gcse psychology notes for all topics

8/16/2019 GCSE Psychology notes for all topics

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Chapter 1- Memory 04/18/2013

Flow of information in memory:

Encoding changing information to !tore in memory" !torage !toring

information" #etrie$al recalling information from !torage"

M%lti !tore model!en!ory !tore hear&!mell&!ee" !hort term !tore hold appro'( ) item!

for a limited time" long term !tore hold! a $a!t amo%nt of information

for a long period of time"

*e$el! of proce!!ing

!tr%ct%ral proce!!ing phonetic proce!!ing !emantic proce!!ing

M%lti-+tore Memory ,eter!on ,eter!on

.im: o !ee if rehear!al wa! nece!!ary to !tore information in the !hort

term memory(Method: . gro%p of participant! were gi$en a !et of three letter! to

rememer and were immediately a!ed to recall the information o%t lo%dfor different length! of time( hi! pre$ent! them from rehear!ing( henthey were a!ed to recall the letter! in the correct order(

#e!%lt!: he participant! had forgotten $irt%ally almo!t all of the

information after 18 !econd!(

Concl%!ion: hi! !how! that witho%t rehear!al& we are %nale to !toreinformation in the !hort term memory(

M%rdoc

.im: o pro$ide e$idence to !%pport the m%lti !tore e'planation(

Method: ,articipant! had to rememer a li!t of word! pre!ented one at

a time for two !econd! per word( hen recall the word! in any order(



#e!%lt: he word! at the end of the li!t were well rememered eca%!e

it wa! proce!!ed into the !hort term memory( hi! i! called the recencyeffect( .l!o& the word! from the !tart of the li!t wa! al!o well recalledeca%!e it ha! flowed/proce!!ed into the long term memory( hi! i! calledthe primary effect( %t the word! in the middle were not recalled well(

Concl%!ion: hi! !t%dy !how! eno%gh e$idence to !eparate !hort term

!tore and long term !tore(

#econ!tr%cti$e Memory artlett

.im: o !ee if people will alter %nfamiliar information(

Method: . gro%p of participant! were a!ed to read a !tory called he

ar of 5ho!t6( *ater& they were a!ed to retell the !tory a! acc%rate a!po!!ile( hi! retelling wa! repeated !e$eral time! d%ring the followingwee!(

#e!%lt!: he participant! fo%nd it diffic%lt to rememer part! of the

!tory that interfere! with gho!t and changed !ome part! of the !tory !othat it made more !en!e to them( Each time they retold the !tory& itchange! a little(

Concl%!ion: 7%r memory i! infl%enced y o%r own elief!(

ynn and *ogie

.im: o !ee if the recall of familiar !torie! will change/alter(

Method: he re!earcher! a!ed !ome %ni$er!ity !t%dent! to recall the

detail! of their fir!t wee at %ni$er!ity( hi! contin%ed thro%gho%t theyear(

#e!%lt!: he re!%lt! !howed that no matter how many time! they were

a!ed to recall& the acc%racy of their de!cription! remained the !ame( hi!i! %nlie artlett! participant! who changed e$ery time they were a!edto recall(

Concl%!ion!: Memorie! for familiar e$ent! will not change o$er time(

*e$el! of ,roce!!ing Crai *ocheart

.im: o in$e!tigate how deep and !hallow proce!!ing affect! memory

recall(



Method: ,articipant! were gi$en a li!t of word!& one at a time and

a!ed ao%t each word& which they had to an!wer with ye!6 or no6 (+ome 9%e!tion! re9%ired !tr%ct%ral proce!!ing& !ome re9%ired phoneticproce!!ing and the remainder re9%ired !emantic proce!!ing( hey werethen gi$en a longer li!t and were a!ed to identify the word! they hadan!wered efore(

#e!%lt!: ,articipant! identified )0 percent of the word! y !emantic

proce!!ing& 3 percent of the word! y phonetic proce!!ing and 1percent of the word! y !tr%ct%ral proce!!ing(

Concl%!ion: he more deeply information i! proce!!ed& the more liely

it i! to e rememered(

Forgetting ;nterference" <nderwood ,o!tman Retroactive Interference)

.im: o !ee if new learning interfere! with old information(Method: ,articipant! were di$ided into two gro%p!( 5ro%p . were

a!ed to learn a li!t of word pair!( hey were al!o a!ed to learn a !econdli!t of word pair!( 5ro%p were only a!ed to learn the fir!t li!t of wordpair!(

#e!%lt: 5ro%p ! recall wa! more acc%rate than 5ro%p .(

Concl%!ion: =ew learning interfere! with participant! aility to recall

the fir!t li!t( =ew learning loc! old information"

Conte't 5odden addeley

.im: o !ee if people who learn and are te!ted in the !ame

en$ironment will recall more information than tho!e who learn %t arete!ted in adifferent en$ironment( Conte't"

Method: ,articipant! were deep !ea di$er!( hey were di$ided into fo%r

gro%p!( .ll of the gro%p! were gi$en the !ame li!t of word! to learn(5ro%p 1: had to learn %nderwater and recall %nderwater

5ro%p 2: had to learn %nderwater and recall on the !hore

5ro%p 3 had to learn on the !hore and recall on the !hore

5ro%p 4: had to learn on the !hore and recall %nderwater(

#e!%lt!: 5ro%p! 1 and 3 recalled 40 percent more word! than gro%p 2

and 4(



Concl%!ion: #ecall of information will e etter if it happen! in the

!ame conte't that learning tae! place(

Eye itne!! e!timonie! *oft%! and ,almer *eading 9%e!tion!"

.im: o !ee if a!ing leading 9%e!tion! will affect the acc%racy of

recall(

Method: ,articipant! were !hown film! of car accident!( +ome were

a!ed >ow fa!t wa! the car going when it hit the other car?6 7ther! werea!ed >ow fa!t wa! the car going when it !ma!hed the other car?6(

#e!%lt!: ho!e who heard the word !ma!hed6 ga$e a higher !peed

e!timate than tho!e who heard hit6(

Concl%!ion: *eading 9%e!tion! will affect the acc%racy of recall( heword !ma!hed6 led participant! to elie$e the car wa! going fa!ter(

r%ce and @o%ng <nfamiliar face!"

.im: o !ee if familiarity affect! the acc%racy of identifying face!(

Method: ,!ychology lect%rer! were ca%ght on !ec%rity camera at the

entrance of a%ilding( ,articipant! were a!ed to identify the face! !eenon the !ec%rity camera tape from a !erie! of high 9%ality photograph!(

#e!%lt: he lect%rer! !t%dent! made more correct identification than

other !t%dent! and e'perienced police officer!(

Concl%!ion: ,re$io%! familiarity help! when identifying face!(

5ei!elman et al conte't"

.im: o !ee if rein!tating the contact of an e$ent will affect the

acc%racy of witne!!e! acco%nt!(

Method: ,articipant! were !hown a police training film of a $iolent

crime( wo day! later they were inter$iewed ao%t what they had !een(For half of the participant!& the conte't of the e$ent wa! recreated d%ringthe inter$iew( For the other half of the participant!& !tandard police

inter$iew techni9%e! were %!ed(#e!%lt!: he participant! who had the conte't recreated recalled more

acc%rate fact! ao%t the $iolent crime than the other inter$iew techni9%e!were %!ed(

Concl%!ion: #ecreating conte't d%ring inter$iew! will increa!e the

acc%racy of recall( hi! method i! nown a! the cogniti$e inter$iew(



+tereotype! can affect acc%racy of

memory Cohen

.im: o !ee if !tereotype! can affect memory

Method: ,articipant! were !hown a $ideo of a man and a woman

eating in a re!ta%rant( >alf of the participant! were told that the womanwa! a waitre!!( he other participant! were told !he wa! a lirarian( *ater&all the participant! were a!ed to de!crie the woman! eha$ior andper!onality(

#e!%lt!: he two gro%p! of participant! ga$e entirely different

de!cription! which matched the !tereotype! of a waitre!! or a lirarian(

Concl%!ion: +tereotype! affect the acc%racy of acco%nt! of people(

Comm%nication: ,a!!ing information from one per!on to another

Aeral Comm%nication: Con$eying me!!age! %!ing word! or $ocal

me!!age!( hi! incl%de! tone of $oice& empha!i!& intonation and gr%ntingetc(

,araling%i!tic!: Aocal feat%re! that accompany !peech



one 7f Aoice: he way word! are !poen to con$ey emotion

Empha!i!: 5i$ing prominence to !ome word! more than other!(

;ntonation: ;nflection in the $oice when !peaing

=on $eral comm%nication: Con$eying me!!age! witho%t %!ing word!

or $ocal me!!age!( hi! incl%de! ody po!t%re& ge!t%re!& faciale'pre!!ion!& eye contact etc

ody *ang%age: Comm%nicating witho%t word!( E'pre!!ing emotion!

thro%gh action!/mo$ement! of ody(

,o!t%re: ,o!ition of the ody

,o!t%ral echo: Mirroring another per!on! ody po!ition(

Clo!ed po!t%re: ,o!itioning the arm! !o that they are folded acro!! the

ody and/or cro!!ing leg!(

7pen ,o!t%re: <nfolded arm! or leg!(

,er!onal +pace: he di!tance we eep etween o%r!el$e! and other

people in o%r e$eryday li$e!(

+e' Bifference!: difference! d%e to eing either male or female& the!e

co%ld affect per!onal !pace etween indi$id%al!(



;ndi$id%al difference!: Factor! that mae one per!on not the !ame a!

another per!on !%ch a! per!onality or age(

Aeral Comm%nication.rgyle& .lema& 5ilmo%r.im: o !ee if tone of $oice will ha$e any effect when interpreting $eral

me!!age!(Method: Bifferent gro%p! of participant! li!tened to either a friendly or

ho!tile me!!age !poen in a friendly or ho!tile tone of $oice( +omeparticipant! li!tened to a friendly me!!age in a ho!tile tone of $oiceand !ome li!tened to a ho!tile me!!age in a friendly tone of $oice(

#e!%lt!: one of $oice had time! the effect of the $eral me!!ageConcl%!ion: one of $oice i! e'tremely important in how people interpret

$eral me!!age!(

Ba$it Ba$it.im: o !ee the effect of paraling%i!tic! on emotion!(Method: ,articipant! were a!ed to li!ten to tape recording and to a!!e!!

the !peaer! emotion! from the paraling%i!tic! c%e!: tone of $oice&empha!i! and intonation(

#e!%lt!: here wa! a high le$el of acc%racy in recogniing the!e emotion!

- affection& am%!ement& di!g%!t and fear(Concl%!ion: ,araling%i!tic! ha! great importance when D%dging emotion!(Critici!m!: ,eople %!%ally foc%! more on word! and it can only D%dge 4

emotion!( cannot e generalied eno%gh"

F%nction! of Eye Contact



endon.im: o !ee if eye mo$ement! affect flow of con$er!ation(Method: ,air of participant! were a!ed to get ac9%ainted( heir

con$er!ation! were !ecretly watched y o!er$er! thro%gh a one waymirror !y!tem(

#e!%lt!: .! one per!on wa! ao%t to !pea& they looed away from theother per!on& a$oiding eye contact( hey wo%ld loo at each other!face when they were ao%t to fini!h what they were !aying( hen the!peaer ga$e the other per!on a prolonged loo& it indicate! the otherper!on can !pea( here wo%ld e a pa%!e in the con$er!ation witho%tthe prolonged loo(

Concl%!ion: Eye mo$ement! !ignal t%rn taing in con$er!ation!(

.rgyle

.im: o !ee how interr%pting eye contact affect! con$er!ation

Method: ,air of participant! are eing o!er$ed while ha$ingcon$er!ation( ;n half the con$er!ation!& one of the participant! woredar gla!!e! which mean! no eye contact(

#e!%lt!: here were more pa%!e! and interr%ption! after the participantp%t! on the dar gla!!e!(

Concl%!ion: Eye contact i! important to en!%re the flow of con$er!ation i!!mooth(

Critici!m!: .rtificial !it%ation eca%!e the participant! new they wereeing o!er$ed !o they may ha$e eha$ed differently(

>e!!.im: o !ee the effect of p%pil dilation on emotionMethod: ,articipant! were !hown two nearly identical pict%re! of the !ame

girl and were a!ed which pict%re wa! more attracti$e( 7ne pict%re hada girl with dilated eye! and the other pict%re had D%!t a normal pair ofnot dilated eye!(

#e!%lt!: Mo!t people !aid the pict%re with the dilated eye! wa! moreattracti$e

Concl%!ion: ,%pil dilation ha! an %ncon!cio%! %t powerf%l effect(Critici!m!: o%ld not e !ocio-c%lt%ral impact eca%!e lind people

cannot %!e their p%pil!(



Facial E'pre!!ion!+aeim:.im: o in$e!tigate the relation!hip etween facial e'pre!!ion! and

hemi!phere of the rain(

Method: here were pict%re! of different facial e'pre!!ion! %t are c%t inthe middle( hen they mirrored each half of the face( he new face!were then !hown to participant! and were a!ed which pict%re theylied etter(

#e!%lt!: Mo!t participant! preferred the pict%re of the left face and it!reflection( hey !aid it loo! warmer(

Concl%!ion: he left !ide of o%r face e'pre!!e! more emotion! than theright !ide(

Critici!m!: e do not !tare at pict%re! to D%dge !omeone! emotion!& wedont D%!t loo on one !ide of the face& pict%re! are artificial

,ractical ;mplication!: Co%ld tell if !omeone i! lying or not

,o!t%reMc5inley.im: o !ee the effect of po!t%ral echo when ha$ing a com$er!atin(Method: .n actor of the e'periment& mae! con$er!ation with people in

!ocial !etting( B%ring the con$er!ation& the echoed the other per!on!po!t%re then he !top! echoing(

#e!%lt!: hen po!t%re i! echoed& people lie it and tho%ght the con$o got

on well( hen po!t%re i! not echoed& it wa! 9%ite awward(Concl%!ion: ,o!t%ral echo gi$e! a friendly me!!age o%t(

Mc5inley& *efe$re and Mc5inley.im: Effect of open and clo!ed po!t%re in a con$er!ationMethod: .n actor of the e'periment mae! con$er!ation in a !ocial

!etting( ;n half of the con$er!ation!& the confederate made an openpo!t%re( ;n the other half& the confederate made a clo!ed po!t%re(

#e!%lt!: hen !howing an open po!t%re& the confederate wa! !een a!friendly and attracti$e( hen !howing a clo!ed po!t%re& the

confederate wa! !een a! %nfriendly and le!! attracti$e(



Concl%!ion: he po!t%re that !omeone mae! can mae a difference tohow m%ch they are lied(

5e!t%re!*ynn .nd Mynier.im: o !ee the effect of ge!t%re! %!ed y waiter!/waitre!!e! on the

tipping eha$ior of c%!tomer! in a re!ta%rant(Method: aiter!/waitre!!e! were either !9%atting or !tanding %pright to

tae food order! ( . !9%atting ge!t%re mean! maing more eye contactwith the c%!tomer!(

#e!%lt!: aiter!/waitre!!e! who were !9%atting down& recei$ed larger tip!than the waiter!/waitre!!e! who were !tanding %pright when taingorder!(

Concl%!ion: he ge!t%re of !9%atting down near a !eated c%!tomer totae order! will ha$e a po!iti$e effect on tipping eha$ior(

Critici!m!: he !ie of the ill %!%ally affect! the !ie of the tip& al!owhether the c%!tomer wa! !er$ed y !omeone of the !ame or theoppo!ite !e' might ha$e een another factor(

Fi!her& #ytting and >e!lin.im: o !ee the effect of to%ch on people! attit%de!(Method: Female !t%dent! in a lirary were handed oo! y a lirarian

who wa! a confederate of the e'periment( >alf of the !t%dent! were

riefly to%ched on the hand y the lirarian when the oo! werehanded to them( he other !t%dent! were not to%ched y the lirarian/#e!%lt!: hen 9%e!tioned later& the !t%dent! who were to%ched had a

m%ch more po!iti$e attit%de toward! the lirary and the lirarian thantho!e who ere not to%ched( he intere!ting thing wa! that the !t%dent!were not aware that they had een to%ched(

Concl%!ion: o%ch can ha$e an %ncon!cio%! and po!iti$e effect onattit%de!(

Critici!m!: he participant! were all female cannot e generalied"therefore we do not now if male! wo%ld ha$e een affected in the!ame way(

.rgyle .nd Bean

.im: oo !ee if !e' difference! affect per!onal !paceMethod: 7ne at a time& participant! were a!ed to !it and ha$e a

con$er!ation with another per!on who wa! act%ally a confederate ofthe e'periment( +ometime! the confederate wa! the !ame gender a!the participant and !ometime! it! oppo!ite gender( he confederate!at at different di!tance! from the participant and contin%ally looedinto the participant! eye!(



#e!%lt!: he participant! tended to rea eye contact with theconfederate of the oppo!ite gender at a greater di!tance apart thanwhen the confederate wa! the !ame gender( hi! wa! the point ofwhich per!onal !pace wa! eing in$aded(

Concl%!ion: e prefer to ha$e a greater amo%nt of per!onal !pace

etween o%r!el$e! and memer! of the oppo!ite gender d%ring normalcon$er!ation!(

;ndi$id%al Bifference!illi!.im: o !ee if age ha! an effect on per!onal !paceMethod: illi! o!er$ed almo!t 800 indi$id%al! in different !ocial

!it%ation!(#e!%lt!: ho!e he o!er$ed tended to !tand clo!er to people their own

age and f%rther away from people who were either $ery m%ch older oryo%nger than them!el$e!(

Concl%!ion: .ge difference affect! how clo!e people !tand to one another(

illiam!.im: o !ee if per!onality ha! an effect on per!onal !pace(Method: College !t%dent! were gi$en per!onality te!t! to !ee if they were

e'tro$ert or intro$ert( hey were then !ent to an office one y one torecei$e their college grade! from a t%tor( he re!earcher! noted where

they cho!e to !it in the office when recei$ing their grade!(#e!%lt!: ;ntro$ert! !at f%rther away from the t%tor than e'tro$ert!(Concl%!ion: hether !omeone i! e'tro$ert or intro$ert will affect their %!e

of per!onal !pace(

C%lt%ral =orm!+%mmer: o !ee if there are c%lt%ral difference! in the %!e of per!onal

!pace(

Method: +%mmer o!er$ed gro%p! of white Engli!h people and gro%p! of.ra people in con$er!ation(



#e!%lt!: he comfortale con$er!ation di!tance for the white Engli!hpeople wa! 1-1(m& wherea! the comfortale con$er!ation di!tance forthe .ra people wa! m%ch le!! than that(

Concl%!ion: he %!e of per!onal !pace in normal con$er!ation $arie! withc%lt%re(

+tat%!Gahn.im: o !ee if !tat%! ha! an effect on per!onal !paceMethod: Gahn o!er$ed people of e9%al !tat%! approaching each other to

ha$e a con$er!ation( >e al!o o!er$ed people of %ne9%al !tat%!approaching each other(

#e!%lt!: ,eople of lower !tat%! did not approach higher !tat%! people with

the !ame degree of clo!ene!! a! tho!e of e9%al !tat%!(Concl%!ion: he %!e of per!onal !pace $arie! with difference! in !tat%!

when approaching other people(

,er!onality: he tho%ght!& feeling! and eha$ior! that mae an

indi$id%al %ni9%e(

emperament: he genetic component of per!onality(



*ongit%dinal +t%dy: . !t%dy carried o%t to !how how eha$ior change!

o$er time(

Monoygotic win! : win! de$eloped from one fertilied egg

Biygotic win! : win! de$eloped from two !eparately fertilied egg!

ype heory: ,er!onality type! are tho%ght to e inherited( hey can

e de!cried %!ing related trait!(

E'tro$er!ion: ,er!onality type that de!crie! !omeone !ociale& open&

lo%d etc

;ntro$er!ion: ,er!onality type that de!crie! people who are%n!ociale& 9%iet& lie! to e on their own(

=e%rotici!m: ,er!onality type that de!crie! people who are highly

emotional and !how a 9%ic and inten!e reaction to fear( .n'io%! etc"

,er!onality +cale!: ay! of mea!%ring per!onality %!ing ye!/no

9%e!tion!(

,!ychotici!m: a third dimen!ion identified y Eye!enc( ,eople who

!core high on thi! dimen!ion are ho!tile& aggre!!i$e& in!en!iti$e cr%el(

Ey!enc ,er!onality ;n$entory: +cale to mea!%re E'tro$er!ion Hintro$er!ion and ne%rotici!m H !taility( ;t i! made %p of ye!/no9%e!tion!



+tale E'tro$ert: +ociale& o%tgoing& talati$e& re!pon!i$e& ea!y going&li$ely& carefree

+tale ;ntro$ert: calm& e$en tempered& reliale& controlled& peacef%l&tho%ghtf%l& caref%l

<n!tale e'tro$ert: to%chy& re!tle!!& aggre!!i$e& e'citale& changeale&imp%l!i$e& optimi!tic

<n!tale intro$ert: moody& an'io%!& pe!!imi!tic& re!er$ed& %n!ociale9%iet

.nti!ocial ,er!onality Bi!order: . condition in which the indi$id%al doe!not %!e !ocially acceptale eha$ior or con!ider the right! of other!(hey lie& !teal& are aggre!!i$e& diffic%lt to act moral etc(

.mygdala: ,art of the rain in$ol$ed in emotion

5rey matter: the o%ter layer of the rain

,refrontal corte': the $ery front of the rain it i! in$ol$ed in !ocial andmoral eha$ior and control! aggre!!ion(

Ca%!e! of .,B: can e ca%!ed d%e to low family income& poor ho%!ing&poor family acgro%nd& poor parenting& low !chool achie$ement and

lea$ing !chool early at age(

Characteri!tic! of .,B: do not follow law!& lie& are imp%l!i$e& eingirritale& aggre!!i$e& often in$ol$ed in phy!ical fight! or a!!a%lt!& arecarele!! of !afety& irre!pon!ile& lac remor!e& h%rt other people(

+t%die! of emperament



homa!& Che!! and irch (LONGITUDINAL STUDIE)

.im: o di!co$er whether way! of re!ponding to the en$ironment

remain !tale thro%ghto%t life(Method: hey !t%died 133 children from infancy to early ad%lthood(

he children! eha$ior wa! o!er$ed and their parent! were inter$iewed(he parent! were a!ed ao%t the child! ro%tine and it! reaction! tochange

#e!%lt!: hey fo%nd that the children fell into three type!& ea!y&

diffic%lt or !low to warm %p( he ea!y children were happy& fle'ile andreg%lar( he diffic%lt children were demanding& infle'ile and cried a lot(he children that were !low to warm %p di not re!pond well to change ornew e'perience! to egin with& %t once they had adapted they were%!%ally happy(

Concl%!ion: he three way! of re!ponding to the en$ironment !tayed

with the children a! they de$eloped( emperament i! innate(

E$al%ation: hi! i! a longit%dinal !t%dy of temperament( ;t allow! the

re!earcher to !%pport that temperament i! innate( hi! i! eca%!e if thechildren !till !how the !ame reaction! to !it%ation! a! they get older& thi!wo%ld !%gge!t it i! an inorn re!pon!e( >owe$er& participant! co%ld dropo%t halfway which co%ld affect the re!%lt!(

Critici!m!: he parent! are ia!(

%!! and ,lomin

.im: o te!t the idea that temperament i! innate( Method: hey !t%died 228 pair! of monoygotic twin! and 1)2 pair! of

diygotic twin!( hey rated the temperament of the twin! when they werefi$e year! old( hey looed at three dimen!ion! of eha$ior(

Emotionality H how !trong the child! emotional re!pon!e wa!

.cti$ity H how energetic the child wa!

+ociaility H >ow m%ch the child wanted to e with other people(

hey then compared the !core! for each pair of twin!

#e!%lt!: here wa! a clo!er correlation etween the !core! of

monoygotic twin! than etween the !core! of the diygotic twin!(

Concl%!ion: emperament ha! a genetic a!i!(Critici!m!: Cannot e generalied to whole pop%lation eca%!e the

e'periment wa! done on twin! only(

agan and +nidman



.im: o in$e!tigate whether temperament i! d%e to iological

difference!(

Method: hey !t%died the reaction! of fo%r month old aie! to new

!it%ation!( For the fir!t min%te the ay wa! placed in a !eat withcaregi$er !itting neary( For the ne't three min%te! the caregi$er mo$edo%t of the ay! $iew while the ay wa! !hown different toy y there!earcher(

#e!%lt!: wenty percent of the aie! !howed di!tre!! y crying&

$igoro%! moment of the arm! and leg! and arching of the ac( heywere cla!!ed a! high reacti$e( Forty pre!ent of the aie! !howed littlemo$ement or emotion( hey were cla!!ed a! low reacti$e( he remaininginfant! fell !omewhere etween the two(

.fter 11 year! later& they fo%nd there wa! !till a difference in the way

the two gro%p! reacted to new !it%ation! the high reacti$e were !hywhile the low reacti$e! were calm(

Concl%!ion: he re!earcher! concl%ded that the!e two temperament!

are d%e to inherited difference! in the way the rain re!pond!(

E$al%ation: hey %!ed a large !ample of pop%lation& which mean! it

can e generalied ea!ier( he e'perimental !etting wa! artificial(

,er!onality +cale Ey!enc

.im: o in$e!tigate the per!onality of )00 !er$icemen Method: Each !oldier completed a 9%e!tionnaire( Ey!enc analyed the

re!%lt! %!ing a !tati!tical techni9%e nown a! factor analy!i!(

#e!%lt!: >e identified two dimen!ion! of per!onality: e'tro$er!ion H

intro$er!ion and ne%rotici!m H !taility(

E$al%ation: ;t wa! done on !er$ice men only cannot e generalied"&

only de!cried a limited n%mer of per!onality type!& %!ed 9%e!tionnaireto te!t per!onality which people co%ld ha$e een a!ed on their mood! atthe time(

.nti!ocial ,er!onality Bi!order #aine et al

.im: o !%pport the theory that anormalitie! in the prefrontal corte'

ca%!e .,B(

Method: Magnetic re!onance imaging M#;" wa! %!ed to !t%dy 21 men

with .,B and a control gro%p of 34 healthy men( he !%Dect! were all$ol%nteer!(

#e!%lt!: he .,B gro%p had an 11 percent red%ction in prefrontal grey

matter compared with the control gro%p(



Concl%!ion: .,B i! ca%!ed y a red%ction in the rain! grey matter(

E$al%ation: .ndrocentric eca%!e they !t%died male! only( >i!

participant! were all $ol%nteer! which mean!& they all ha$e !omething incommon(

Farrington

.im: o in$e!tigate the de$elopment of offending and anti!ocial

eha$ior in male! !t%died from childhood to the age of 0(

Method: #e!earcher! carried o%t a longit%dinal !t%dy of the

de$elopment of anti!ocial and offending eha$ior in 411 male!( hey allli$ed in a depri$ed& inner city area of *ondon( hey were fir!t !t%died atthe age of 8 and were followed %p %ntil the age of 0( heir parent! andteacher! were al!o inter$iewed( +earcher! were carried o%t at the !imilarrecord office to di!co$er if they or memer! of their family had een

con$icted to a crime( #e!%lt!: Forty one pre!ent of the male! were con$icted of at lea!t one

offence etween the age! of 10-I( he mo!t important ri! factor! foroffending were criminal eha$ior in the family& low !chool achie$ement&po$erty and poor parenting(

Concl%!ion: +it%ational factor! lead to de$elopment of anti !ocial

eha$ior(

E$al%ation: =ot a controlled e'periment& iological factor! were not

in$e!tigated& androcentric& parent! can e ia!(

Elander et al .im: o in$e!tigate the childhood ri! factor! that can e %!ed to

predict anti!ocial eha$ior in ad%lthood(

Method: #e!earcher! in$e!tigated 22 twin! who were diagno!ed with

childhood di!order! and inter$iewed them 10-2 year! later(

#e!%lt!: he childhood hyperacti$ity& cond%ct di!order!& low ;J and

reading prolem! were !trong predictor! of .,F and criminality in ad%ltlife(

Concl%!ion!: Bi!r%pti$e eha$ior in childhood can e %!ed o predict

.,M in ad%lthood(

E$al%ation: hey !t%died twin! only which mean! it co%ld ha$e eenthe genetic! that affected their eha$ior and not !it%ational factor!(,articipant! co%ld ha$e rememered their childhood e'perience! wrongly(

+tereotype: .n o$er!implified generalied !et of idea that we ha$e

ao%t other!& for e'ample& !econdary head teachr! are !trict&intimidating& !cary and male(



#e!earch into !tereotyping

illiam! and e!t

.im: o in$e!tigate the e'tent of !e' !tereotyping acro!! 30 differentco%ntrie!(

Method: ,articipant! were gi$en o$er 300 characteri!tic! and a!ed to

!tate whether the characteri!tic! were more liely to e a!!ociated withmen& women or oth gender!(

#e!%lt!: .cro!! co%ntrie!& the !ame characteri!tic! tended to e

a!!ociated with male! and female!( Female! were de!cried a!%nder!tanding& emotional and warm( Male! were de!cried a! recle!!&hard headed and determined(

Concl%!ion: he finding! of thi! cro!! c%lt%ral !t%dy !%gge!t! that

there are commonly held !tereotype! of male! and female!(

#%in Et .l

#eward ,%ni!hment

+7C;.* *E.#=;=5 >7E#@ .=B<#."

e do not D%!t learn y o!er$ing from other! here can e a time lap!e etween !tim%l%! thing that happened"

and re!pon!ething that yo% do"

=o g%arantee that the !ame !tim%l%! will alway! elicit the !ame

re!pon!e from each per!on

hat i! going on in o%r rain and o%r %ni9%e e'perience go$ern! o%r

eha$ior and per!onality



#eaction to eha$iori!m

Fi$e capailitie! di!ting%i!h h%man learning from animal!

• Symbolizing caability H hin the word/!o%nd etc mean! more than

what yo% !ee( e can thin ao%t thing! that are not phy!icallypre!ent(

• !icario"# caability H aility to feel/!en!e an e'perience we ha$e not

e'perienced other people! e'perience"

• $oret%o"g%t H e can thin/plan ahead into the f%t%re

• Self&reg"latory caability H .ility to control o%r!el$e! eg& h%ngry

%t yo% are in a cla!! !o yo% will control yo%r!elf from yo%r in!tinct!can thin of the con!e9%ence!"

• Self reflective caability H hin of what we done at the end of a

day etc

E'perience! dictating o%r re!pon!e e$en if it i! the !ame !tim%l%!& it i!more than D%!t !tim%l%! and re!pon!e(

For 'oeling to occ%r& a eha$ior m%!t e oth learnt and performed(e tae in load! of eha$ior %t will only do a it of that( Cogniti$e$ariale! mediate modeling(

@o% ha$e to pay attention to the model (ATTENTION)Aariale! that infl%ence thi! are1" ,er!on! !tate eg h%ngry or cold"2" Bi!traction! in yo%r mind or e'ternally"3" =at%re of the model !triing& pre!tigio%!& competent"



@o% ha$e to remember the model! eha$ior (RETENTION)Aariale! that infl%ence thi! are

1" ;magery2" +emantic coding the meaning yo% gi$e it"

3" 7rganiation yo%r mental filing health H !etting!"4" #ehear!al eep r%nning it in yo%r head"

@o% ha$e to e ale to do the eha$ior and practiceit(RERODU*TION)

Aariale! incl%de:1" ime !pent practicing2" ;ndi$id%al elief! and capailitie!3" +ocial facilitation H will the circ%m!tance! aro%nd yo% effectyo%?

@o% ha$e to +ant to do the eha$ior ('otivation)Aariale! incl%de: REIN$OR*E'ENT H wo%ld yo% e'pect !ome ind of

reward/p%ni!hment from doing the action



co%ld e from !elf e'perience

$icario%! e'perience or imagined/promi!ed reinforcement

+elf #E5<*.;7= - !elf control from !elf reflection&

K%dgment again!t a !tandard&

!elf re!pon!e own reward/p%ni!hment"

may choo!e to e!cape and do nothing or compen!ate in!tead of doing

the eha$ior

Different male ientitie#,

ig& %ff male

J%iet

ell-dre!!ed

+cr%ffy

+inny& wea

5eey

M%mmy! oy

,layer!



Different female ientitie#,

omoy

5irly girl

Fr%mpy

,la!tic ,lain girl

+porty

+e': iological nat%re5ender: Characteri!tic! formed thro%gho%t life that differ! etween male

and female

wo L Chromo!ome! +e'

. peni!

!e'o%gh minded gender

Emotional gender

. $agina !e'

7ne L chromo!ome and one @ chromo!ome +e'

ender minded gender

. wom !e'

e!te! !e'



<ncaring gender

7e!trogen !e'

Caring gender

<nemotional gender

7$arie! !e'

+e' de$elopment1" .ll fet%! !tart a! female %t the @ chromo!ome !witche! the fet%! to a

male ro%te y en!%ring the de$elopment of te!te! and not o$arie!(he!e prod%ce hormone!

2" e!te! prod%ce androgen! incl%ding te!to!terone H en!%re!de$elopment of peni! and !crot%m and m%!cle co$er

3" 7$arie! prod%ce oe!trogen and proge!terone which de$elop the womand $agina

Ca!tration ;! more important to determine gender

+e' ;dentity i! the iological !tat%! of eing male or female

,eople! eha$ior! toward! a child change! depending to the gender

5ender role! are the e'pected eha$ior! and character trait! that go with

eing male or female in o%r !ociety



Circ%mci!ion i! done when the !e' organ i! %nclear& deformed or not f%llyformed(

>ow doe! gender identity de$elopMen carry d%ll %mrella! whil!t women carry girly %mrella!

Men dont hold hand! with male! friend! whil!t women do

Fre%d +t%dy: *ittle >an!

• 7%r eha$ior i! eyond o%r con!cio%! control

• oy! ha$e! !tronger gender identity a! they ha$e more to lo!e peni!"

• ;nferiority of girl! H peni! eny& le!! moral a! le!! inten!e internali!tionof !ame !e' parent



Gener #c%ema t%eory

• +andra em

• +ome people are highly !e' typed gender typed"

• he!e people !ee the world a! eing f%ll of male !t%ff and female !t%ff

• +ome are not

• em !ee!: MM and FF a! highly gender typed

• .ndrogyno%!: a! po!!e!!ing high le$el! of oth

• <ndifferentiated: po!!e!! low le$el! of oth

• -e"ri#tic H cogniti$e !hortc%t 9%ic way to categorie people" relate!

pre$io%! e'perience to new e'ample! of tho!e thing! H !chema

• Gener #c%ema H a mental %ilding loc of nowledge that contain!

information ao%t each gender

• Gener Stereotye -

• +ome people ha$e a more rigid gender !chema eg& girl! m%!t weardre!!& long hair"

• he 'artin #t"y !%gge!t! a! yo% get older& yo%r gender !chema i!

le!! !tereotyped wherea! the Levy an *arter !t%dy !%gge!t! thereare indi$id%al difference! etween people and age i! not a factor(

• $re"ian T%eory Imlication, ;f oy! de$elop from 7edip%! comple'

then children rai!ed in !ingle parent familie! are liely to de$elop poorgender identitie!(

• $re"ian T%eory Alication, ;f child de$elopment clinic! co%n!elor!

!ho%ld ad$i!e !ingle mother! to introd%ce a male role model into their

!on! li$e! !o that their gender de$elopment i! not di!t%red(• Social Learning t%eory on gener eveloment Imlication,

Children de$elop their idea! ao%t gender from other people !oparent! !ho%ld e aware of impo!ing negati$e or re!tricting genderidea! on their children(

• Social Learning t%eory on gener eveloment Alication,

+ince we now children ac9%ire their idea! ao%t gender appropriateeha$ior from watching model!& the maer! of children! A ormagaine! can introd%ce role model! that are le!! !tereotyped for eachgender& to red%ce the re!triction! oth gender! face for their eha$ior(

• .iological t%eory of gener eveloment Imlication /alication ('ONE0 etc)

Imlication, 7%r gender de$elopment i! not learned %t inherited( herei! an area in!ide the rain +BM" that control! o%r genderde$elopment female ha! a !horter one and male ha! a longer one(



Alication,

• 5ender !chema theory of gender de$elopment ;mplication

application

;mplication: hat do we mean ao%t that.pplication: what are we going to do ao%t that

Aggre##ion, .e%avior aime at %arming ot%er#1

-ormone#, Chemical! relea!ed y o%r endocrine !y!tem that affect

how o%r odie! f%nction and how we eha$e

Limbic #y#tem, he part of the rain that ca%!e! aggre!!i$e eha$ior

,refrontal corte': the $ery front of the rain( ;t i! in$ol$ed in !ocial

and moral eha$ior and control aggre!!ion

.rain i#ea#e, damage to the rain ca%!ed y illne!! or tra%ma(

Aggre##ion, iological& >ormonal& 5enetic

.iological, rain !tr%ct%re!& gene! and anti gen!

;7*75;C.* EL,*.=.;7= F7# .55#E++;7=:

(2) -OR'ONES H !t%die! ha$e !hown that mle! are more aggre!!i$e

than female!( eca%!e of thi!& hormone! are tho%gt to e re!pon!ile a!there are large difference etween the hormone! of men and women( Men

ha$e m%ch more te!to!terone than women( .! a re!%lt& thi! hormone i!tho%ght to e the ca%!e of aggre!!ion in male!( ey +t%dy: @o%ng et al1II

(3)*-RO'OSO'ES H here i! a higher than normal proportion of

men with an e'tra @ chromo!ome among!t $iolent offender!( hen the23rd chromo!ome the !e' chromo!ome" fail! to di$ide& !ome men end %pwith an L@@ arrangement( hi! ha! certain effect!& incl%ding maing menmore aggre!!i$e than normal(



Aggre##ion

• #e!earch +%pport: Megargee .nd Mendel!ohn 1I2

;nter$iewed and p!ychometrically te!ted $iolent criminal! Fo%nd that all !eemed to ha$e een o$er controlled and had

repre!!edtheir angry( hi! ca%!ed a %ild %p to e'plo!ion at minor trigger %t

fr%!tration - aggre!!ion hypothe!i! goe! again!t if o%r goal i! locedwe ecome angry

Critici!m!: Cant mea!%re !trictne!!

;t i! int%iti$ely correct H an innate !en!e of what feel! right

4 factor# to e5lain aggre##ion ($re"6# t%eory);d eing controlled y +%perego and ego to e moral"

plea!%re principle : liido"-Ero!&*ife force

a" +%r$i$al "Beath wi!h thanatho!"

Befence mechani!m H target of aggre!!ion& di!placement&!%limation"

Cathar!i! H fl%!hing o%t of aggre!!ion(

hen death wi!h fir!t emerge want to ill dad/m%m



Eval"ation,

Fre%dN! theory i! a!ed %pon ca!e !t%die! and not empirical

re!earch( .l!o& Fre%d a!ed hi! theory on the recollection! of hi! ad%lt

patient!& not on act%al o!er$ation and !t%dy of children(

>i! theorie! are diffic%lt to te!t !cientifically( Concept! !%ch a! the

liido are impo!!ile to mea!%re& and therefore cannot e te!ted(

J%ality of e$idence

Boe! it e'plain all ind! of aggre!!ion comprehen!i$e& e'ception!"

#elation!hip to the real world

ea%tif%l con!i!tency O coherence

Might/might not !till apply to the world now

+ocial c%lt%ral impact H changed the world M.K7#*@

Eval"ation,

1" hey did it in a la and the criminal! cant di!play or !how

aggre!!ion when they arent in an aggre!!i$e en$ironment( nothing willtrigger their aggre!!ion"

2" Criminal! arent ale to withdraw cant e!cape e$en if they are not

willing to do it"

3" ,!ychological harm H criminal! are meant to learn and change in

pri!on %t the !t%dy !how! they are aggre!!i$e eca%!e of their rain(thin they are orn with an aggre!!i$e mind"

4" if people are a little le!! inacti$e with the prefrontal corte'& it

doe!nt mean they are aggre!!i$e(



,ri!oner! had e'tra wide chromo!ome!

.** B7=E 7= M.*E H .=B#7CE=#;C

;f done on male and looing for it& yo%ll find it - Confirmation ia! a

tendency of people to fa$or information that confirm! their elief! orhypothe!e!("

;nt%iti$ely correct H ale to apply to yo%r!elf

;f the #yc%oynamic t%eory i! correct then we !ho%ld e ale to

red%ce aggre!!ion y participating in !afe acti$itie! that can help torelea!e anger thanato!" !%ch a! martial art!& taewondo or gi$e them a

p!ycho analy!i! therapy(

;f the #ocial learning t%eory of aggre!!ion i! correct then we !ho%ld

e ale to red%ce aggre!!ion y ad$i!ing parent! to not arg%e in front ofchildren& dont e'po!e them to aggre!!i$e film! and let them !eeaggre!!i$e role model! are p%ni!hed for their action!( %t !ometime!& thep%ni!hment i! the reward for certain children(

;f the biological t%eory of aggre!!ion i! correct then we !ho%ld e

ale to red%ce aggre!!ion y gi$ing them !%pport and help to control their

tho%ght! and feeling!( identify who need! help fir!t" - p!ycho ed%cationtherapy

$re"6# T%eory 7 $re"ian #yc%oynamic

U#e yo"r note# on $re"8# t%eory +e %ave alreay tal9e abo"t

an rea in yo"r te5tboo9 abo"t t%e $re"ian (#yc%oynamic)e5lanation for aggre##ion1 T%en in yo"r o+n +or# try to e5lain

+%y eole become aggre##ive accoring to t%i# t%eory an #ee ifyo" can "#e any evience or anecote# to #"ort t%i#e5lanation1 'a9e #"re yo" %ave a goo aragra% available torea o"t ne5t le##on



. po!!ile rea!on why !ome people may t%rn to aggre!!ion a!ed on

the Fre%dian ,!ychodynamic may e that aggre!!ion i! part of o%r ;B( ;tco%ld po!!ily e part of o%r a!ic in!tinct! a! aggre!!ion i! !aid to epart of o%r !%con!cio%!( Fre%d !%gge!ted that e$ery per!on p%!he! downtheir deepe!t de!ire! into their !%con!cio%! while only pre!enting theircon!cio%!( .ggre!!ion co%ld e one of the part! of the %ncon!cio%! dri$ethat we ha$e lie o%r !e'%al eha$io%r"( ;n p!ycho!e'%al de$elopment&aggre!!ion co%ld po!!ily ha$e a lin with the ,hallic +tage which i! whenindi$id%al! find plea!%re from peni!( 5irl! then e'perience what i! nowna! Ppeni! en$y( hi! happen! when they feel lie they are mi!!ing o%t on!omething that they cant and wont ha$e& in thi! ca!e& a peni!( hi! canthen lead to depre!!ion in girl!& and depre!!ion it!elf can lead toaggre!!i$e eha$io%r(

Defence mec%ani#m#,

Bi!placement: eing aggre!!i$e toward! other people

+%limation H channelling o%r aggre!!ion into other acceptale

acti$itie!

aragra% m"#t incl"e,

;B wor! on the plea!%re principle H !ometime! nown a! liido

*iido i! a !ort of life force

Ero! erotic !ide" H food and !e'

;n the liido there i! t%e eat% +i#% H t%anato#

Con!tant ten!ion etween ero! and thanato! in yo%r liido Controlling aggre!!ion thro%gh yo%r !%perego and ego

Befence mechani!m!: target of aggre!!ion

di!placement: e(g( icing yo%r cat

!%limation: e(g( going to the gym

oth the!e thing! gi$e yo% C.>.#+;+ H fl%!hing o%t of aggre!!ion

hen the death wi!h fir!t emerge!& it will e p%t it on either yo%

m%m/dad 7edip%! comple'"

#e!earch !%pport:

'egargee an 'enel#o%n (2:;3)

Intervie+e an #yc%ometrically te#te violent criminal#

$o"n t%at all #eeme to %ave been over&controlle an %a

rere##e t%eir anger 7 t%i# ca"#e a b"il&" to e5lo#ion atminor trigger (b"t fr"#tration&aggre##ion %yot%e#i# goe# again#t7 if o"r goal i# bloc9e +e become angry)



Eval"ation,

Confirmation ia!

>ow to we mea!%re what P!trict i!?

Criminal! are not reliale !o%rce!

;nt%iti$ely correct H feel! right/mae! !en!e

T%eory,

;nt%iti$ely correct

E$idence/if it! een pro$en

Con!i!tency and coherence H doe! the theory hang together into one

whole? - ye!

J%ality of e$idence

Comprehen!i$e/e'ception!?

.necdotal e$idence H little !cientific proof

7nly a!ed on ca!e !t%die! and not re!earch e'periment! .pplication to the real world

+ocio-c%lt%ral impact H did the theory change the world? - @e! it did

*E.#=;=5

+ocial de!iraility H acting in a way to loo etter in the !ociety

Bemand characteri!tic!

.migio%! 9%e!tion! H ad H eca%!e 9%e!tion! are too complicated-

!ho%ld only a! for 1 thing

gcse psychology notes for all topics

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