Gender Analysis of Education Sector Budget Allocation and

Expenditure in Gilgit-Baltistan [FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14]

Mustafa Nazir Ahmad

Plan International-Pakistan House No 9, Street No 32, Sector F 7/1,

Islamabad, Pakistan

Title Caption What has the future in store for her? An out-of-school girl in Faizabad, District Gilgit. @Mustafa Nazir Ahmad

Gender Analysis of Education Budget Allocation and

Expenditure in Gilgit-Baltistan [FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14]

Mustafa Nazir Ahmad

Plan International-Pakistan House No 9, Street No 32, Sector F 7/1,

Islamabad, Pakistan

ii

Abbreviations and Acronyms ADP Annual Development Programme

AJK Azad Jammu and Kashmir

BCC Budget call circular

ECE Early childhood education

EFA Education For All

EMIS Education Management Information Service

FATA Federally Administered Tribal Areas

FEC Foreign exchange component

FG Federal government

FGD Focus group discussion

FY Fiscal year

GER Gross enrolment ratio

GoP Government of Pakistan

GPS Global Positioning System

GRBI Gender Responsive Budgeting Initiative

IT Information technology

I-SAPS Institute of Social and Policy Sciences

MDG Millennium Development Goal

MLA Member of Legislative Assembly

NAs Northern Areas

NCHD National Commission for Human Development

NGO Non-governmental organisation

PC-1 Planning Commission Performa

PKR Pakistani rupee

PSDP Public Sector Development Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

USAID United States Agency for International Development

iii

Contents Acknowledgments IX

Executive Summary X

1. Introduction and Background 1

1.1 Introduction 2 1.1.1 Girls Right to Education 2 1.1.2 Government Budgets: Stages, Types of Expenditure and Need for Analysis 3

1.2 Gilgit-Baltistan at a Glance 5

1.3 Girls Education in Gilgit-Baltistan 6

1.3.1 Literacy Rates 7 1.3.2 Educational Institutions 7

1.3.3 Enrolments 7

1.3.4 Teaching Staff 8

1.3.5 Gross Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level 8

1.4 Alif Ailaan District Education Rankings 2014 9

1.4.1 Education Rankings (Primary Level) 9

1.4.2 Education Rankings (Middle Level) 10

2. Literature Review 13

2.1 Gender Equality in Education: International Targets Girls Right to Education 14

2.2 Education Policy Documents: Pakistan and Gilgit-Baltistan 15 2.2.1 National Education Policy (1998-2010) 16

2.2.2 National Education Policy (2009) 16

2.2.3 Northern Areas Education Strategy (2008-2025) 17

2.3 Gender Budget Analysis: International and National Experience 19 2.3.1 Australian Three-Way Categorisation 19

2.3.2 South African Five-Step Approach 20

2.3.3 Pakistans Gender Responsive Budgeting Initiative 21 3. Methodology 23

3.1 Objectives of the Study 24

3.2 Study Design 24

3.3 Data Collection Procedure and Tools 25

3.4 Limitations of the Study 26

iv

4. Quantitative Data Analysis and Findings 27

4.1 Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 28 4.1.1 Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Classification 28 4.1.2 Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Category 30 4.1.3 Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Target Area 33

4.1.4 Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Level of Education 37

4.1.5 Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Share of Boys and Girls 39

4.2 Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 41 4.2.1 Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Classification 41

4.2.2 Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Category 43 4.2.3 Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Target Area 46

4.2.4 Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Level of Education 50

4.2.5 Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Share of Boys and Girls 53

4.3 Comparison of Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 54 4.3.1 Comparison of Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14

by Classification 56

4.3.2 Comparison of Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Category 58

4.3.3 Comparison of Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Target Area 59

4.3.4 Comparison of Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Level of Education 63

4.3.5 Comparison of Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Share of Boys and Girls 65

4.4 Salient Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 65 4.4.1 Gilgit-Baltistan Level Education Schemes 65 4.4.2 District Gilgit Education Schemes 75 4.4.3 District Diamer Education Schemes 77 4.4.4 District Ghizer Education Schemes 84 4.4.5 District Hunza-Nagar Schemes 84 4.4.6 District Ghanche Schemes 86 4.4.7 District Astore Schemes 87

5. Qualitative Data Aanalysis and Findings 89

5.1 Gender and Regional Disparities in Education 90

5.2 Hindrances to Girls Education 91

5.3 Preference for Private Schools over Public Schools 92

5.4 Underutilisation of Education Sector Development Budget 94

v

6. Conclusions 97

6.1 Budget Allocation and Expenditure Trends 98

6.1.1 Budget for Education Sector Increased 98 6.1.2 Focus Shifted from Targeted to Ongoing Education Schemes 101

6.1.3 Education Schemes Benefitted Boys More than Girls 104 6.1.4 Share of Girls in Education Budget Reduced 108 6.1.5 High Priority Accorded to Cadet Colleges 110

6.2 Challenges to Girls Education and Budgetary Processes 111

6.2.1 Girls Access to Education Hindered by Problems 111

6.2.2 Budgetary Processes Need Overhaul 113

7. Recommendations 115

7.1 Improving Girls Education 116 7.1.1 Increase Female Literacy 116

7.1.2 Enhance Quality of Education 117

7.1.3 Improve Budget Utilisation and Service Delivery 117

7.2 Gender Sensitising the Budgetary Process 117

7.2.1 Steps to Anchor Gender Budget Analysis 118

8. References 121

Appendices 125 Appendix 1: Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 126

Appendix 2: Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 134

Appendix 3: Salient Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 141 Appendix 4: Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 Excluded from

Detailed Analysis 146

Appendix 5: Questionnaires 149

Appendix 6: List of Respondents 151 List of Tables Chapter 1 Table 1.1: Educational Institutions in Gilgit-Baltistan by Gender and Level of Education 7

Table 1.2: Enrolments in Gilgit-Baltistan by Gender and Level of Education 8 Table 1.3: Teaching Staff in Gilgit-Baltistan by Gender and Level of Education 9 Table 1.4: Gross Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level by Gender and District 9 Table 1.5: Pakistan Education Rankings (Primary Level) 10 Table 1.6: Gilgit-Baltistan Education Rankings (Primary Level) 10 Table 1.7: Gilgit-Baltistan Education Rankings (Middle Level) 11

vi

Chapter 4 Table 4.1: Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 28 Table 4.2: Targeted Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 29

Table 4.3: Targeted Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Status 29

Table 4.4: Ongoing Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 29

Table 4.5: Ongoing Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Status 30

Table 4.6: New Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 30 Table 4.7: Gender Specific Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 30 Table 4.8: Gender Specific Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Beneficiary 31 Table 4.9: Gender Specific Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Share of Boys and Girls 32 Table 4.10: Gender Sensitive Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 32 Table 4.11: Gender Neutral Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 33 Table 4.12: Gilgit-Baltistan Level Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 33

Table 4.13: District Gilgit Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 34

Table 4.14: District Diamer Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 34

Table 4.15: District Ghizer Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 35 Table 4.16: District Hunza-Nagar Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 35

Table 4.17: District Ghanche Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 36

Table 4.18: District Astore Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 36

Table 4.19: Primary Level Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 37 Table 4.20: Secondary Level Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 38

Table 4.21: Higher Secondary Level Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 38

Table 4.22: Miscellaneous Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 39

Table 4.23: Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Category 40

Table 4.24: Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 by Share of Boys and Girls 40 Table 4.25: Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 41

Table 4.26: Targeted Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 41

Table 4.27: Targeted Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Status 41

Table 4.28: Ongoing Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 42 Table 4.29: Ongoing Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Status 42

Table 4.30: New Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 42

Table 4.31: Targeted New Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 43

Table 4.32: Gender Specific Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 43 Table 4.33: Gender Specific Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Beneficiary 44 Table 4.34: Gender Specific Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Share of Boys and Girls 45 Table 4.35: Gender Sensitive Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 45 Table 4.36: Gender Neutral Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 46

vii

Table 4.37: Gilgit-Baltistan Level Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 46

Table 4.38: District Gilgit Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 47

Table 4.39: District Skardu Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 47 Table 4.40: District Diamer Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 48

Table 4.41: District Ghizer Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 48

Table 4.42: District Hunza-Nagar Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 49

Table 4.43: District Ghanche Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 49 Table 4.44: District Astore Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 50

Table 4.45: Primary Level Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 51

Table 4.46: Secondary Level Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 51

Table 4.47: Higher Secondary Level Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 52

Table 4.48: Miscellaneous Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 52 Table 4.49: Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Category 53

Table 4.50: Education Schemes in ADP 2013-14 by Share of Boys and Girls 54 Table 4.51: Gilgit-Baltistan Development Outlay and Block Allocation 55

Table 4.52: Total, Targeted, Ongoing and New Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 55 Table 4.53: Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 55

Table 4.54: Targeted Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 56

Table 4.55: Targeted Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Status 56

Table 4.56: Ongoing Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 57

Table 4.57: Ongoing Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Status 57 Table 4.58: New Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 58

Table 4.59: Gender Specific Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 58 Table 4.60: Gender Sensitive Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 59 Table 4.61: Gender Neutral Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 59 Table 4.62: Gilgit-Baltistan Level Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 60

Table 4.63: District Gilgit Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 60

Table 4.64: District Diamer Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 61

Table 4.65: District Ghizer Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 61

Table 4.66: District Hunza-Nagar Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 62 Table 4.67: District Ghanche Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 62

Table 4.68: District Astore Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 62 Table 4.69: Primary Level Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 63

Table 4.70: Secondary Level Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 63 Table 4.71: Higher Secondary Level Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 64

Table 4.72: Miscellaneous Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 64 Table 4.73: Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Share of Boys and Girls 65

viii

List of Figures Chapter 1 Figure 1.1: Map of Gilgit-Baltistan 5 Chapter 6 Figure 6.1: ADP Allocation in FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14 (Million PKR) 100 Figure 6.2: Total/Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 100

Figure 6.3: Budget Allocation for Education in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 (Million PKR) 101

Figure 6.4: Expenditure on Education Sector Development Schemes in FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14 (Million PKR) 102

Figure 6.5: Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Classification 103 Figure 6.6: Budget Allocation for Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Classification (Million PKR) 103

Figure 6.7: Expenditure on Education Sector Development Schemes in FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14 by Classification (Million PKR) 104 Figure 6.8: Status of Ongoing Education Sector Development Schemes in FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14 105

Figure 6.9: Status of Targeted Education Sector Development Schemes in FY 2012-13 and

FY 2013-14 106

Figure 6.10: Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Category 106 Figure 6.11: Budget Allocation for Education Schemes in ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 by Category (Million PKR) 107

Figure 6.12: Expenditure on Education Sector Development Schemes in FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14 by Category (Million PKR) 108 Figure 6.13: Education Sector Development Budget Allocation in FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14 by Gender (Million PKR) 110

Figure 6.14: Education Sector Development Budget Expenditure in FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14 by Gender (Million PKR) 111

Figure 6.15: Utilisation Rate of Education Sector Development Budget in FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14 by Gender (Percentage) 111

Figure 6.16: Share of Boys and Girls in Education Sector Development Budget Expenditure in FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14 by Gender (Million PKR) 112 Case Studies Chapter 6 Case Study 6.1: Views of Secretary, Planning and Development 92

Case Study 6.2: Mehnaz Fatima Montessori and Inclusive Learning Centre 93

Case Study 6.3: Directorate of Womens Development 95

ix

AcknowledgmentsThe completion of this first-of-its-kind study on education budget allocation and spending in Gilgit-Baltistan owes to the cooperation extended by a wide range of stakeholders, including both organisations and individuals. Some of the salient ones from the government, who not only provided useful data but also gave their precious time for interview, include:

1. Dr Saad S Khan, Secretary, Department of Planning and Development, Government of Gilgit-Baltistan.

2. Mr Shafa Ali, Deputy Secretary, Department of Education, Government of Gilgit-Baltistan.

3. Mr Azam Khan, Deputy Secretary, Department of Finance, Government of Gilgit-Baltistan.

4. Ms Najma Farman, Assistant Chief/ Gender Focal Person, Department of Planning and Development, Government of Gilgit-Baltistan.

5. Mr Ahmad Khan, Section Officer, Department of Finance, Government of Gilgit-Baltistan.

The material and reports produced by the following government ministries/ departments, research institutes and international and local non-governmental organisations, working for the promotion of girls education in Pakistan generally and in Gilgit-Baltistan particularly, have been used in the study and credit is due to them:

1. ActionAid-Pakistan. 2. Alif Ailaan. 3. Association of Global Humanists and

Ethics. 4. Centre for Peace and Development

Initiatives-Pakistan. 5. Commonwelath Secretariat.

6. Department of Education, Government of Gilgit-Baltistan.

7. Department of Planning and Development, Government of Gilgit-Baltistan.

8. Manzil Pakistan. 9. Ministry of Education, Government of

Pakistan. 10. Ministry of Education, Trainings and

Standards in Higher Education, Government of Pakistan

11. Northern Areas Directorate of Education.

12. Oxfam/Institute of Social and Policy Sciences.

13. Pakistan Institute of Development Economics.

14. Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan.

15. The World Bank. 16. United Nations Educational, Scientific

and Cultural Organization. A large number of teachers, students, noted educationists and senior government officials were interviewed for the study. In particular, the researcher wants to thank Mr Bulbul Jan, Chief Executive Officer of Mehnaz Fatima Montessori and Inclusive Learning Centre Juglote, Gilgit.

Finally, the study could not have been undertaken without the guidance and support provided by Plan International-Pakistan staff, particularly Mr Safdar Raza, Ms Shahnaz Kausar and Mr Imran Shami. The researcher also wants to thank his parents and wife for their unflinching support.

Mustafa Nazir Ahmad Lahore.

x

Executive Summary

Traditionally, all societies have given preference to boys over girls when it comes to educational opportunity, and disparities in educational attainment and literacy rates today reflect patterns that have been shaped by the social and education policies and practices of the past. As a result, virtually all countries face gender disparities.

Free and compulsory basic education is a fundamental right of every human being as guaranteed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Educated citizens are a countrys assets and expenditure on education is an investment that reaps long-term benefits. Despite its obvious benefits, education has always taken a backseat when it comes to budgetary allocation and effective utilisation of resources in under-developed and developing countries. Introduction and Background The situation of girls education in Gilgit-Baltistan must be viewed within the wider Pakistani and South Asian context. Unfortunately, inequalities across education such as gender disparities and urban-rural divide are widespread in Pakistan. Key national indicators show that, within South Asia, excluding Afghanistan, Pakistan has the lowest gender parity index at 0.78, as well as gross primary school enrolments.

Gilgit-Baltistan has made rapid progress in education in recent decades. Indeed, in many areas it has kept pace with national levels. Still, together with much of the rest of Pakistan, the region falls well short of reaching the EFA Goals and education-related MDGs.

Weak educational outcomes in Gilgit-Baltistan derive largely from the existing geographic and administrative realities that

militate against the effective and efficient delivery of services. Access to education seems to be particularly problematic in those districts that are faced with major geographic obstacles like long distances that discourage girls school attendance and where institutions lack the capacity to provide quality education.

In its policies and plans, the Government of Gilgit-Baltistan places strong emphasis on the promotion of gender equality and elimination of gender disparities at all levels of education. However, the same is not reflected in its budget allocation and expenditure patterns because traditionally the pace and quality of service delivery in the education sector has been dismal.

This research study was conducted with a view to offering concrete suggestions for eliminating the gender gap in education. The development component of Gilgit-Baltistans education budget for FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14 was thoroughly analysed, and the major beneficiary of each scheme was determined. In addition, expenditure patterns were assessed to determine the pace of service delivery. Objectives of the Study The specific objectives of conducting the gender analysis of education sector budget allocation and expenditure patterns in Gilgit-Baltistan, and of the related budgetary processes, were to:

Assess expenditure against actual allocation in the education sector development budget for FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14.

Provide a snapshot of budgetary priorities in terms of education through a gender lens.

xi

Establish concrete evidence on gender disparities in the education sector development budget for FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14.

Determine the reasons for widespread regional and gender disparities at different levels of education.

Identify the education sub-sectors that need to be focused for achieving the goals and targets outlined in the National Education Policy 2009 and Northern Areas Education Strategy 2008-2025, as well as for meeting the international commitments of the Government of Pakistan such as the EFA Goals and MDGs.

Suggest measures to make the education sector development budget, as well as the related budgetary processes, more gender sensitive.

Study Design After reviewing the major policy documents and plans on education, two dominant analytical frameworks of gender budget analysis the Australian three-way categorisation of expenditure and the South African five-step approach were used as the basis for quantitative and qualitative data analysis, respectively, but with generous changes to suit the local context.

For the quantitative analysis, all the education schemes in the ADP 2012-13 and ADP 2013-14 were categorised as one of the following: Gender Specific: Schemes that

specifically target boys or both boys and girls. 100.0% of the total budget allocated to, and the total expenditure incurred on, the schemes targeting male students has been charged to boys; while the budget allocated to, and the expenditure incurred on, the schemes targeting both male and

female students has been charged to boys and girls in accordance with the benefits accrued by them.

Gender Sensitive: Schemes that contribute to increasing girls enrolment (and, in some cases, womens participation in jobs) based on the analysis of Gilgit-Baltistans education sector. 100.0% of the total budget allocated to, and the total expenditure incurred on, these schemes has been charged to girls.

Gender Neutral: Schemes that cater to the curricular or extracurricular needs of both boys and girls irrespective of their sex. 50.0% each of the budget allocated to, and the total expenditure incurred on, these schemes has been charged to boys and girls.

Findings and Conclusions The major conclusions of the study, given in the following, clearly demonstrate that the Government of Gilgit-Baltistan will not only fail to achieve the gender-related objectives outlined in the Northern Areas Education Strategy (2008-2025), but also miss the deadlines of the EFA Goals and education-related MDGs. The foremost conclusion of the study is that achieving gender parity at all levels of education will remain an elusive dream until girls were not accorded priority in budget allocation and expenditure.

The size of Gilgit-Baltistans ADP increased by 19.3% from Rs 6789.090 million in FY 2012-13 to Rs 8100.000 million in FY 2013-14, reflecting the federal governments commitment to developing the region.

The total budget allocated to the education sector increased by 22.4% from Rs 361.928 million in the ADP 2012-13 to Rs 442.882 million in the ADP 2013-14.

xii

The total expenditure incurred on the education sector development schemes increased by 116.0%, from only Rs 203.021 million in FY 2012-13 to Rs 438.487 million in FY 2013-14; and the budget utilisation rate of these initiatives by 76.5% from 56.1% in the former to 99.0% in the latter.

The number of targeted education schemes decreased by 45.5% from 44 in the ADP 2012-13 to 24 in the ADP 2013-14. In comparison, the number of ongoing education schemes increased by 47.4% from 19 in the ADP 2012-13 to 28 in the ADP 2013-14.

The budget allocated to the targeted education schemes decreased by 44.9% from Rs 162.314 million in the ADP 2012-13 to Rs 89.397 million in the ADP 2013-14. In comparison, the total budget allocated to the ongoing education schemes increased by 51.3% from Rs 180.804 million in the ADP 2012-13 to Rs 273.558 million in the ADP 2013-14

The total expenditure incurred on the targeted education sector schemes decreased by 48.2% from Rs 97.483 million in FY 2012-13 to Rs 50.459 million in FY 2013-14; and the budget utilisation rate of these initiatives by 6.2% from 60.1% in the former to 56.4% in the latter. In comparison, the total expenditure incurred on the ongoing education sector schemes increased by 267.7% from Rs 105.538 million in FY 2012-13 to Rs 388.028 million in FY 2013-14; and the budget utilisation rate of these initiatives by 142.8% from 58.4% in the former to 141.8% in the latter.

The budget allocated to the gender specific education schemes for boys increased by 44.9% from Rs 138.791

million in ADP 2012-13 to Rs 188.279 million in the ADP 2013-14. In comparison, the total budget allocated to the gender sensitive education schemes slightly decreased by 3.4% from Rs 68.346 million in the ADP 2012-13 to Rs 66.009 million in the ADP 2013-14.

Tthe total expenditure incurred on the gender specific e schemes for boys increased by 269.7% from Rs 71.967 million in FY 2012-13 to Rs 266.083 million in FY 2013-14; and the budget utilisation rate of these initiatives by 172.3% from 51.9% in the former to 141.3% in the latter. In comparison, the total expenditure incurred on the gender sensitive schemes increased by 14.2% from Rs 28.666 million in FY 2012-13 to Rs 32.730 million in FY 2013-14; and the utilisation rate of these initiatives by 18.4% from 41.9% in the former to 49.6% in the latter.

The education sector development budget allocated to girls increased by 8.7% from Rs 147.557 million in FY 2012-13 to Rs 160.431 million in FY 2013-14. Compareed with this, the education sector development budget allocated to boys increased by 31.8% from Rs 214.371 million in FY 2012-13 to Rs 282.451 million in FY 2013-14.

The education sector development budget expenditure on girls increased by 31.4% from Rs 81.465 million in FY 2012-13 to Rs 107.030 million in FY 2013-14. In comparison, the education sector budget expenditure on boys increased by 172.7% from Rs 121.556 million in FY 2012-13 to Rs 331.457 million in FY 2013-14. The increase in the budget expenditure in the case of boys was 172.7%; while, in the case of girls, only 31.4%.

xiii

Despite the implementation of various initiatives, girls access to education remains a serious challenge to the education system in Gilgit-Baltistan because of many reasons: lack of educational institutions, missing basic facilities in schools, high dropout rates, cultural constraints, insufficient budgetary allocation and unutilised development budget, and lack of effective demand for quality education by the society.

Some of the key conlusions based on qualitative data analysis are: (a) education system reinforces discrimination against girls; (b) poverty and cost of education exclude many girls; (c) unfavourable geography of Gilgit-Baltistan compounds problems; (d) gender gap more pronounced at higher levels of education; (e) long walks to school hamper girls enrolment; (f) well-resourced educational institutions remain an elusive dream; and (g) limited provision of education linked with dropouts.

Some of the key conlusions related to the budgetary processes are: (a) implementation of education schemes often behind schedule; (b) majority of funds released in last month of fiscal year; (c) inter-departmental disputes result in low utilisation of budget; (d) gender budget allocation unresponsive to specific needs of girls; and (e) site selection for construction of schools not done efficiently.

Recommendations Considering the format of the study, the recommendations have been divided in two heads: (a) Improving girls education; and (b) Gender sensitising budgetary processes.

The key recommendations to improve girls education have been grouped under:

a) Increase female literacy. b) Enhance quality of education. c) Imporve budget utilisation and service

delivery. Increase Female Literacy The government should focus on

establishing new schools with trained teachers and basic facilities, especially in rural areas that do not have private schools either.

The Gilgit-Baltistan Legislative Assembly should legislate to make girls education free and compulsory.

Motivational programmes highlighting the benefits of education should be started for communities on the pattern of the Aga Khan Development Network.

The government, the private sector and communities should all join hands for enhancing female literacy.

NGOs and civil society organisations should supplement the government efforts aimed at increasing female literacy. They should adopt the models of increasing female literacy that have been successful in other countries.

Employment opportunities should be provided to the educated women since that will motivate many parents to enrol their daughters in schools.

Provision of hostel and transport facilities should be made compulsory in educational institutions for girls.

The female dropout rate should be checked and the factors contributing to it controlled.

Physical infrastructure of girls schools should be improved.

xiv

A degree college for women with modern facilities should be established in all the districts of Gilgit-Baltistan.

All out-of-school girls should be enrolled in the existing primary schools with underutilised capacity.

Poverty should be eradicated in the areas where it is the primary reason for illiteracy.

Equality in education should be integrated into wider policies at the economic, social and political levels.

Young female teachers in rural areas should be given maximum incentives to ensure that they do not leave their job after marriage.

Incentives such as stipends and food-for-education should be offered to poor girl students.

Enhance Quality of Education The recruitment of teachers should be

done in a transparent manner, free of any political influence.

Teacher training should be a vital component of education planning.

Uniform syllabus should be introduced in public and private education institutions.

Sectarian clashes should be strictly handled.

A teacher should be terminated from job for absenteeism.

The government, in collaboration with the local school committees, should monitor the performance of teachers.

Teachers should get promotion based on their performance only.

The workload of teachers in the public sector should be reduced.

A viable monitoring and evaluation mechanism should be adopted.

Improve Budget Utilisation and Service Delivery Local communities should be involved in the planning, implementation and monitoring of education schemes for girls.

MLAs should be motivated to include schemes for girls in their priority list. In the case of districts like Diamer where female literacy is abysmal, schemes for boys should be made conditional to schemes for girls.

Sex-disaggregated statistics for all levels of education should be regularly developed to monitor the progress of girls. This will also help create new indicators to provide policy-relevant information.

The policy of focusing on cadet colleges, which cater exclusively to boys and to a certain middle class segment of the population, should be urgently reconsidered; and the same budgetary allocations should be used more efficiently for achieving the goal of Education for All.

The Department of Education should inform the stakeholders about the progress on development projects after each quarter. Moreover, it should arrange monthly media briefings to share the achievements made and problems faced during the period.

Proper management of public resources should be ensured through a strong monitoring system.

Improvements in access to and quality of education should be brought about in all subsectors: ECE, primary education, middle and higher education, adult literacy, and technical and vocational education.

Misuse of political, administrative and financial powers should be curbed.

Chapter 1

Introduction and Background

A new trend: two young girls on their way to a tuition centre near Faizabad, District Gilgit.

@Mustafa Nazir Ahmad

2

1.1 Introduction Education is regarded as the key factor in overcoming the barriers that women face and the basic tool for empowering them (Murtaza, 2012). Education not only provides women with knowledge and skills to improve their health and livelihoods, but also empowers them to take their right place in society and the development process.

Educating women is also the key to reducing poverty. One of our greatest needs is to spread education among women. As a matter of fact, there is room for the extension of education even among men. The condition of womens education is, however, such that any attempt at its spread deserves help and encouragement from all quarters (Sharma & Sharma, 2004).

Womens status in the society and education are interrelated. Movements have been launched all over the world to reduce illiteracy: The movement for improving womens status has always emphasised education as the most significant instrument for changing womens subjugated position in society (Bhatt & Sharma, 1992).

Girls and women remain deprived of full and equal opportunities for education. There has been progress towards parity at the primary level, but this tapers off at the secondary level in developing regions (UNESCO, 2012). The global economic crisis is deepening inequalities, made worse by cuts in education budgets and stagnating development support.

Gender equality is also one of the six goals of the global Education for All (EFA) campaign that was launched in 2000, when the countries of the world agreed to eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and achieve gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality (UNESCO, 2012). 1.1.1 Girls Right to Education

The 1990 World Conference on Education for All, held in Jomtien, Thailand, made it clear that Education for All means educating both boys and girls, and that treating both sexes equally and in the process narrowing the gender gap is a matter of justice and equality. Jomtien marked the beginning of intensified international support for assuring access to quality education for girls, a cause that was reaffirmed 10 years later at the World Education Forum in Dakar and by the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of 2000.

Traditionally, all societies have given preference to boys over girls when it comes to educational opportunity, and disparities in educational attainment and literacy rates today reflect patterns that have been shaped by the social and education policies and practices of the past (UNESCO, 2012). As a result, virtually all countries face gender disparities of some sort. Given the strong correlations that exist between gross domestic product and educational attainment, all countries have incentives to make the best possible use of all of their human resources.

Free and compulsory basic education is a fundamental right of every human being as guaranteed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Educated citizens are a countrys assets and expenditure on education is an investment that reaps long-term benefits (Manzil Pakistan, 2013). Despite its obvious benefits, education has always taken a backseat when it comes to budgetary allocation and effective utilisation of resources in underdeveloped and developing countries.

3

1.1.2 Government Budgets: Stages, Types of Expenditure and Need for Analysis

Budget is a document that, once approved by the legislature, authorises the government to raise revenues, incur debts and effect expenditures to achieve certain goals. The budget determines the origin and application of public financial resources; and it plays a central role in the process of government, fulfilling economic, political, social, legal and administrative functions.

The budget reflects a countrys socioeconomic priorities by translating policies and political commitments into taxation and expenditure. In this way, it emphasises constraints and trade-offs in policy choices. The budget has serious repercussions for all the citizens of a country, irrespective of their economic or social status. How funds are raised by the government and how they are spent is a vital concern of the people. The level of concern varies from country to country, depending on the political rights enjoyed by the people and range of freedoms available to them.

The federal budget, in a narrow sense, provides forecasts of a countrys revenue and expenditure in a given fiscal year. But, at the same time, it reflects various dimensions of national economic and non-economic policies, as well as serves as an instrument of economic restructuring, growth and stabilisation in the long-term perspective. It spells out the significant elements of fiscal and monetary policies to achieve the national economic growth and income redistribution objectives. 1.1.2.1 Stages of Budget Cycle The budget cycle, or the process of budgeting, runs across the year. It comprises the major stages in making decisions about the budget, and implementing and assessing those decisions (Ahmad, 2010). The budget cycle has the following four stages that may overlap with each other:

a) Formulation (Planning/Preparation/Drafting): The initial formulation of the budget occurs almost exclusively within the executive branch of government, though it can include a number of actors within the branch. Mostly the Budget Wing in the Ministry of Finance coordinates and manages the formulation of the budget, requesting information from individual departments and proposing the trade-offs necessary to fit competing government priorities into the budgets expenditure totals.

b) Enactment (Presentation/Legislative): The second stage of the budget cycle occurs when the budget is discussed in the legislature and consequently enacted into law. This stage begins when the executive formally proposes the budget to the legislature and ends when the budget is adopted by the legislature, either intact or with amendments.

c) Execution (Implementation): The next stage of the process occurs once the budget has been enacted. Governments differ widely in how they regulate and monitor expenditure to ensure adherence to budgets. In some cases, the Ministry of Finance exercises strong control over expenditure, reviewing allocations to ministries and approving major expenditures. Where ministries are more independent, the Ministry of Finance monitors expenditures by requiring regular reporting by each ministry of its expenditure.

d) Auditing and Assessment (Reporting): The last stage in the budget cycle includes activities that aim to measure whether there has been an effective use of public resources. Ideally, the executive branch should report extensively on its fiscal activities to the legislature and the public. These activities should also be subject to regular review by an established independent and professional body.

4

1.1.2.2 Types of Budget Expenditure The process of budgeting starts with government divisions, ministries, departments and agencies assessing their needs and preparing a budget proposal linking goals for service delivery with expenditure. The method used for distributing resources among them differs from country to country. Factors like population size and poverty are taken into account during this process. When the proposals are brought together, different policy priorities are fused in terms of resources. This results in the budget statement that is tabled in the parliament to be discussed by legislators and different sectoral committees.

The budget expenditure, which refers to spending or outlays made to fulfil a government obligation, is broadly classified as current and development. The current expenditure, also called recurring expenditure, includes government spending on salaries, rentals, office requirements, operating expenses of public-sector industries and services, and payment of interest on loans. The development expenditure or includes government spending on new projects such as schools, health units, roads, dams, etc. (Ahmad, 2010). 1.1.2.3 Need for Budget Analysis In a working democracy, every citizen reserves the right to question government action or, as in most cases, inaction. Experience tells us that established democracies are more transparent as well as more accountable to their citizens. Hence people living under established democratic orders play a far more important role in the budget formulation process through individual and organised institutional efforts than those living under undemocratic or authoritarian regimes. Even legislators have no role to play during the preparation of the budget in the countries falling under the latter category, except for endorsing or rejecting it based on their affiliation.

Budgets ultimately determine policy outcomes. They show who benefits from public spending and who is bypassed, where the money is allocated and where it is not. Budget analysis can be a pivot to focus on local, national and international issues. However, macroeconomic policy that directs the budgets formulation is barely debated and rarely challenged in developing countries. Argumentation does occur, but only over slices of specific items.

For all practical purposes, the public and civil society are left out of budget policy deliberations. To create space for public argument, organised advocates around the world have begun to analyse their national and local budgets. Their work includes summarising official information that is readily available and sharing it with other advocates to be used in their efforts (Ahmad, 2010). Social justice advocates are using budget analysis to:

Amplify the voices of people who are not heard. Raise issues that would otherwise be neglected and draw the attention of the media and

others in civil society. Confront unequal power dynamics that affect the distribution of public services. Pressurise governance institutions to treat marginalised people, including women and

the disbaled, with dignity. Create new public spaces for peoples participation. Learn how the decisionmaking systems work, and how to make interventions in it. Connect micro-level experiences to macro-level economic and social policies. Gain the skills needed to effectively participate in public argument.

5

1.2 Gilgit-Baltistan at a Glance

Gilgit-Baltistan is the northernmost administrative territory of Pakistan that borders Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) to the south, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa to the west, the Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan to the north, the Xinjiang autonomous region of China to the east and northeast, and Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir to the southeast. It is an autonomous self-governing region that was established as a single administrative unit in 1970, after amalgamating Gilgit Agency, the Baltistan region, and the former princely states of Hunza and Nagar.

While administratively controlled by Pakistan since the First Kashmir War, Gilgit-Baltistan has never been formally integrated into the Pakistani state and it does not participate in the countrys constitutional political affairs. On 29 August 2009, the Gilgit-Baltistan Empowerment and Self-Governance Order (2009) was passed by the Pakistani cabinet and later signed by the then-President Asif Ali Zardari. The order granted self-rule to the people of the region by creating, among other things, an elected Gilgit-Baltistan Legislative Assembly. Gilgit-Baltistan thus gained a de facto province-like status without constitutionally becoming part of Pakistan.

Spread over an area of 72,496 square kilometres, Gilgit-Baltistan has an estimated population of 1.301 million, up from 0.884 million in 1998 when the last census was conducted (Government of Gilgit-Baltistan, 2013a). The region comprises seven districts; five of these Astore, Diamer, Ghizer, Gilgit and Hunza-Nagar are in Gilgit Division and the other two Ghanche and Skardu in Baltistan Division. The capital city of Gilgit has the Legislative Assembly, as well as the offices of all the major government departments.

Figure 1.1: Map of Gilgit-Baltistan

6

The population of Gilgit-Baltistan is relatively small, but it is linguistically and ethnically a diverse region (Northern Areas Directorate of Education, 2008). The indigenous inhabitants speak Shina, Khowar, Burushashki, Wakhi, Domaaki and Balti; while the migrants speak Gujjari, Ughur and Pushto. The main ethnic groups of the region include Shin, Yashkun, Brusho, Dom, Mongols, Kashmiris, Gujjars and Ughurs; while the major religious sects include Shia, Sunni, Ismaili and Noor Bakhshi.

Gilgit-Baltistan, being 650 kilometres from the nearest major urban centre, is characterised by isolated and harsh physical, mountainous environment. Almost two-thirds [66.3%] of its area is covered by mountains, glaciers, lakes and rivers (Government of Gilgit-Baltistan, 2013a). Weather conditions in the region are severe, with extremely cold winters and hot summers. Over four-fifths [81.4%] of the population lives in rural areas and depends on agriculture for livelihood. 1.3 Girls Education in Gilgit-Baltistan The situation of girls education in Gilgit-Baltistan must be viewed within the wider Pakistani and South Asian context. Unfortunately, inequalities across education such as gender disparities and urban-rural divide are widespread in Pakistan. Key national indicators show that, within South Asia, excluding Afghanistan, Pakistan has the lowest gender parity index at 0.78, as well as gross and net primary school enrolments (Northern Areas Directorate of Education, 2008).

Gilgit-Baltistan has made rapid progress in education in recent decades. Indeed, in many areas it has kept pace with national levels. Still, together with much of the rest of Pakistan, the region falls well short of reaching the national MDG targets. The gaps in adult literacy and child education are substantial among women, poor households, and the communities that reside in lagging districts such as Diamer and Astore (World Bank, 2011).

Weak educational outcomes in Gilgit-Baltistan derive largely from the existing geographic and administrative realities that often militate against the effective and efficient delivery of services. Access to education seems to be particularly problematic in those districts that are faced with major geographic obstacles like long distances that discourage girls school attendance and where institutions lack the capacity to provide quality education services.

While there is scope for addressing these issues at the primary level, facilities at the middle level and above quickly encounter challenges of sustainability, particularly in remote parts where the unit cost of serving a student is high and where qualified teachers are often in short supply. As a result, people need to migrate to be able to access desired services.

Delivering education with adequate quality and equity also requires strong institutions, to bring the needed financial and technical capacity. The existing architecture of the education system in Gilgit-Baltistan, which is a mix of government and non-government providers, however, faces many challenges; for example, the public planning and spending practices are not in line with the staffing and capacity needs of schools, thus resulting in gaps in the delivery and quality of services.

In its policies and plans, the Government of Gilgit-Baltistan places strong emphasis on the promotion of gender equality and elimination of gender disparities in education at all levels. To achieve its goal of improving girls access to quality education, it has implemented various initiatives such as construction of new schools; construction of boundary walls, toilets and new classrooms; and recruitment of more teachers (Oxfam/I-SAPS, 2010).

7

1.3.1 Literacy Rates

Recent years have seen significant improvements in the provision of education in Gilgit-Baltistan. The regions literacy rate has reached 60% [70% for males; 50% for females], up from 53% [64% for males; 41% for females] in 2005-06 and 38% [53% for males; 22% for females] in 1998 (Government of Gilgit-Baltistan, 2013a). Gilgit-Baltistans literacy rate is now the same as the national figure and it also reflects a narrowing of the gender gap.

Of the seven Gilgit-Baltistan districts, Gilgit has the highest literacy rate [73%], followed by Hunza-Nagar [72%], Ghizer [70%], Astore [62%], Ghanche [61%], Skardu [57%] and Diamer [32%] (Government of Gilgit-Baltistan, 2013a). Alongside regional disparities, Gilgit-Baltistans education system also suffers from profound gender disparities. According to Murtaza (2012), the female literacy rate is believed to be 100 percent in a few villages of District Hunza-Nagar while there are some areas in southern parts of District Diamer that do not have a single girls school. 1.3.2 Educational Institutions

Gilgit-Baltistan has a mixed system of 2,189 schools including 1,095 federal government schools, 675 National Education Foundation schools and 419 private schools and 71 colleges (Government of Gilgit-Baltistan, 2013a). Gender disparities are stark at all levels of education the overall number of boys schools [863] is almost the double of girls schools [450] except higher secondary. Importantly, gender disparities increase with the level of education; there are only 10 colleges for girls/women as compared with 52 for boys/men (Table 1.1). Table 1.1 Educational Institutions in Gilgit-Baltistan by Gender and Level of Education

Schools

No Level of Education Boys Girls Mixed Total

1 Primary 551 253 688 1,492

2 Middle 183 121 114 418

3 Secondary 127 69 65 261

4 Higher Secondary 2 7 9 18

Total 863 450 876 2,189

Colleges

No Level of Education Boys/Men Girls/Women Mixed Total

1 Intermediate 39 8 9 56

2 Degree 13 2 - 15

Total 52 10 9 71

1.3.3 Enrolments

Enrolments throughout the education system have risen steadily in recent years, though they are still low by international standards. A total of 241,838 students are enrolled in the 2,189 schools and 10,145 in the 71 colleges (Government of Gilgit-Baltistan, 2013a). As is the case above, gender disparities increase with the level of education. Girls comprise 43.2% of the total students in

8

schools, but in colleges the percentage of girls/women decreases to 36.8%. Boys/men constitute 57.1% and girls/women 42.9% of the total student population of Gilgit-Baltistan (Table 1.2). Table 1.2 Enrolments in Gilgit-Baltistan by Gender and Level of Education

Schools No Level of Education Boys

[% of total] Girls

[% of total] Total

[% of total] 1 Primary 57,674

[54.5%] 48,195

[45.5%] 105,869

[100.0%] 2 Middle 37,000

[57.9%] 26,897 [42.1%]

63,897 [100.0%]

3 Secondary 40,445 [60.4%]

26,568 [39.6%]

67,013 [100.0%]

4 Higher Secondary 2,246 [44.4%]

2,813 [55.6%]

5,059 [100.0%]

Total 137,365 [56.8%]

104,473 [43.2%]

241,838 [100.0%]

Colleges No Level of Education Boys/Men

[% of total] Girls/Women

[% of total] Total

[% of total] 1 Intermediate 2,576

[69.5%] 1,131

[30.5%] 3,707

[100.0%] 2 Degree 3,833

[59.5%] 2,605

[40.5%] 6,438

[100.0%]

Total 6,409 [63.2%] 3,736

[36.8%] 10,145

[100.0%] Grand Total 143,774

[57.1%] 108,209 [42.9%]

251,983 [100.0%]

1.3.4 Teaching Staff

The total strength of Gilgit-Baltistans teaching staff is 10,379; of these, 6,461 [62.3%] are male teachers and 3,918 [37.7%] female teachers (Government of Gilgit-Baltistan, 2013a). As is the case above, gender disparities increase with the level of education. At the primary level, women constitute 41.8% of the total teaching staff, but in intermediate colleges their percentage decreases to 21.4%. Men constitute 62.3% and women 37.7% of the total teaching staff of Gilgit-Baltistan, implying that gender disparities are more profound for teachers than for students (Table 1.3). 1.3.5 Gross Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level

Gilgit-Baltistans gross enrolment ratio (GER) at primary level is 72% [79% for boys; 65% for girls].1 Both regional and gender disparities are stark (Government of Gilgit-Baltistan, 2012a). Ghanches GER at primary level is as high as 104% and Astores as low as 45%. Similarly, Ghanches GER at primary level (girls) is as high as 104% and Diamers as low as 17% (Table 1.4). 1 The GER at primary level expresses the number of children, regardless of age, who are enrolled in primary school as a percentage of the corresponding population in the theoretical age group for this level of education. The GER can exceed 100% if there are significant numbers of under- or over-age children enrolled in primary schools.

9

Table 1.3 Teaching Staff in Gilgit-Baltistan by Gender and Level of Education Schools

No Level of Education Male [% of total]

Female [% of total]

Total [% of total]

1 Primary 2,127 [58.2%]

1,527 [41.8%]

3,654 [100.0%]

2 Middle 1,678 [60.2%]

1,109 [39.8%]

2,787 [100.0%]

3 Secondary/Higher Secondary

2,415 [60.4%]

1,201 [39.6%]

3,616 [100.0%]

Total 6,220 [61.8%]

3,837 [38.2%]

10,057 [100.0%]

Colleges No Level of Education Male

[% of total] Female

[% of total] Total

[% of total]

1 Intermediate 110 [78.6%] 30

[21.4%] 140

[100.0%]

2 Degree 131 [72.0%] 51

[28.0%] 182

[100.0%]

Total 241 [74.8%] 81

[25.2%] 322

[100.0%] Grand Total 6,461

[62.3%] 3,918

[37.7%] 10,379

[100.0%] Table 1.4 Gross Enrolment Ratio at Primary Level by Gender and District

No District GER (Boys) GER (Girls) GER (Overall)

1 Ghanche 104% 100% 102%

2 Ghizer 92% 88% 90%

3 Gilgit 71% 85% 78%

4 Hunza-Nagar 68% 80% 74%

5 Skardu 81% 64% 73%

6 Diamer 92% 17% 54%

7 Astore 48% 42% 45%

Gilgit-Baltistan 79% 65% 72%

1.4 Alif Ailaan District Education Rankings 2014 1.4.1 Education Rankings (Primary Level)

According to the latest available data (Alif Ailaan, 2014), the education score (primary level) of Gilgit-Baltistan [72.62] is higher than the national average [69.70]. In particular, the attainment score [95.00] is considerably higher than the national average [54.00]; while the achievement score [53.87] is slightly higher than the national average [52.74]. However, importantly, the enrolment score [65.67] is considerably lower than the national average [92.00] and the gender parity score [79.69] is marginally lower than the national average [80.08] (Table 1.5).

10

Table 1.5: Pakistan Education Rankings (Primary Level) Rank in Country

2013 2014 Province/ Territory

Education Score

Enrolment Score

Achievement Score

Attainment Score

Gender Parity Score

1 1 ICT 83.75 94.02 64.93 79.93 96.77

2 3 Punjab 79.21 98.00 68.45 56.93 93.88

3 2 AJK 77.52 78.75 56.57 78.93 96.51

4 4 Gilgit-Baltistan 72.62 65.67 53.87 95.00 79.69

- - Pakistan 69.70 92.00 52.74 54.00 80.08

5 6 Sindh 62.99 81.00 45.06 43.00 81.65

6 5 Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

62.66 92.00 36.41 64.00 54.98

7 8 Balochistan 58.09 73.00 50.80 43.00 77.32

8 7 FATA 47.23 63.83 31.83 48.00 61.99 Only one out of the seven districts in Gilgit-Baltistan Hunza-Nagar at 5th with an education score of 82.67 is among the top 10 districts of Pakistan in primary education (Alif Ailaan, 2014). It is followed by Skardu at 23rd [72.23], Ghanche at 27th [71.86], Gilgit at 39th [69.03], Ghizer at 70th [60.61], Astore at 92nd [55.21] and Diamer at 128th [44.31]. Compared with 2013, the education ranking of four of the seven districts improved in 2014; while, overall Gilgit-Baltistan retained fourth positon among the provinces/territories of Pakistan (Table 1.6). Table 1.6: Gilgit-Baltistan Education Rankings (Primary Level)

Rank in Country 2013 2014

District Education Score

Enrolment Score

Achievement Score

Attainment Score

Gender Parity Score

5 7 Hunza-Nagar 82.67 75.61 63.37 100.00 91.69

23 51 Skardu 72.23 72.60 66.33 76.34 73.65

27 15 Ghanche 71.86 70.65 63.33 79.55 73.90

39 13 Gilgit 69.03 77.48 48.63 71.97 78.02

70 113 Ghizer 60.61 68.13 44.30 47.01 83.01

92 124 Astore 55.21 67.72 21.13 51.18 80.82

128 136 Diamer 44.31 29.67 84.10 40.46 23.00

4 4 Gilgit-Baltistan 72.62 65.67 53.87 95.00 79.69 1.4.2 Education Rankings (Middle Level)

Gilgit-Baltistan fares much better at the middle level in comparison with the primary level; four of its seven districts Skardu at 1st with an education score of 92.97, Hunza-Nagar at 2nd [92.45], Gilgit at 3rd [90.80] and Ghanche at 7th [88.68] are among the top 10 districts of Pakistan in this category (Alif Ailaan, 2014). These are followed by Ghizer at 14th [85.52], Astore at 52nd [72.53] and Diamer at 80th [67.63]. Importantly, the gender parity score of four of the seven Gilgit-Baltistan districts Skardu, Gilgit, Ghanche and Diamer is also better at the middle level than the primary level (Table 1.7).

11

Table 1.7: Gilgit-Baltistan Education Rankings (Middle Level)

Rank in Country

District Education Score

Enrolment Score

Achievement Score

Attainment Score

Gender Parity Score

1 Skardu 92.97 95.00 90.87 100.00 86.02

2 Hunza-Nagar 92.45 100.00 90.77 95.34 83.70

3 Gilgit 90.80 97.00 77.43 100.00 88.79

7 Ghanche 88.68 97.00 93.40 80.52 83.80

14 Ghizer 85.52 97.00 75.03 100.00 70.06

52 Astore 72.53 91.00 62.53 58.32 78.25

80 Diamer 67.63 49.00 90.57 91.05 39.90

12

Chapter 2

Literature Review

Two students of Army Public Schools and Colleges System Gilgit wait for their bus.

@Mustafa Nazir Ahmad

14

2.1 Gender Equality in Education: International Targets The global community has long been interested in finding ways to improve access to high quality education at all levels, from pre-primary through tertiary. Education is a fundamental human right one that all individuals are entitled to enjoy whatever the circumstances in which they live that also brings important benefits to human society as a whole (UNESCO, 2012). All countries, whatever their stage of development, view education as a cornerstone of economic development.

This concern for education on the part of the global community has been reiterated at a series of international conferences, starting in 1990 with the World Conference on Education for All in Jomtien, Thailand. On this occasion, representatives from 155 countries, including Pakistan, launched the EFA movement by agreeing to make primary education accessible to all children and to massively reduce illiteracy by the end of the decade.

Ten years later, in April 2000, 1,100 participants from 164 countries gathered at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal, to reaffirm their commitment to the notion of education as a fundamental human right and to the EFA Goals. The forum reviewed progress up to that point and identified the following six goals with wide-ranging targets to be met by 2015:

a) Expand early childhood care and education. b) Provide free and compulsory primary Education for All. c) Promote learning and life skills for young people and adults. d) Increase adult literacy. e) Achieve gender parity. f) Improve the quality of education.

Another important development was the signing in September 2000 of a United Nations Millennium Declaration by all 192 member states, including Pakistan, and at least 23 international organisations that laid out a set of eight Millennium Development Goals to be reached by 2015. Though the MDGs 2 and 3 focus on achieving universal primary schooling, empowering women and eliminating gender disparities at the primary and secondary levels, education drives the achievement of all the MDGs.

Each of these documents acknowledged the pivotal role that access to quality education plays, not only as an end in itself but as an essential means of reaching other important objectives, such as reducing poverty and achieving sustainable human development (UNESCO, 2012). A closely related theme running through all of these discussions has been that of gender equality in education. From the outset, the global community has recognised that educating girls and women is an imperative, not only as a matter of respecting a basic human right for half the population but also as a powerful and necessary first step to achieving the broader EFA Goals.

Following the landmark Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing in September 1995, the international community reached a consensus on achieving gender equality in education. The EFA Goal 5 and MDG 3 specifically address this issue:

Education for All Goal 5: Achieve gender parity (Target: Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005 and achieve gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.

15

Millennium Development Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women (Target 4: Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005 and at all levels of education by no later than 2015).

Given the high degree of similarity between the EFA Goals and the education-related MDGs, the progress achieved in implementing the international commitments to education can be assessed by reviewing the change which may have taken place in a set of common indicators (GoP, 2013a). According to popular literature on the EFA Goals and MDGs, the set of common education indicators includes:

Net primary enrolment rates. Completion/Survival rates till grade V. Literacy rates. Gender parity in primary education. Gender parity in secondary education. Gender parity in youth (15-24 years old) literacy.

2.2 Education Policy Documents: Pakistan and Gilgit-Baltistan The 1973 Constitution of Pakistan sets out an egalitarian view of education based on values responding to the requirements of economic growth: Article 38 (d) speaks of providing education to all citizens irrespective of gender, caste, creed or race; Article 37 (b) promises that the State shall endeavour to remove illiteracy and provide free and compulsory secondary education within minimum possible period; and Article 34 states that steps shall be taken to ensure full participation of women in all the spheres of national life (GoP, 2013b). It is in this context that Pakistan made a commitment to achieve the six EFA Goals within the specified target dates.

The 18th Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan by the National Assembly in April 2010 was a key policy reform with positive implications for education (GoP, 2013a). One of the amendments constitutional provisions, Article 25 (a), guarantees that the State shall provide free and compulsory education to all children of the age of five to sixteen years.

Following the introduction of the 18th Amendment, and the abolishment of the Concurrent Legislative List, the status of various educational functions/organisations of the federal government has changed; and now the provincial governments are fully empowered to plan, legislate and administer the key areas of education relating to policy, planning, curriculum, standards of educations, centres of excellence and Islamic education (Manzil Pakistan, 2013).

The Government of Pakistans Vision 2030 recognises education as the key to a better social and economic life, as well as a means of providing upward social mobility (GoP, 2007). The document envisages continuous affirmative actions to achieve gender parity by 2015; and suggests three measures towards this end: (a) universal enrolment and completion up to secondary level by all girls by 2015; (b) stipends and nutritional supplements for girl students; and (c) provision of greater access to knowledge systems, and technical and vocational training for rural women.

In addition to these, the Government of Pakistan, in the past two decades, has formulated two education policies, undertaken several education policy reforms and implemented many initiatives for non-formal education with the active support of non-governmental organisations (NGOs), the private sector and international development partners (GoP, 2013a).

16

The two education policies the National Education Policy (1998-2010) and National Education Policy (2009) were formulated with the consensus of a wide range of stakeholders, including federal and provincial education officials, academics, education experts, and staff of international development organisations and NGOs. 2.2.1 National Education Policy (1998-2010)

The National Education Policy (1998-2010) was devised in the context of historical developments, new trends in education and emerging requirements of the country. Basic education was assigned top priority in this strategy document that primarily focused on provisions for EFA, including elementary education, adult literacy and early childhood education (Manzil Pakistan, 2013).

The policy emphasised increased enrolments in public schools and higher budgetary allocations for the education sector; and called for eliminating urban-rural and gender imbalances, improving the quality of education at all levels, strengthening education facilities, encouraging private sector participation and involving communities (GoP, 2013a).

The National Education Policy also included the Ten-Year Perspective Development Plan (2001-11) and Education Sector Reforms (2001-05). The plan spelled out comprehensive strategies for Poverty Reduction, Employment, Education and Training, Science and Technology, Information Technology, Health and Nutrition, Population Welfare, Social Welfare, Gender and Development, and Governance and Civil Society (Akram & Khan, 2007). A sector-wide development approach covering all levels of education was adopted under Education and Training.

The reforms were a short-term perspective of the National Education Policy and Ten-Year Perspective Development Plan, focusing on enhanced budgetary allocations, universal primary education, improved technical and higher education, literacy, and greater public-private partnership. These reforms included a comprehensive sector-wide programme to address the issues of low educational attainment, lack of access to schooling, and educational inequities by gender and location (Akram & Khan, 2007). 2.2.2 National Education Policy (2009)

The National Education Policy (2009), formulated after several rounds of deliberations with key stakeholders, addresses all the dimensions of Pakistans education sector. It identifies two fundamental causes for the weak performance of the education sector: (a) lack of commitment to education the commitment gap; and (ii) the implementation gap that has thwarted the application of policies (GoP, 2009). The two gaps are linked in practice: a lack of commitment results in poor implementation, but weak implementation presents problem of its own too.

The strategy document recognises that there are close links between equity in educational opportunities and equitable income distribution: If the education system is structured on a divisive basis, the divisions it creates can endanger long-run economic growth, as well as stability of society (GoP, 2009).

The National Education Policy (2009) identifies the following key policy actions in pursuit of two overarching objectives of widening access to education and improving quality of education:

Provinces and area governments shall affirm the goal of achieving universal and free primary education by 2015 and up to class X by 2025.

17

Provincial and area governments shall develop plans for achieving these targets, including intermediate enrolment targets and estimates of the required financial, technical, human and organisational resources.

The plans shall also promote equity in education with the aim of eliminating social exclusion and promoting national cohesion. Greater opportunities shall be provided to the marginalised groups of society, especially girls.

To achieve Pakistans international targets such as the EFA Goals and MDGs, inclusive and child-friendly education shall be promoted.

Special measures shall be adopted to ensure inclusion of special persons in mainstream education, as well as in literacy and technical and vocational education programmes.

Governments shall improve the quality of education at all levels. National standards for educational inputs, processes and outputs shall be determined.

A National Authority for Standards of Education shall be established. The standards shall not debar a provincial or area government/organisation from having its own standards higher than the prescribed minimum.

Provincial and district governments shall establish monitoring and inspection systems to ensure quality education service delivery in all institutions.

Steps shall be taken to make the provision of education relevant for the employment market.

Universities and research institutes shall place greater emphasis on mobilising research for promoting innovation in the economy.

Educational inputs shall be designed with a thorough understanding of the challenges and opportunities related to globalisation. Strategies shall be developed to optimise these opportunities and minimise the potentially negative impacts.

2.2.3 Northern Areas Education Strategy (2008-2025)

Pakistans long-term education direction has been outlined in the Vision 2030 and it is being supported by a wide range of policies. Within this framework, and recognising the unique situation of the Northern Areas (known as Gilgit-Baltistan since 2010), the Northern Areas Directorate of Education, in partnership with key civil society representatives, developed its own education vision and long-term strategy in 2008.

The main thrust of the strategy, which is in alignment with key international commitments such as the EFA Goals and MDGs, is to improve the quality of education in the Northern Areas within the framework of the National Education Policy (1998-2010). The two main objectives are to:

a) Construct a roadmap for the education sector in the Northern Areas that encompasses various strands of educational realities and priorities; and

b) Ensure good articulation with the key elements of the National Educational Policy (1998-2010), making it more context-specific to the requirements of the Northern Areas.

The strategy identifies key issues and challenges related to the education sector retention; high repetition and dropout rates; weak provision of early childhood education (ECE); inappropriate medium of instruction; strongly content-based curriculum, learning materials and examinations; gender insensitive curriculum; and low salary and status of teachers, resulting in both their shortage and high turnover and then provides a framework of policies and strategies to

18

overcome these (Northern Areas Directorate of Education, 2008). The strategy also acknowledges that the government alone cannot deliver a full system of quality education that reaches all learners in the region and suggests that the education system should therefore be supported by a range of public-private partnerships.

The strategy envisions a dynamic, effective, efficient and equitable education system with gender parity at all levels that provides access to high quality education to all children from ECE to Class X focusing on the holistic development of learners, and equipping them with relevant knowledge, survival skills, attitudes and values to enable them to interact effectively within a rapidly changing world and be contributing members of society (Northern Areas Directorate of Education, 2008).

Following international practice, the strategy groups key issues and challenges, as well as policies and sub-strategies, under three heads: (a) Access and Equity; (b) Quality and Relevance; and (c) Governance and Management. Targets have been set for all the policies and sub-strategies at five-year intervals up to 2025. Most important, gender equality and poverty reduction have been designates as overarching considerations for all the policies and sub-strategies.

Most of the sub-strategies are ongoing throughout the implementation of the Northern Areas Education Strategy (2008-2025); nevertheless, some specific targets include:

Free and compulsory primary education by 2015. Technical/vocational and polytechnic institute in each district by 2015. Intermediate college in each tehsil and degree college in each district by 2015. Special education centre in each tehsil by 2020. One medical college and engineering college each; and two veterinary colleges, forestry

colleges and agriculture colleges each by 2020. All out of school children in formal or non-formal education by 2025. ECE classes in every primary school or community by 2025. Scholarships for all needy students up till matriculation by 2025. Primary schools upgraded to middle, and middle to secondary/higher secondary as per

need by 2025. Libraries in all schools, and information and communication technology centres in all

secondary schools by 2025. The Northern Areas Education Strategy (2008-2025) particularly lays strong emphasis on promoting gender equality in education and sets the following targets:

Develop gender- and equity-related policy systems at all levels and ensure that necessary legislation is in place.

Ensure equal numbers of male and female education staff at the different levels, including in leadership positions, and female teachers for girls middle and high schools.

Carry out comprehensive awareness and social mobilisation programmes promoting girls initial enrolment, attendance and continuation between levels.

Implement incentive systems for districts to improve their female enrolment figures, and offer scholarships to girls for higher levels of schooling and tertiary education.

Ensure that construction takes account of gender requirements according to individual communities specifications.

Improve gender-sensitiveness of the curriculum and teaching-learning materials.

19

2.3 Gender Budget Analysis: International and National Experience Gender budget analysis aims at mainstreaming the gender dimension into all stages of the budget cycle. It involves assessing the differential impacts of public expenditure and revenue policy on women and men, and girls and boys (Sabir, 2006). Gender budget analysis initiatives are also known as womens budgets, gender-sensitive budgets, gender budgets and gender-responsive budgets. Whatever the name may be, their ultimate objective is to make a real difference in the lives of women and men, and girls and boys, through policies and associated budget.

Gender budget analysis can provide feedback to the government on whether it is meeting the needs of different groups of women and men, and girls and boys. For those outside government, it can be used to encourage transparency, accountability and participation (Budlender & Hewitt, 2003). For those both inside and outside government, gender budget analysis provides information that allows for better decision-making on how policies and priorities should be revised and the accompanying resources needed to achieve the goal of gender equality.

Gender budget analysis is not about dividing government money 50-50 between men and boys on the one hand, and women and girls on the other. A simple 50-50 division may look equal, but it is often not equitable or fair. Instead, gender budget analysis looks at the full government budget from a gender perspective to assess how it will address the different needs of women and men, girls and boys, and different groups of women and men, girls and boys.

However, gender budget analysis does not seek to create separate budgets to address womens or gender concerns. Special allocations for women and gender are sometimes helpful in addressing specific needs, but they are of limited use if the rest of the budget continues to privilege some citizens above others. Gender budget analysis is about ensuring that government budgets are allocated in an equitable way so that the most pressing needs of individuals and groups are satisfied. They are about ensuring that when resources are scarce, the available resources are used to assist those who are least able to provide for themselves.

There are two basic frameworks that, with variations, have served as the basis of many exercises to date. These are the Australian three-way categorisation of expenditure and the South African five-step approach. These two dominant methods can be reconciled into a common analytical framework, which can be used as the basis for either analysis of existing budgets or reporting by sector ministries (Budlender & Hewitt, 2003). 2.3.1 Australian Three-Way Categorisation

The Australian three-way categorisation distinguishes between: (a) gender-specific expenditures; (b) equal opportunity expenditure for civil servants; and (c) general expenditures. 2.3.1.1 Gender-Specific Expenditures This involves an assessment of the specifically gender-targeted allocations by:

Identifying the aim of the listed programme or project, including the problem to be addressed (steps 1 and 2 of the five-step approach, see below).

Identifying the activities planned to implement the programme or project (step 2). Quantifying the allocation of resources (step 3).

20

Determining output indicators like the number of women or men beneficiaries (step 4). Determining impact or outcome indicators, to measure changes in the situation of

women, men, girls and boys (step 5). Noting changes planned in the coming year, to assess whether the budget is becoming

more or less gender responsive. 2.3.1.2 Equal Employment Opportunities in the Public Sector The equal opportunity issues in public sector employment are analysed by:

Describing employment patterns within particular sector(s) or the public sector as a whole; disaggregating by sex, levels of employment, forms of employment, salaries and benefits.

Identifying any special initiatives to promote equal employment opportunities amounts spent and numbers reached.

Determining the number of women and men in positions with a gender focus or specialisation.

Disaggregating by sex the membership of boards and committees established under the sector(s).

Describing any changes planned in the coming year. 2.3.1.3 General Expenditures General or mainstream budget allocations can be analysed in a manner similar to gender-specific allocations. However, because there are usually many programmes and projects within any given sector, choices have to be made as to which to focus on. Useful criteria in making these choices are the size (in terms of budget) of different programmes and the importance in gender terms of the issues they are addressing. 2.3.2 South African Five-Step Approach

The five-steps of the South African approach are: (a) analysing the situation of women, men, girls and boys; (b) assessing the gender-responsiveness of policies; (c) assessing budget allocations; (d) monitoring expenditure and service delivery; and (e) assessing outcomes. 2.3.2.1 Analysing the Situation of Women, Men, Girls and Boys In all countries, gender disadvantage coexists with other forms of disadvantage. For example, in most countries rural people will be disadvantaged compared to urban, and poor compared to rich. There are usually additional country-specific disadvantages in terms of race, ethnicity, age, etc. These other axes of disadvantage need to be considered when collecting information to assess the gender situation, because there are likely to be significant differences between women and girls from different sub-groups, as there are between men and boys from different sub-groups.

Gathering the information needed to analyse the situation of women, men, girls and boys (and their different sub-groups) can be done through a combination of national and international sources such as international compendiums, cross-country statistical data, national development plans, government policy documents, official government statistics, administrative data and independent research. Because of the history of gender bias against females, most documents that analyse the gender situation concentrate their finding on the status of women and girls.

21

2.3.2.2 Assessing the Gender-Responsiveness of Policies The objective of this step is to assess whether a particular policy or programme is likely to increase gender inequalities described in the previous step, leave them the same or decrease them. Some countries have overall gender policies that state how they see the gender inequalities in the country and what they plan to do to address them. Some countries go further to develop sector-specific gender policies that perform a similar function for that specific sector.

Whether or not there is a gender policy, it is also important to look at the general, mainstream policies both for the sector and for development as a whole. The mainstream policies must be examined for what they say, either implicitly or explicitly, about gender. They must also be looked at to see whether they contradict the gender policies in any way. 2.3.2.3 Assessing Budget Allocations With the background of the situation and policy analyses, the focus of the third step shifts to the budget itself. The main aim in this step is to see whether the budget allocations are adequate to implement the gender-responsive policy identified in the second step. If the second step reveals that policy is gender-insensitive, or may even exacerbate gender inequality, the third step can be used to reveal the extent to which funds are being misallocated. 2.3.2.4 Monitoring spending and service delivery The types of data needed for gender budget analysis can be divided into three broad categories:

a) Inputs measure what is put into the process (for example, the amount of money budgeted or the staff allocated for a particular programme or project).

b) Outputs measure direct products of a particular programme or project (for example, the number of beneficiaries receiving educational services or the number of schools built).

c) Outcomes measure the results of the policy or programme (for example, increased educational levels and availability of time).

2.3.2.5 Assessing Outcomes A given change in policy or in a project will affect inputs and outputs far more quickly than it affects outcomes. It is also usually very difficult to attribute a given outcome to a particular, or single, policy or project. Ultimately, however, a policy or project must be judged on the basis of outcomes. 2.3.3 Pakistans Gender Responsive Budgeting Initiative

The Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan, launched the Gender Responsive Budgeting Initiative (GRBI) in 2005, in partnership with the United Nations Development Programme-Pakistan and its cost-sharing partners. The initiative aimed at developing skills to prepare, review and analyse budgets through a gender lens; promote policy and resource allocation with a gender perspective; and build advocacy skills of the Government of Pakistan and civil society organisations in gender budgeting (Sabir, 2006). The project was initiated at the federal level, in the province of Punjab and in two pilot districts of Punjab.

The GRBI was facilitated by the fact that government had recently introduced a medium-term budgetary framework that provided an opportunity to introduce gender into the budgetary

22

reforms. The projects activities included awareness raising at the federal, provincial and district levels, supplemented by development of resource material suitable for the Pakistani context (Mahbub & Budlender, 2007). Targeted capacity building of government officials and other stakeholders was also carried out along with development of training manuals.

Various tools such as gender aware policy appraisal, gender-aware beneficiary assessment survey, time-use survey and gender budget statement were employed. These provided useful insights and the research findings were disseminated to the concerned quarters. The introduction of gender-sensitive amendments in the budget call circular proved to be a key step in institutionalising a gender perspective in the governments established budgetary procedures.

The GRBI was characterised by conception and execution of key activities in a stage-wise manner. To assist with operationalising the initiative, the official project document described a series of stages under which different activities would be conceived and executed. The planned stages included: awareness raising, gender-based budgetary analysis, capacity building and advocacy.

Chapter 3

Research Methodology

A Class VI student of Mehnaz Fatima Montessori and Inclusive Education Learning Centre Gilgit shares

a light moment with his teacher. @Mustafa Nazir Ahmad

24

3.1 Objectives of the Study The specific objectives of conducting the gender analysis of education sector budget allocation and expenditure patterns in Gilgit-Baltistan for FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14, and of the related budgetary processes, were to:

Assess expenditure trends against actual allocation in the education sector development budget for FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14.

Provide a snapshot of budgetary priorities in terms of education through a gender lens. Establish concrete evidence on gender disparities in the education sector development

budget for FY 2012-13 and FY 2013-14. Determine the reasons for widespread regional and gender disparities at different levels

of education. Identify the education sub-sectors that need to be focused for achieving the goals and

targets outlined in the National Education Policy 2009 and Northern Areas Education Strategy 2008-2025, as well as for meeting the international commitments of the Government of