�ក់�ើ��នឌ័រ��រ ឬ��? ករណី����សកម���

អង��រ��នឌ័រ និងអភិវឌ��ន៍�ើម��ីកម��� គឺ�អង��រមិន��នរ��ភិ�លក��ង ��កុមួយ��លមិនរក��ក់ចំណ�ល �ើយមិនប��ើឲ��គណបក��ន��យ �ើយ។ អង��រ�នទទួលវ���បនប���រអនុវត��ន��ប់បទ��ន��ល �ន��ងក��ង��ម���ល�រណ៍សីលធម៌ និងបទ��នអប��បរ�ស��ប់ អង��រមិន��នរ��ភិ�ល�ក��ង����សកម����ល ពី��សី���២ំ០១១។

អង��រ�ន��ើ�រ�យ�នកិច�សហ�រ�មួយរ��ភិ�លកម��� និង� ស�ជិក��អង��រសង�មសុីវ�ល�ើម��ី��ើ�រតស៊ូមតិ���កគ��ង ឬកម�វ�ធី ��នឌ័រ ច��ប់�តិ និងកំ��រទ��ង់���លន��យរបស់����សកម���។

ចក��វ�ស័យរបស់�ើង គឺកម��������សមួយ��ល��� ី និងបុរស���វ�នផ�ល់ នូវ�ពអង់�ចដូចៗ�� �ើម��ីចូលរួម�ក��ង�រអភិវឌ�� �រទទួល�ន �រ��ើ��ស់ និង�រ�រ�រសិទ�ិរបស់ពួក��។

��សកកម�របស់�ើង �ើកកម�ស់សម�ព��នឌ័រ��ល�សិទ�មិនុស��� មូល��ន�ំ�ច់ស��ប់�រអភិវឌ��សង�ម ��ដ�កិច� និងន��យរបស់ ����សកម���។