Gender and Gender Gender and Gender Inequality Inequality (3/24)(3/24)

1.To what degree is the U.S. 1.To what degree is the U.S. characterized by institutional characterized by institutional

sexism, today? (Kanter)sexism, today? (Kanter)2. Affirmative action (begin)2. Affirmative action (begin)

How much gender inequality How much gender inequality is there in the United States is there in the United States

today?today?White males are abut 1/3 of the populationWhite males are abut 1/3 of the population

but they make up:but they make up:– 83% of the Forbes 40083% of the Forbes 400– 77% of Congress77% of Congress– 90% of Governors90% of Governors– 70% of tenured faculty70% of tenured faculty– Etc.Etc.

Is the U.S. institutionally sexist Is the U.S. institutionally sexist today? (today? (review inequality and review inequality and

opportuntityopportuntity ) )There is a lot of gender inequality,There is a lot of gender inequality,

and there are a lot of people who are, and there are a lot of people who are, individually sexist?individually sexist?

But is the over-all playing field level?But is the over-all playing field level?– Or even more than level?Or even more than level?– Are men top dog or underdog?Are men top dog or underdog?

Should it be level?Should it be level?

Can it be level without reducing inequality?Can it be level without reducing inequality?

Is it Functional or DysfunctionalIs it Functional or Dysfunctional

The view of gender inequalities as functional is The view of gender inequalities as functional is the view that they directly meet social needs or the view that they directly meet social needs or are the necessary result of other structures are the necessary result of other structures (meritocracy; family roles) that do so.(meritocracy; family roles) that do so.– There are three main functional arguments: biological, There are three main functional arguments: biological,

structural-functional and libertarian.structural-functional and libertarian.– They dominated American sociology up to 1970They dominated American sociology up to 1970– They are treated with respect in the text, but ultimately They are treated with respect in the text, but ultimately

rejected.rejected.

Kanter and Reskin regard the gender inequality Kanter and Reskin regard the gender inequality as dysfunctional and analyze its causes and cureas dysfunctional and analyze its causes and cure

What is the income gap in What is the income gap in 2000?2000?

OWN INCOME by SEXOWN INCOME by SEX

MALEMALE FEMALEFEMALE TOTALTOTAL

UNDER 6KUNDER 6K 5555 136136 191191

28.8%28.8% 71.2%71.2% 100.0%100.0%

6K-19,9996K-19,999 178178 334334 512512

34.8%34.8% 65.2%65.2% 100.0%100.0%

20K-2499920K-24999 8484 116116 200200

42.0%42.0% 58.0%58.0% 100.0%100.0%

25K & UP25K & UP 573573 342342 915915

62.6%62.6% 37.4%37.4% 100.0%100.0%

MissingMissing 339339 660660 999999

TOTALTOTAL 890890 928928 18181818

Women constitute 2/3 of those making less than $20,000; men constitute 2/3 of those making more than $25,000

Or looked at differently Or looked at differently

Women were three times more likely to make Women were three times more likely to make low incomes (15% v. 6%) and half as likely to low incomes (15% v. 6%) and half as likely to make high incomes (37% v. 64%) as men weremake high incomes (37% v. 64%) as men were

SEX by OWN INCOME

UNDER 6K 6K-19,999 20K-24999 25K & UP Missing TOTAL

MALE 55 178 84 573 339 890

6.2% 20.0% 9.4% 64.4% 100.0%

FEMALE 136 334 116 342 660 928

14.7% 36.0% 12.5% 36.9% 100.0%

TOTAL 191 512 200 915 999 1818

10.5% 28.2% 11.0% 50.3%

Skills: SAT scoresSkills: SAT scoresIf SAT scores alone were used to allocate scholarships If SAT scores alone were used to allocate scholarships and admittances to elite schools, men would get most and admittances to elite schools, men would get most of them.of them.

The text argues that part of the gap is bias in the The text argues that part of the gap is bias in the questions, and the rest is bias in interpreting the test as questions, and the rest is bias in interpreting the test as a test of ability.a test of ability.

Does the inequality of result Does the inequality of result reflect equality of opportunity? reflect equality of opportunity? Are men really that much smarter?Are men really that much smarter?Are they smarter at all?Are they smarter at all?3 main arguments that there should not be social 3 main arguments that there should not be social policies to reduce the inequality of outcomes:policies to reduce the inequality of outcomes:

1.1. Sociobiological functionalism: It reflects the Sociobiological functionalism: It reflects the different biological abilities of men and womendifferent biological abilities of men and women

2.2. Sociological functionalism: It reflects the functional Sociological functionalism: It reflects the functional imperatives of the family.imperatives of the family.

3.3. Libertarian functionalism: It reflects the rights of Libertarian functionalism: It reflects the rights of people who have resources to do what they want people who have resources to do what they want with them.with them.

Sociobiological functionalismSociobiological functionalismE.g. J. Q. Wilson E.g. J. Q. Wilson

Treated with great respect in textTreated with great respect in text

There are sex-linked differences in capacities There are sex-linked differences in capacities which may influence gender-capabilities.which may influence gender-capabilities.

However, there are also large gender-role However, there are also large gender-role differences, creating an unequal playing fielddifferences, creating an unequal playing field– E.g. Cross-cultural evidenceE.g. Cross-cultural evidence– There is sufficient cultural variation to show that There is sufficient cultural variation to show that

biological constraints are not the source biological constraints are not the source

Implications of treating inequality as biological:Implications of treating inequality as biological:– If the inequality is biological it is consistent with organic If the inequality is biological it is consistent with organic

solidarity; it is not remediable; and where there is no solidarity; it is not remediable; and where there is no problem, there does not have to be a solution.problem, there does not have to be a solution.

Sociological functionalismSociological functionalismE.g. T. Parsons: different outcomes E.g. T. Parsons: different outcomes represent different personalities, that reflect represent different personalities, that reflect the functional needs of families.the functional needs of families.– Popular forms : feminism causes family Popular forms : feminism causes family

breakdownbreakdown

Problems:Problems:– There are functional alternatives.There are functional alternatives.– Worst of both worldsWorst of both worlds– Organic solidarity** requires that people get an Organic solidarity** requires that people get an

equal chance.equal chance.– Ascriptive differences in life chances are Ascriptive differences in life chances are

inconsistent with organic solidarity.inconsistent with organic solidarity.

Libertarian functionalismLibertarian functionalismEven if the unequal outcome reflects neither Even if the unequal outcome reflects neither biological abilities nor functional needs of the biological abilities nor functional needs of the family, it might be that public policies cannot or family, it might be that public policies cannot or should not address it.should not address it.

Murray’s argument to the ineffectiveness of laws Murray’s argument to the ineffectiveness of laws was mainly directed against affirmaqtive action.was mainly directed against affirmaqtive action.

Those people with wealth and power might be Those people with wealth and power might be best allowed to dispose of it as they please. best allowed to dispose of it as they please.

Affirmative action and equivalent policies might Affirmative action and equivalent policies might create backlash.create backlash.

But, race issues are similar in the army and navy.But, race issues are similar in the army and navy.

Systemic representation of functional Systemic representation of functional theories of gender inequalitytheories of gender inequality

Functionalists argue that the inequality is Functionalists argue that the inequality is bound up with crucial social functions.bound up with crucial social functions.

Gender inequality

Preservation of i.e. family

Social functions economy

free choice

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-

Any erosion of the central social institutions leads to movements to return to arrangements generating gender inequality.

Conflict theory of SexismConflict theory of SexismAgainst the various functional theories of Against the various functional theories of inequality, different kinds of conflict inequality, different kinds of conflict theory argue that male privilege is theory argue that male privilege is dysfunctional.dysfunctional.

Privileging the homemaker/breadwinner Privileging the homemaker/breadwinner family, when the economy and the social family, when the economy and the social structure permits that for very few, is structure permits that for very few, is dysfunctional and unfair.dysfunctional and unfair.

Systemic representation of conflict Systemic representation of conflict theories about gender inequalitytheories about gender inequality

Conflict theorists argue that the inequality Conflict theorists argue that the inequality is a self-reinforcing structure of privilege.is a self-reinforcing structure of privilege.

Gender inequality

Reproduction and reinforcement of gender inequality

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Conflict theorists argue that the unfair and dysfunctional consequences of sexism ultimately lead to movements to reverse gender inequality.

Dysfunctional

consequences

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Example of an Analysis of Example of an Analysis of Institutional SexismInstitutional Sexism

Kanter:Kanter: Men and Women of the Corporation Men and Women of the Corporation (1972) (1972) (* p. 94; 146)(* p. 94; 146)Women in the management training program of a Women in the management training program of a company she called Indsco, did poorly.company she called Indsco, did poorly.There was little overt sexism or discrimination in There was little overt sexism or discrimination in promotion or evaluation,promotion or evaluation,but Kanter argues that a pervasive, institutionalized but Kanter argues that a pervasive, institutionalized structure that disadvantaged women.structure that disadvantaged women.Recall main finding: There is an informal structure Recall main finding: There is an informal structure that is the problem. It is what needs to be changed.that is the problem. It is what needs to be changed.

Tokenism: Tokenism:

Women were a numerical minority.Women were a numerical minority.– A popular usage of “token” refers to the motives for A popular usage of “token” refers to the motives for

the hire – I.e. to look as though one is diversethe hire – I.e. to look as though one is diverse– This is This is not not Kanter’s usage, though a diversity hire is Kanter’s usage, though a diversity hire is

often also a token in her sense, namely:often also a token in her sense, namely:– A numerical minority entering an institutional arena A numerical minority entering an institutional arena

that had long been dominated by menthat had long been dominated by men

Feagin referred to this as a “critical mass”Feagin referred to this as a “critical mass”Kanter argued this leads to hyper-visibility, lack Kanter argued this leads to hyper-visibility, lack of role models and lack of support that produce of role models and lack of support that produce non-level playing fields.non-level playing fields.

Hyper-visibility of tokensHyper-visibility of tokens

11stst effect of tokenism: everything that the women effect of tokenism: everything that the women did (both on and off business hours) was more did (both on and off business hours) was more visible and gossiped about than the actions of visible and gossiped about than the actions of the men.the men.

Operating in a goldfish bowl is intrinsically Operating in a goldfish bowl is intrinsically difficult. E.g.sdifficult. E.g.s

And this is doubly true if there are pressures to And this is doubly true if there are pressures to be “one of the guys.”be “one of the guys.”

Double-binds on female tokensDouble-binds on female tokens

Managerial candidates had to obtain high ratings Managerial candidates had to obtain high ratings both from their peers and from senior both from their peers and from senior executives.executives.Sustaining a high level of competition and of Sustaining a high level of competition and of camaraderie was usually done by sexual jokes camaraderie was usually done by sexual jokes and tales of sexual exploits.and tales of sexual exploits.Interrupting it with “Do you mind if I tell this Interrupting it with “Do you mind if I tell this story?” produced double-binds:story?” produced double-binds:– ““Yes” means she is a wet blanket and a prude.Yes” means she is a wet blanket and a prude.– ““No” means she is a tart or a whore.No” means she is a tart or a whore.

Feedbacks involving numbers:Feedbacks involving numbers:

Tokenism (i.e. small numbers of women

Hyper-visibility and lack of models or supports

Lack of success by the tokens

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Small numbers produces small numbers.

A group’s success produces more success; a group’s failure produces more failure.

Existing rolesExisting roles

The existing roles for women, adopted from The existing roles for women, adopted from family roles, were not associated with family roles, were not associated with managerial effectiveness. They were:managerial effectiveness. They were:

1.1. Mother, nurturer, supplies support.Mother, nurturer, supplies support.2.2. Kid sister, pet, needs protection.Kid sister, pet, needs protection.3.3. Maiden aunt, mannish “iron maiden,” dyke.Maiden aunt, mannish “iron maiden,” dyke.4.4. Seductress, hot, loose.Seductress, hot, loose.

– While it is possible to change existing roles, it While it is possible to change existing roles, it is like creating a new language at the same is like creating a new language at the same time one is communicating in it.time one is communicating in it.

Cooptation and protégésCooptation and protégés

Senior management adopted protégés Senior management adopted protégés that like themselves, with whom they that like themselves, with whom they identified.identified.Often in locker-room contacts,Often in locker-room contacts,Avoiding jealousy at home,Avoiding jealousy at home,and solving trust issues.and solving trust issues.““Cronyism” or “old boy networks.”Cronyism” or “old boy networks.”For these reasons, women had more For these reasons, women had more difficulty becoming a protégé.difficulty becoming a protégé.

Feedbacks involving roles and Feedbacks involving roles and stereotyping:stereotyping:

Women largely absent from managerial positions

Women perceived in terms of family roles

Lack of evaluation of managerial competence

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Lack of role models produces stereotyping and suspicion that is a self-fulfilling prophecy that produces lack of role models.

Effects on the motivation of the Effects on the motivation of the womenwomen

The women often ended up becoming less The women often ended up becoming less motivated to individual advancement.motivated to individual advancement.

Kanter argues that this was institutionally Kanter argues that this was institutionally created: any group which experiences:created: any group which experiences:– A glass ceiling,A glass ceiling,– Less autonomy, orLess autonomy, or– more menial tasksmore menial tasks

Aims tend to shift to the achievable.Aims tend to shift to the achievable.

Feedbacks involving motivation and Feedbacks involving motivation and a glass ceiling:a glass ceiling:

Women given menial and unrewarding positions

Women shift priorities to friendships and family roles

Lack of female success in executive positions

+ +

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Lack of responsibility, lack of autonomy, or low expectations of success all cause people to shift their motivations to shperes where they expect higher reward.

The result of institutional sexismThe result of institutional sexismIt was not impossible for women to succeed at It was not impossible for women to succeed at Indsco, but what Kanter aimed to explain was Indsco, but what Kanter aimed to explain was the lower rate.the lower rate.The problem was not individual sexism and/or The problem was not individual sexism and/or discrimination, but the fact that discrimination, but the fact that the existing culture and social structure was the existing culture and social structure was unfriendly, unsupportive, and more difficult for unfriendly, unsupportive, and more difficult for the women.the women.Reasons for differences or effectiveness of Reasons for differences or effectiveness of policies in changing such cultures or social policies in changing such cultures or social structures in firms are researchable.structures in firms are researchable.

Policy ImplicationsPolicy ImplicationsOn the one hand, since virtually none of the On the one hand, since virtually none of the disadvantage of women was the result of disadvantage of women was the result of individual discrimination, harassment, etc. it individual discrimination, harassment, etc. it would not be affected by such laws.would not be affected by such laws.On the other hand, neither the numerical On the other hand, neither the numerical minority status of women, nor the institutional minority status of women, nor the institutional arrangements were beyond remedy.arrangements were beyond remedy.Even when the source of the problem is Even when the source of the problem is outside (e.g. family) it can be buffered.outside (e.g. family) it can be buffered.A similar structure of racial disadvantage and A similar structure of racial disadvantage and tokenism existed in the army, Sun Oil, etc.tokenism existed in the army, Sun Oil, etc.We shall pursue the specific issues of We shall pursue the specific issues of meritocracy next classmeritocracy next class

Affirmative ActionAffirmative ActionThe sources of disadvantage that involve numbers The sources of disadvantage that involve numbers or role models would be changed by changing the or role models would be changed by changing the numbers or producing the role models.numbers or producing the role models.

Major political conflicts today center on affirmative Major political conflicts today center on affirmative action, which is often perceived as a system of action, which is often perceived as a system of gender/racial preference.gender/racial preference.

There is both widespread support for leveling the There is both widespread support for leveling the playing field,playing field,

and widespread opposition to “quotas” or and widespread opposition to “quotas” or “preferences”“preferences”