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Gap Analysis
GAP ANALYSIS ASSESSMENT
November 2017
Central City Fire Department
Central City, Colorado
25030 SW Parkway Avenue, Suite 330 Wilsonville, OR 97070
E-Mail: [email protected] • Corporate Office: 503.570.7778
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................................... ii
Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 2
Evaluation of Current Conditions .................................................................................................... 3
Organization Overview ............................................................................................................................. 3
Staffing ....................................................................................................................................... 7
Emergency Response Staffing .................................................................................................................. 8
Staffing Levels .......................................................................................................................................... 9
Capital Assets & Improvement Programs ...................................................................................... 18
CCFD Vehicles & Equipment ................................................................................................................... 20
Service Delivery & Performance ................................................................................................... 25
Service Demand Study ............................................................................................................................ 25
Temporal Variation ................................................................................................................................. 28
Geographic Service Demand ................................................................................................................... 30
Resource Distribution Analysis ................................................................................................................ 32
Response Performance Study ................................................................................................................. 36
Response Reliability Study ...................................................................................................................... 40
Future Station Location Analysis .................................................................................................. 41
Recommendations ...................................................................................................................... 45
Staffing ................................................................................................................................................... 45
New Station ............................................................................................................................................ 47
Apparatus ............................................................................................................................................... 47
Consolidation .......................................................................................................................................... 47
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................. 48
Appendix A: Table of Figures ....................................................................................................... 49
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Emergency Services Consulting International (ESCI) would like to acknowledge that without the assistance
and support of the Central City Mayor, Council, City Manager, and Fire Chief, this project could not have
been successfully completed.
Mayor
Kathy Heider
City Council
Shirley Voorhies
Judy Laratta
Jeff Aiken
Mary Bell
City Manager
Daniel Miera
Fire Chief
Gary Allen
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Gap Analysis
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
ESCI was asked to identify the gaps in fire protection coverage at the Central City Fire Department
compared to industry standards. Also, Central City desired recommendations for ways to close any gaps
that were identified. The study was limited to the operational response aspects of the department as these
were considered to be most important at this juncture.
The City is at crossroads to make some crucial decisions that will affect the future direction of the fire
department. Recently the Central City Fire Department has lost some of the area it responded to in the
past. It also may lose the station that was located in the county but supplied much needed operational
functions to the department.
The Central City Fire Department operates well within its limitations. The city has a very small permanent
population but a large daily influx of population. The city is protected by a small group of volunteers who
respond to the needs of a city which has service demand that is greater than what is normal for a city of its
size. A positive for the city is the use of fire sprinkler and alarm systems for limiting the potential size of
fires in most large buildings and in residential buildings over three stories.
The current main station is limited in size and function to adequately perform the needs of the city. The
building will not house a full-size engine. Internally, the parking of apparatus does not allow for individual
response of some apparatus without moving others. The station does not have capability for any overnight
housing or amenities for volunteers that would like to be at the station for immediate response.
Three potential locations for a new station were examined for suitability based on optimum travel time to
the high call area of the city.
Apparatus was found to be operable, however most of the fleet is beyond the normally accepted life. There
is no specific apparatus replacement schedule or funding set aside for replacement. There is no aerial
apparatus operated by the fire department but one is available through mutual aid from a neighboring
jurisdiction.
Staffing is minimum for being able to produce an effective response force as specified in standards for
fighting a low hazards occupancy. The structures within the city are larger and more complex than what
you would find in a comparable-sized city in the region, or even nationally, which might demand higher
levels of staffing. The historical response to incidents were analyzed to determine the number of personnel
responding. Recommendations for increasing staffing are offered in this report.
Response performance was examined for the previous year. The components of response time were
individually examined. These included call processing time, turnout time, and travel time. Calls for service
were scrutinized by month, day, and time of day for patterns that might suggest alternate staffing
schedules.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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INTRODUCTION
Central City Fire Department (CO) contracted Emergency Services Consulting International (ESCI) to
evaluate certain functions of the department to determine any gaps which exist between the current
state of operations and applicable standards or best practices within the fire and emergency services
industry. In August of 2017, ESCI requested that the department gather applicable data for the
functions to be evaluated. In September of 2017, ESCI visited the Central Fire Department to further
gather information on the operations of the department. The following sections will describe the
current operations and identify areas where the department meets or does not meet industry standards
and best practices.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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EVALUATION OF CURRENT CONDITIONS
Organization Overview The Central City Fire Department (CCFD) is a municipal fire department which protects Central City,
Colorado. Central City has a population of 663. Per the 2010 census, there are 446 residential dwelling
units in the city. The city is home to several casinos and other tourist attractions which draw thousands
of visitors annually.
The fire department has one paid employee which is the fire chief. All emergency response personnel
are volunteers. The department responded to 442 calls for service in 2016. The department protects
$26,442,486 in property value within two-square miles. Before June 2017, the fire department was
responsible for responding to 36-square miles. At that time, the department responded from two fire
stations. As of January 2018, response will be only from the main station in Central City.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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Figure 1: Study Area
The department responds as a basic life support (BLS) unit to EMS calls. The Gilpin Ambulance provides
advanced life support (ALS) and transport capability by contract. As can be seen in the following figure,
EMS calls for service comprise over 50 percent of the service demand. Fires of all types, structures,
vehicles, and vegetation are five percent. It is typical for a fire department to respond primarily to
medical calls and a small percentage of fire calls. In ESCI’s experience, the good intent and false calls
seem higher than what might be expected. This will be discussed later in the report.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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Figure 2: Calls for Service, 2016
In the following figures, the number of total calls for service and fires calls are compared against similar
communities within the western region of the country. There is a comparison against the high and low
ranges among urban and rural departments as well. The data for these comparisons is provided by the
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA).1
Figure 3: Incidents per 1000 Population Comparison
1 NFPA Fire Department Profile Report 2015; National Fire Protection Association, 1 Batterymarch Park, Quincy, MA.
Rescue EMS54%
Good Intent & False Alarms
34%
Fires5%
Service Calls4%
Other3%
179.4
110.7 116.955.7
102.7
666.7
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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This comparison shows that Central City calls for service is significantly higher than other communities
within the region of similar size. It is much higher than what would be expected for an urban
community with a much greater population density. This must be attributed to the actual population
within the city on any given day. As a tourist destination, population fluctuates and the service demand
is commensurate with those increases.
The same appears to be true for fires alone as shown in the next figure.
Figure 4: Fires per 1000 Population Comparison
The number of fires is roughly double that of a rural community in a fire-busy location. This may be
because Central City sits within a very rural area with high wildfire potential. So, not only does the fire
department respond to calls in a busy urban setting, it also has the issues of a rural community within a
wildland setting. This was particularly true up through the first half of 2017 when CCFD was responsible
for a larger rural area.
Figure 5: Cost per Capita Comparison
The cost of operating the fire department by comparison with other communities of similar size is also
greater by a large margin. This again reflects the urban nature of a city much larger due to the transient
population influx each day.
4.7 2.9
17.2
4.0
14.4
34.7
0.05.0
10.015.020.025.030.035.040.0
$157.86
$728.93
$-
$200.00
$400.00
$600.00
$800.00
Colorado Average Central City
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STAFFING
All personnel of the fire department are operational personnel including the fire chief, and one
lieutenant that performs both operational and administrative functions as well. The fire chief is
responsible for all administrative functions that are not handled by Central City departments. The city
assists in human resources, finance, legal, fleet services, and building maintenance.
The staffing organizational chart is shown in the next figure.
Figure 6: Organizational Chart
The current organization has less filled positions than it has in the past. Volunteers are becoming more
difficult to recruit and retain as this report will address further. The loss of some officers has also had an
impact on the ability to have seasoned personnel to train and mentor new volunteers as they are
brought on to the department.
Fire Chief
Captain
Lieutenant Administration
Firefighters Firefighters
Lieutenant Operations
Firefighters
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Emergency Response Staffing It takes an adequate and properly trained staff of emergency responders to put the appropriate
apparatus and equipment to its best use in mitigating emergency incidents. Insufficient staffing at an
operational scene decreases the effectiveness of the response and increases the risk of injury to all
individuals involved. This has been verified in tests run by National Institutes of Standards and
Technology (NIST). The report demonstrated that necessary fire ground functions were completed
quicker with more staffing.2 CCFD is at a point where the ability to assemble the necessary number of
personnel to meet the EMS and fire call volume may be impacted by the availability of responders.
Firefighters must perform certain tasks at a fire and these tasks can be broken down into two key
components—conducting life safety functions and developing fire flow. Factors such as the number of
building occupants, their location, status, and ability to take self-preservation action will define the
number of life safety tasks required. Life safety tasks involve search, rescue, and evacuation of victims.
The fire flow component involves delivering sufficient water to extinguish the fire and creating an
environment within the building that allows safe entry by firefighters. Creating a safe environment will
include coordinated ventilation operations.
The number and types of tasks needing simultaneous action will dictate the minimum number of
firefighters required to combat different types of fires. In the absence of adequate personnel to perform
concurrent action, the command officer must prioritize the tasks and complete some in chronological
order, rather than concurrently. These tasks include:
• Command
• Scene safety
• Search, rescue, and evaluation if needed
• Fire attack
• Securing a water supply
• Pump operation
• Ventilation
• Back-up/rapid intervention team
Fires grow exponentially if not restricted in some way. Flashover, a dramatic and rapid expansion of the
fire in which no one can survive, may occur within three-to-five minutes of the start of a fire, however,
the first 15 minutes is considered the most crucial period in fire suppression. How effectively and
efficiently firefighters perform during this period has a significant impact on the overall outcome of the
event. This general concept is applicable to fire, rescue, and medical situations. Responders must
conduct critical tasks in a timely manner to control a fire or to treat a patient. CCFD is responsible for
assuring that responding companies can perform all of the described tasks in a prompt, efficient, and
safe manner.
2 NIST Technical Note 1661, Report on Residential Fireground Field Experiments, National Institute of Standards and Technology, April 2010.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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Staffing Levels As a part of a Standards of Cover (SOC) document, the department should create a critical task analysis
for each of the types of calls that CCFD handles. This would define the number of personnel needed to
perform the multiple tasks on each type of response, e.g. structure fire, auto extrication, hazardous
material response, etc. The following figure is a sample of creating a critical task staffing based on type
of call and relative risk.
Figure 7: Sample of Critical Task Staffing by Risk
Sample Critical Tasking Analysis
Firefighter Personnel Needed Based On Level of Risk
Structural Maximum
Risk
Structure Significant
Risk
Structure Moderate
Risk
Non- Structure Low
Risk
Attack Line 4 4 2 2
Back-Up Line 4 2 2 (2)
Support for Hose Lines 4 3 2
Search and Rescue 4 4 2
Ventilation 4 2 2
Rapid Intervention Team 4 4 2
Pump Operator 2 1 1 1
2nd Apparatus/Ladder Operator 1 1 (1)
Command 2 1 1 1#
Safety 2 1 1#
Salvage 4
Rehabilitation 2
Division/Group Supervisors (2)
Total 37–39 23 14–16 3–6
() indicates tasks may not be required at all such incidents # indicates task may, at times, be completed concurrently with other position
Creating a Standards of Cover is a best practice for fire departments but demands some time and effort
to complete. Components of the Standards of Cover is discussed in depth in other sections of this
report. ESCI can assist the department in creating a Standards of Cover document and measurement
procedures if desired.
In lieu of a department-specific, critical tasking analysis, there are nationally recognized standards that
determine the recommended minimum staffing numbers and maximum response times. NFPA 1710
standard for career departments and NFPA 1720 standard for volunteer and combination departments.
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NFPA 1720 states that the following figure “be used by the AHJ (Authority Having Jurisdiction) to
determine staffing and response time objectives for structural firefighting, based on a low-hazard
occupancy such as a 2000 ft2 two story, single family home without basement and exposures….”3
Figure 8: NFPA 1720 Response Staffing and Time by Demand Zone
Demand Zone Demographics Minimum Staff
to Respond Response Time
(minutes) Meets Objective
% Urban area >1000 people/mi2 15 9 90
Suburban area 500-1000
people/mi2 10 10 80
Rural area <500 people/mi2 6 14 80
Remote area Travel distance ≥
8 miles 4
Dependent on travel distance
90
This standard presents four different demand zones with three based on population densities. These
are the three that are found within Central City. The following map shows the three areas in the city.
3 NFPA 1720 Standard for the Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression Operations, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Volunteer Fire Departments, Article 4.3.2.
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Figure 9: Demand Zones Based on Population Densities
As these population densities are based on census numbers for permanent residents there is a larger
urban density area in the core of Central City due to the daily increases in population. This increased
transient population will be discussed in multiple facets of this report.
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Referring to the previous figure, NFPA 1720 Response Staffing and Time by Demand Zone, both the
staffing and response times are specified for each zone. Response times will be discussed later in the
report. It is important to point out again that the staffing is based on a light hazard occupancy which is a
moderate sized residential dwelling. A larger building or a commercial occupancy will require additional
responding personnel. Staffing is increased by hiring career firefighters, recruiting volunteer
firefighters, or using mutual or automatic aid from surrounding fire departments. In conjunction with
increased staffing, the city can create a building code amendment that requires automatic fire
sprinklers in structures greater than a certain size. This helps to limit the size of the required firefighting
force responding to a fire in a larger structure. That is a proactive approach to limiting fire size to a
more manageable size.
The current emergency response force (ERF) available at CCFD is the fire chief, one captain, and one
lieutenant, with 13 firefighters. All except for the fire chief are volunteer personnel. Response to calls
for service require that the volunteers respond from home or work to the station and staff the
appropriate unit to respond. This takes more time for turnout than if the personnel are in the station
and on-duty. Turnout time will be discussed further in this report.
ESCI analyzed the available staffing against the NFPA 1720 standard. The maximum available crew size
if every volunteer was able to respond would be 15 plus the fire chief would provide a response force of
16. According to NFPA 1720, this would be more than adequate to staff a small residential fire in an
urban, suburban, or rural area. However, the nature of volunteers is that they may or may not be
available at the time of an emergency and take longer to respond and assemble. For this reason, ISO
(Insurance Services Office) credits off-duty and on-call personnel as one third of an on-duty firefighter.4
Hence the 15 firefighters on the roster will count for and realistically be equivalent to about five on-duty
firefighters. According to department records, there have been only two incidents in 2017 that had
greater than nine firefighters in attendance.
NFPA 1720’s recommendation for an effective response force in an urban area to a low hazard
occupancy like a small residential dwelling is 15 personnel on scene in 9 minutes, 90 percent of the time.
A volunteer force required to provide 15 at any time by ISO’s criteria would need to be 45. Conversely, if
there was a career on-duty contingent of five and a total volunteer force of 30 would provide for same
level of staffing. The 2016 average number of on-scene fire personnel was 3.5. It is unclear whether this
is all that is available most of the time or what is needed to handle the average call for service.
This comparison to NFPA 1720 points out the existing limitations in CCFD’s response staffing and the
importance of having automatic aid agreements with surrounding agencies in order to have an
adequate response force within the desired time. CCFD has already established automatic aid
agreements with most of the closest fire agencies. Unfortunately, due to the isolated location, there is
only one mutual aid partner able to get firefighters to the scene in nine minutes. ESCI recommends that
CCFD review the staffing needed for different types of calls and different levels of risk. The department
4 Insurance Services Office, Fire Suppression Rating Schedule 2012, Section 570 C. Existing Company Personnel—On-Call and Off-Duty Firefighters.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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should assure that the communications center is provided with the number of units required for specific
hazards based on the type of call and the risk of the occupancy. Dependency on automatic aid is subject
to availability of units from the neighboring agencies and the distance of response to assure the arrival
of assistance within the nine minutes’ time. The following figure indicates the mutual aid department
locations, indicated by the violet crosses. Only one of those stations can arrive within an eight-minute
travel time. The two closest are Black Hawk FD and Timberline FPD. Additional figures demonstrate
the travel time coverage of the CCFD area from these two departments.
Figure 10: Automatic or Mutual Aid Stations
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Figure 11: Black Hawk Mutual or Automatic Aid Travel Time
Black Hawk FD is capable of delivering an apparatus with additional personnel to almost every part of
the city within 12 minutes, and to all of the core area in less than eight minutes. This resource will help
to achieve the urban staffing of 15 firefighters on the scene within nine minutes.
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Figure 12: Timberline Mutual or Automatic Aid Travel Time
Automatic or mutual aid from Timberline is not likely to arrive in less than twelve minutes, however, it
should not be much longer to arrive in the core of the city. This will not achieve the effective response
force in nine minutes, but will still be very helpful to supplement the force upon arrival.
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The effective response force defined in NFPA 1720 is for a low-hazard, single-family residential
occupancy. The risk in Central City is not only single family residential. There are large hotels, casinos,
and multi-family dwellings. Fortunately, most of these occupancies have automatic fire sprinkler
systems. These systems are effective in holding a fire in check until the firefighters can arrive on the
scene. Limiting fire growth reduces the number of personnel required for these larger hazards. All
apartments over three stories are also equipped with fire sprinkler systems. This should limit the fire
size, and hence, staffing required to bring the fire under control and prevent it from spreading. Some of
the historical buildings have been retrofitted with fire sprinkler systems as well. This is important to
prevent a fire from getting larger than what can be controlled by manual firefighting. Fire sprinkler
systems prevent fires from spreading to another building and possibly causing destruction of a large
portion of the city. Without fire sprinklers, the speed of extinguishment will depend on the number of
personnel and the availability of appropriate equipment. A loss to the historic buildings in Central City
may adversely impact the number of visitors to the city and its economic viability.
A comparison of CCFD to national and regional medians for the number of firefighters per 1,000
population is shown in following figure. These comparisons are from the National Fire Protection
Association. The following figure compares CCFD against other volunteer-staffed departments of
roughly the same community size.
Figure 13: Emergency Response Staffing5
The numbers of volunteers at CCFD are close to regional median and slightly higher than the national
figure for firefighters per 1,000 population. However, previous comparisons demonstrated that calls for
service were significantly higher in Central City than in comparable communities. CCFD has a
significantly higher service demand with a lower number of personnel than most comparable-sized
cities.
5 National Fire Protection Association, two reports are used to determine data points: U.S. Fire Department Profile, 2016, and U.S. Fire Loss, 2016.
25.25
19.87
24.13
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Regional Median National Median Central City
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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Recruiting and maintaining volunteer staffing is becoming a problem all over the country. This is
especially true in the western parts of the United States. Volunteers are categorized broadly into two
categories. Resident volunteers are what has traditionally supplied service to their communities. The
volunteer lives in the community and will respond from home or be on-duty in the fire station. The
other type of volunteer is the shift volunteer who lives outside of the community and becomes a
volunteer spending a certain number of shifts per month in the fire station on duty. Shift volunteers
typically serve to gain training and experience while having a goal of becoming a hired career
firefighter. These volunteers are most often attracted to a department based on the amount and
quality of the training, and the amount and acuity of calls from which they can gain experience. Since
they are on duty for typically an extended time, the department needs to provide a place to eat, relax,
study, and sleep overnight.
Most departments are finding that resident volunteers are more difficult to recruit and are starting to
depend on shift volunteers extensively. Some departments have even created ways to recruit these
volunteers by furnishing housing in exchange for their on-duty time. These departments recruit college
students from fire science courses. In resort areas where there either very costly or limited housing for
seasonal employees this can be an advantage.
The difficulty in retaining shift volunteers is that the most qualified will be hired by a career department
and are likely to leave. The time that a volunteer will be with the department is approximately two to
three years. Depending on the investment made in these volunteers and the amount of the time they
serve it can be cost effective. The inducement for a resident volunteer may be a pension or a LOSAP
(length of service awards program), but even then, many individuals have life changes that may require
relocation. This happens approximately every five years. Many departments are using cash stipends to
defray costs of volunteers based on hours on-duty or calls attended. As long as these are not too large,
the IRS has accepted volunteers to not be employees.
Another strategy for covering shifts is to hire part-time personnel that are paid to cover a 24-hour shift.
The amount is typically minimum wage with no benefits paid. This can be a cost savings over full-time
personnel but as in the case of shift volunteers it requires a great deal of administrative effort to
schedule and keep the openings filled.
ESCI recommends that city management and the fire chief determine the best method of providing
adequate staffing within the cost constraints.
KEY RECOMMENDATIONS:
▪ Review staffing needs for every type of call and levels of risk within the community to determine
required staffing.
▪ Determine strategy to provide enough staffing for typical calls for service.
▪ City management and the fire chief determine the best method of providing adequate staffing
within the cost constraints.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
18
CAPITAL ASSETS & IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS
Figure 14: Central City Fire Station 1
Fire Station Name/Number: Station 1
Address/Physical Location: 116 Lawrence Street, Central City
Summary: Station 1 is an historic building that lacks modern fire
station functions. It lacks space for the appropriate functions, even
if remodeled. A full-size apparatus is unable to fit into the bay.
There is no living space for on-duty firefighters or even suitable
space for any personnel to attend training.
Survey Component Observations
Structure
Construction Type 2-story brick
Date of Construction 1800s
Seismic Protection No seismic protection, Energy Audit done approximately 2014–2015
Auxiliary Power No
Condition Needs upgrade. Too small. No compliance with modern codes or standards.
Special considerations (ADA, mixed gender appropriate, storage, etc.)
None
Square Footage 1600-square foot with both floors
Facilities Available
Exercise/Workout None
Kitchen/Dormitory Yes, unusable
Lockers/Showers No lockers, gear hooks in bay, has a shower
Training/Meeting Rooms Training at Station 2 until January 2018
Washer/Dryer Available at Station 2
Safety & Security
Sprinkler & smoke detection None
Security Yes, locked doors
Apparatus exhaust system Apparatus equipped with diesel smoke filters
Staffing Levels
Minimum assigned staffing No assignments, everyone responds to call.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
19
Figure 15: Central City Fire Station 2
Fire Station Name/Number: Station 2
Address/Physical Location: 495 Apex Valley Road until January 2018 (approximately)
Summary: Station 2 has suitable room for on-duty volunteers,
with area for didactic training and some hands-on topics. It is the
location for a workout room and for the washer and dryer. It has
space for multiple units and can accommodate full-sized
apparatus.
The building is shared with Gilpin County and the Gilpin County
Ambulance service. This station is not in the city and no longer in
the unincorporated area outside of the city to which the fire
department previously responded. This structure may not be
available to the CCFD as of January 2018.
Survey Component Observations
Structure
Construction Type Steel structure
Date of Construction 2000
Seismic Protection No seismic protection. Energy audit approximately 2014–2015.
Auxiliary Power A generator, but not hooked up.
Condition Building is good. Aux power is used.
Special considerations (ADA, mixed gender appropriate, storage, etc.)
No ADA, bathrooms are divided with some storage.
Square Footage 7500
Facilities Available
Exercise/Workout Exercise area in the bay
Kitchen/Dormitory Yes. Dormitory is used by Ambulance company.
Lockers/Showers Gear racks in bay; no lockers; showers in restrooms
Training/Meeting Rooms Large training room
Washer/Dryer Yes, new unit in place
Safety & Security
Sprinkler & smoke detection No fire sprinkler system; Yes, smoke detection
Security Yes, and building is locked after hours
Apparatus exhaust system Truck filter system, Ward No Smoke
Staffing Levels
Minimum assigned staffing No Assignments, all personnel respond to calls.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
20
Facilities Discussion
The review of the two stations currently used by Central City demonstrated a fairly urgent need for
some action. Station 1 is an historic building built sometime in the 1800s. It is two-story building of
1600-square feet. The first floor is the apparatus bay that is large enough to house a small engine, a
tender, and a brush unit. The bay is very crowded which makes it difficult to park the number of units.
The space available between units prevent effective function and maintenance, and could affect safety
of the firefighters working in and around the units.
The second floor is the office space for the fire chief and a storage area for all manner of supplies. The
station lacks the space or ability to house firefighters that might wish to staff the station for a few hours
or overnight. There is no kitchen facility, seating space, or any amenities to be inviting for firefighters to
occupy the station. There is no sleeping area to allow firefighters to staff the station overnight.
The training room and bunker gear washer are located in Station 2. This station is located outside of the
municipal boundaries in a structure owned by the county. The area outside of the city, to which CCFD
formerly responded is now serviced by another fire district. The county may no longer provide space to
CCFD. This means that the apparatus and the functions placed at this station need to be moved to
another location. There is contemplation of using a membrane structure to store the vehicles. This may
be adequate for storage but may not meet building codes for housing response personnel.
It appears that this is an opportunity to reconcile two problems by building a larger station for the
necessary apparatus and functions. The best location for this station for ISO and travel time purposes is
near the high demand area of the city. Location analysis is found in another section of this report. The
downsides to building one larger station in the city are land and construction costs.
CCFD Vehicles & Equipment
Apparatus
The type of apparatus is generally of the correct types for the needs of the city. In the chart that follows
CCFD is compared to other fire departments serving the same size communities.
Figure 16: Comparison of Stations and Apparatus
1 1 11
2
00
1
2
3
Stations Pumpers Aerials
National Median Central City
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The median for apparatus for communities nationwide are for one engine and one truck. There is no
aerial apparatus for the Central City in comparison to the median number of aerials in communities
nationwide. There is an ISO criteria requirement of an aerial type apparatus within 2.5 miles of any
building greater than three stories or requiring greater than 3500 gallons per minute fire flow to get full
credit.6 Currently Black Hawk Fire Department has an aerial apparatus that could be requested by
mutual aid.
The following table lists the current frontline apparatus and condition. While most apparatus are noted
as good to very good, the age of the fleet is older than recommended. Several of the apparatus are past
the replacement date per industry standards and best practices.
Figure 17: Apparatus Inventory
Station 1
Unit Designations
Type Year Make/Model Condition Staffing Pump Tank
Engine 31 3 1986 GMC/Pierce 4x4 Very Good/
Good 3 750 500
Brush 31 3 1999 Chevy 3500HD 4x4 Very Good/
Good 3 250 300
Command 31 CMD 2006 Dodge 3500 4x4 Good 1 N/A N/A
Station 2
Unit Designations
Type Year Make/Model Condition Staffing Pump Tank
Engine 32 1 1996 Pierce Arrow 4x4 Very Good 6 1500 750
Tender 31 3 1980 Intl 1800 4x4 Fair/Poor 3 250 1200
Brush 32 6 2000 Ford F550 4x4 Good 3 250 300
Rescue 31 Light Duty
1993 GMC 3500 4x4 Very Good 3 N/A N/A
Tender 32 3 1979 Chevy C60 Poor/Very
Poor 3 300 800
Command 32 CMD 1993 Chevy Blazer 4x4 Fair 4 N/A N/A
Apparatus Replacement Planning
Fire apparatus are typically unique pieces of equipment, often very customized to operate efficiently in
a narrowly defined mission. A pumper may be designed such that the compartments fit specific
equipment and tools, with virtually every space on the truck designated in advance for functionality.
This same vehicle, with its specialized design, cannot be expected to function in a completely different
capacity, such as a hazardous materials unit or a rescue squad. For this reason, fire apparatus is very
expensive and offers little flexibility in use and reassignment. As a result, communities across the
country have sought to achieve the longest life span possible for these vehicles.
6 Insurance Services Office, Fire Suppression Rating Schedule 2012, Section 540. Ladder/Service Companies.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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Unfortunately, no mechanical piece of equipment can be expected to last forever. As a vehicle ages,
repairs tend to become more frequent, parts more difficult to obtain, and downtime for repair
increases. Given the emergency mission that is so critical to the community, this factor of downtime is
one of the most frequently identified reasons for apparatus replacement.
Because of the large expense of fire apparatus, most communities find the need to plan for the cost of
replacement. To properly do so, agencies often turn to the long-accepted practice of establishing a life
cycle for the apparatus that results in a replacement date being anticipated well in advance. Forward
thinking organizations then set aside incremental funds during the life of the vehicle, so replacement
dollars are ready when needed.
CCFD does not maintain a formal schedule that places all apparatus on any specified replacement cycle
from date of primary service. ESCI recommends that the CCFD make an effort to develop a vehicle
replacement schedule, including a funding strategy that will fully meet future needs.
NFPA 1901: Standard for Automotive Fire Apparatus is a nationally recognized industry standard for the
design, maintenance, and operation of fire suppression apparatus. The issue of replacement cycles for
various types of apparatus has been discussed in the committee that develops the standard for many
years. In developing its latest edition, the committee calls for a life cycle of 12 years in front-line service
and five years in reserve status for engines, and 15 years in front-line service and five years in reserve
status for ladder trucks.
Does this mean that a fire engine cannot be effective as a front-line pumper beyond 12 years? A visit to
many departments in the United States might prove otherwise. Small, volunteer fire departments with
only a hundred or so calls per year often get up to 25 years from a pumper, though the technology is
admittedly not up-to-date. Likewise, busy downtown city fire stations in some urban communities
move their engines out of front-line status in as little as eight years.
The reality is that it may be best to establish a life cycle that would be used in the development of
replacement funding for various types of apparatus, while applying a different method for determining
the replacement date in real life in an effort to achieve greater cost efficiency where possible.
A conceptual model that may be used when a replacement cycle is considered is the Economic Theory of
Vehicle Replacement. The theory states that, as a vehicle ages, the cost of capital diminishes and its
operating cost increases. The combination of these two costs produces a total cost curve. The model
suggests the optimal time to replace any piece of apparatus is when the operating cost begins to
exceed the capital costs. This optimal time may not be a fixed point but rather a range over time. The
flat spot at the bottom of the total curve in the following figure represents the replacement window:
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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Figure 18: Economic Theory of Vehicle Replacement
Shortening the replacement cycle to this window allows for an apparatus to be replaced at optimal
savings to the department. If the department does not routinely replace equipment in a timely manner,
the overall reduction in replacement spending can result in a quick increase of maintenance and repair
expenditures. Officials who assume that deferring replacement purchases is a good tactic for balancing
the budget need to understand that two events may occur:
1. Costs are transferred from the capital budget to the operating budget.
2. Such deferral may increase overall fleet costs.
Regardless of its net effect on current apparatus costs, the deferral of replacement purchases
unquestionably increases future replacement spending needs.
The following figures demonstrate the recommended replacement schedule for CCFD. The current
replacement cost that is used and life expectancy of that type of unit are show in the first table. The
annual rate of 3.22% is used for inflationary increases. Using these figures, CCFD front line fleet is
shown in the second table. This table calculates the replacement cost with inflation and shows the total
needed amount over the life of the fleet and also the annual contribution that should be made to the
replacement fund in order to fully fund the schedule.
Co
st
Time/Usage
Operating Capital Total
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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Figure 19: Vehicle Replacement Cost
Vehicle Life Expectancy Replacement
Cost
Command Vehicles 15 $75,000
Ambulance 15 $210,000
Heavy Rescue Truck 20 $500,000
Commercial Pumper 20 $500,000
Custom Pumper 20 $600,000
Tender 20 $375,000
Ladder 25 $1,200,000
Brush 20 $140,000
Figure 20: Vehicle Replacement Chart
Unit Year Base
Replacement Cost
Replacement Cost w/ Inflation
Current Cash Requirements
Annual Cash Requirements
Current Age
Replacement Year
Engine 31 1986 $500,000 N/A $500,000 N/A 31 OVERDUE
Engine 32 1996 $600,000 N/A $600,000 N/A 21 OVERDUE
Brush 31 1999 $500,000 $532,200 $478,980 $266,100 18 2019
Brush 32 2000 $160,000 $175,456 $149,138 $58,485 17 2020
Rescue 31 1993 $70,000 N/A $70,000 N/A 24 OVERDUE
Tender 31 1980 $375,000 N/A $375,000 N/A 37 OVERDUE
Tender 32 1979 $375,000 N/A $375,000 N/A 38 OVERDUE
Command 31 2006 $75,000 $84,660 $62,084 $21,165 11 2021
Command 32 1993 $75,000 N/A $75,000 N/A 24 OVERDUE
Total/Avg $2,685,202 $345,750 24.6
Based on the replacement cost calculations, a fully-funded vehicle replacement plan would have a
current balance of $2,685,202 and be increased annually by $345,750. The average age of the fleet is
24.6 years. All but three vehicles are beyond the recommended useful life.
KEY RECOMMENDATION:
▪ Develop a vehicle replacement schedule, including a funding strategy that will fully meet future
needs.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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SERVICE DELIVERY & PERFORMANCE
Service Demand Study A six-year history of major call types is shown in the following figure. These are the quantities reported
by the department for annual responses. The types of call categories are fires, EMS, false alarms and
good intent, service calls, and other. The category of these calls is defined by the National Fire Incident
Reporting System (NFIRS). Fire calls include structure fires, vehicle fires, vegetation fires, etc. EMS or
emergency medical calls are calls requiring some medical intervention. False call and good intent calls
are actually two types combined. Good intent calls are when a person reports what they believe is fire
but upon further investigation turns out not be an actual fire. False calls are generated due to the
activation or malfunction of a fire alarm system or by malicious intent that is initiating an alarm
knowing there is no fire. Service calls include miscellaneous calls for assistance by the public or other
agency. Other calls are those that do not fit into any of these other categories. These could include a
variety of call types such a weather related, hazardous materials, and other low frequency calls.
Tracking of these calls by each call type would be unproductive due to the small numbers of each.
Should they need to be analyzed it is possible due to their unique NFIRS coding but are grouped
together for this analysis.
Figure 21: Six-year Historical Service Demand by Type of Call, 2011–2016
The preceding figure show wide fluctuations of the types of calls from year to year. This is generally not
the case, but rather there are a few types growing or shrinking slightly each year. The following figure
shows the change in total service demand over the six-year period which also demonstrates a similar
up-and-down trend.
0
50
100
150
200
250
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Rescue EMS
Good Intent & False Alarms
Fires
Service Calls
Other
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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Figure 22: Six-Year Service Demand Totals, 2011–2016
While the year-to-year changes over a six-year period are not consistently increasing, the overall trend
is increasing. Years 2011 and 2016 are high with all the middle years lower. The difference between the
lowest year to highest year is 43 percent. This might be explained due to the transitory nature of the
primarily tourist population. This trend may correlate with the number of visitors to Central City each
year. The next figure shows the top three call types and the trends over the six-year period.
Figure 23: Trends of Top Three Call Types
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
0
50
100
150
200
250
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016
Rescue EMS Good Intent & False Alarms Fires
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While EMS fluctuates greatly over the six years the growth is generally increasing. Fire calls are
relatively steady over the same time. The level of good intent and false calls is the most concerning and
perhaps demands the closest scrutiny by the department. As pointed out previously, this category is
actually two types combined. Good intent calls are when a person reports what they believe is fire but
upon further investigation turns out not to be an actual fire. Typically, the number of good intent calls
reported are very small. False calls are generated due to the activation or malfunction of a fire alarm
system or by malicious intent, i.e. initiating an alarm knowing there is no fire. Alarm systems can be
activated by smoke or heat rise without a fire being the source. This is a proper response to conditions
that would be created by a fire. Alarm systems can also be activated due to a malfunction of the
system. The percentage of false alarms in a year is higher than is found even larger urban areas. ESCI
recommends that these calls be studied and reported to the city manager. It would be valuable to know
if these calls are coming from a few systems and if they are due to system malfunction. If such is the
case, there is a need to assessed penalties on the property owner for each false call until the system is
repaired. This is done in many jurisdictions in order to achieve properly functioning alarm systems. To
have this many alarms is a stress on the fire department personnel to respond but also is an
inconvenience to the patrons of the establishment. Patrons that are frequently present and employees
will tend to develop a callused attitude towards the alarm. Human response to a real alarm will then not
be appropriate or effective.
KEY RECOMMENDATION:
▪ Good intent and false alarms calls be studied to determine cause and reported to the city
manager.
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Temporal Variation Evaluating service demand temporally is useful in identifying potential trends during certain period
where staffing can be modified to fit the demand more efficiently. The following figures illustrate the
results found with CCFD during the 2016 study period.
Figure 24: Service Demand by Day of the Week, 2016
The higher demand on the weekend days of Friday through Sunday is not surprising as Central City is a
destination area. An influx of population is expected to be higher on the weekend. The greater number
of people in the city will influence the daily call frequency.
The next figure illustrates the combined CCFD service demand by month for the study period.
Figure 25: Service Demand by Month, 2016
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
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The service demand rises during the summer months. There may be two reasons for this trend. One is
the increase in tourist traffic during the summer months and increase in vegetation fires. The former is
most likely the predominate cause. The change is not such that seasonal staffing would need to be
added during this time (difference between 4 percent in April and 11.8 percent in August) and there are
two winter months that are as busy as some summer months (December and February).
Figure 26: Service Demand by Hour of Day, 2016
The final temporal analysis examines workload (service demand) by hour of the day. The activity level is
greater typically between 11 AM and 10 PM. This is the time when folks are awake and active. Contrary
to what is typical for most jurisdictions, there is no normal rises during the “rush hours.” However, the
spike around 4 to 5 in the morning may represent an early morning commute for residents travelling to
other areas. If career firefighters were hired on a part-time basis, it would be good to have them during
the peak hours. This would also provide coverage for the volunteers who are out of the area during the
daytime.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Frequency
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Geographic Service Demand In addition to the temporal analysis, it is useful to examine the demand for services from a geographical
perspective. This can be beneficial in determining deployment strategies and planning for the potential
future expansion of services and resources.
Figure 27: CCFD Total Service Demand Density, 2016
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This incident density map demonstrates that the greatest number of calls for service result from the
center of the city and decrease towards the edges of the city.
The next image displays the same elements, but only for EMS incidents that occurred during 2016.
Figure 28: EMS Service Demand Density, 2016
The EMS responses follow the same high concentration in the core of Central City.
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Resource Distribution Analysis
ISO Criteria
There are two standards commonly used in the fire service to evaluate response distribution. The
Insurance Services Organization (ISO) is a national insurance industry organization that evaluates fire
protection for communities across the country. A jurisdiction’s ISO rating is an important factor when
considering fire station and apparatus distribution, since it can affect the cost of fire insurance for
individuals and businesses. To receive maximum credit for station and apparatus distribution, ISO
recommends that in urban areas, all “built upon” areas in a community be within 1.5 road miles of an
engine company. Additionally, ISO states that a structure must be within five miles of a fire station to
receive any fire protection rating for insurance purposes. The following figures examine current station
and apparatus distribution, based on credentialing criteria for the Insurance Services Organization
(ISO):
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Figure 29: Engine Distribution per ISO Criteria
This map shows the roads in violet that are reachable within the 1.5-mile travel criterion of Station 1. It
shows that nearly the entire town is within the 1.5-mile reach. The remaining section in the northwest is
within a 5-mile travel distance and will receive the department’s ISO 5 rating.
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Central City Fire Department Gap Analysis
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Figure 30: Aerial Apparatus Distribution, ISO Criteria
Central City does not have an aerial apparatus as recommended by ISO for at least a 5 rating—buildings
over three-stories or requiring 3,500 gallons per minute of fire flow. Since one is not available in Central
City, the closest unit available travel distance of 2.5 miles was shown. This unit would respond from
Black Hawk station. While it is possible due to insufficient staffing or the unit being out of service that
Black Hawk’s truck may not respond, it can provide coverage of nearly all of Central City and the
buildings requiring a truck response within the 2.5-mile reach.
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Travel Time Criteria
The second standard for resource distribution is using travel time criteria. This method is used by NFPA
standards and the Center for Public Safety Excellence accreditation of fire departments. The following
figure presents a travel time model from the current station locations over the existing road network.
Travel time is calculated by the computer software using the posted speed limits and adjusted for
negotiating turns, non-connected travel routes, and intersections.
The travel time model shows three areas of coverage for the time intervals of 7, 8, and 12 minutes.
These travel times correlate to NFPA 1720 response times of 9, 10, and 14 minutes (incorporating a one-
minute call processing and one-minute turnout time). Travel time is a component of the total response
time and will also be discussed more fully later in the report.
Figure 31: Study Area Travel Time Model
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Figure 31 shows the areas that can be reached within the three NFPA 1720 travel time criteria for urban,
suburban, and rural populations densities. These are determined by taking the response time minus a
minute for call processing and one minute for turnout time. This graphic shows the 7-minute travel time
covers all the areas of both the urban and suburban population densities (shown in Figure 9).
Response Performance Study Likely the most noticeable component of an emergency services delivery system is that of response
time performance. Policymakers and citizens want to know how quickly they can expect services in the
event of an emergency. In the following section, ESCI examines the various response performance
elements of CCFD operations.
Operational Performance Standards
Probably the most commonly accepted response time performance standards for fire-based EMS
systems are found in the recommended benchmarks developed by the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) or Center for Public Safety Excellence (CPSE), Commission on Fire Accreditation
International (CFAI). Other standards exist with organizations such as the Commission on Accreditation
of Ambulance Services (CAAS).
Response standards may be set by the jurisdiction based on local requirements or constraints. These
standards should be officially adopted by the governing body and be visible for all members of the
community. In lieu of a locally adopted standard, ESCI will apply the NFPA 1720 standard for CCFD.
NFPA 1720 is for only volunteer and combination departments (where there is less than 85 percent
career personnel).
Most communities contain areas with different population densities and property risk allowing the
community’s policy makers to specify different response performance objectives by geographic area.
The classifications identified by NFPA 1720 are as follows:7
Urban—A geographic area of over 1,000 people per square mile.
Suburban—A geographical area with between 500 and 1,000 people per square mile.
Rural—A geographical area with fewer than 500 people per square mile.
Remote—A geographical area that requires a travel distance of at least 8 miles from a fire station.
There are small areas of urban and suburban population densities in Central City as was discussed in the
Staffing section and shown on the map in Figure 9. The response time recommendations from NFPA
1720 are shown in the next figure.
7 NFPA 1720 Organization and Deployment of Fire Suppression, Emergency Medical Operations, and Special Operations to the Public by Volunteer Fire Departments.
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Figure 32: NFPA 1720 Response Time Recommendations
Demand Zone Response Time
(Minutes) Meets
Objective
Urban Area 9 90%
Suburban Area 10 80%
Rural Area 14 80%
Response Time Analysis
In most national standards, total response time (TRT) is defined and comprised of several components:
• Alarm Handling (or call processing) Time: The time interval between when a dispatcher answers
the 911 call and resources are dispatched.
• Turnout Time: The time between when a unit is dispatched and when the unit is en route.
• Travel Time: The amount of time the responding unit actually spends travelling to the incident.
• Total Response Time: The combination of Alarm Handling Time, Turnout Time, and Travel Time.
Some fire departments continue to use “average” response performance measures since the term is
commonly used and widely understood. The most important reason for not using average for
performance standards is that it may not be an accurate reflection of the entire dataset. The results can
be skewed by data outliers. Most progressive systems use the “fractile” method of analyzing response
performance. This method uses percentile measurements (usually the 80th or 90th percentile), and is a
better measure, since they show that the large majority of the data set has achieved a particular level of
performance.
Alarm-Handling Times
The alarm handling time is the interval from the receipt of the 911 call until the appropriate resources
have been identified and dispatched. Communication center operation is governed by NFPA 1221
standard.8 Alarm processing time specified by this standard is 64 seconds for 90 percent of all fire and
EMS calls (not requiring emergency medical dispatch questioning).
Turnout Times Turnout time is the interval between when the communications center notifies the station or personnel
that there is a call for service and the time the unit proceeds to the location of the call. It is an important
element of response time performance. Several factors can influence turnout time intervals: staffed
versus unstaffed stations; minimum staffing requirements before an apparatus can respond; station
design; and the donning of personal protective equipment prior to leaving the station. Turnout time is
one area of the overall response time that fire department personnel have some ability to control, given
proper facilities that allow for rapid and efficient movement of responders.
8 National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) NFPA 121 Standard for the Installation, Maintenance, and Use of the Emergency Services Communications Systems, 2016, Section 7.4.2.
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NFPA 1720 4.3.3 states, “Where staffed stations are provided… they shall have a turnout time of 90
seconds for fire and special operations, and 60 seconds for EMS, 90 percent of the time.” When there
are no staffed stations—as at CCFD—there is no specification for turnout time other than the overall
response time is maintained.
Volunteers responding from home or work tend to have longer turnout as they must travel to the fire
station to pick up a vehicle to respond. This increases the overall response time, whereas if the
volunteer is “on-duty” at the station this time is reduced. Assuming there are enough personnel to
respond at the station the vehicle can respond immediately.
Travel Time Travel time represents the interval between the time the apparatus or vehicle begins to respond and
arrival at the incident location. It is affected by the distance traveled to reach an emergency. Travel time
can also reflect delays due to heavy traffic, weather, road closures, and other circumstances. Short of
building additional fire stations, travel time performance is beyond the control of fire department
personnel.
This is the main criteria for station placement. The location should be in the area where travel time is
minimized to the greatest number of calls for service. Typically, this is closest to the highest population
density since that is the most likely area of call generation.
Total Response Time
The total response time is the sum of the individual time intervals discussed above. This is an analysis
based on the CCFD 2016 incident data. The following figure shows the frequency that the total
response time was completed within that minute interval.
Figure 33: Total Response Time Frequency
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The most frequent response time intervals occurred within 4, 7, and 11 minutes. These are for all
responses. The components of response time at the 80th and 90th percentile compared to average are as
follows:
Figure 34: Components of Total Response Time, 2016
Calculation Call Processing Turnout Time Travel Time Total Response
Time
Average 00:44 1:59 7:27 10:11
80th Percentile 1:01 2:45 11:20 14:14
90th Percentile 01:18 4:26 14:24 17:22
Observing the components of response time for three major call types is displayed in the following
chart.
Figure 35: Emergency Response Performance (90th Percentile) by Incident Type, 2016
It is interesting to note that turnout time and travel time is much shorter for fire calls. This makes the
overall response times for fires 8 minutes, 38 seconds compared to EMS calls at 16 minutes, 12 seconds.
Turnout times are nearly two minutes longer—at 2 minutes, 48 seconds for fire and 4 minutes, 39
seconds for EMS calls—but still does not fully explain the amount of difference in the overall response
times. The turnout time difference may be some hesitancy in response thinking there may be others
that will cover the call. Fire calls generally demand higher levels of staffing than EMS calls. There is
therefore a tendency for immediate response from all volunteers. Travel times are longer for EMS as
well which cannot be explained unless the small number of fire calls were at locations generally closer to
the station than were the EMS calls.
Another look at the response times for those within the cities’ boundaries is shown in the following
figure:
00:00
02:53
05:46
08:38
11:31
14:24
17:17
20:10
23:02
Call Processing Time Turnout Time Travel Time Response Time
EMS Fire Other
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Figure 36 Response Time Performance in City Compared to Outside City
City/Rural Count Percent of Emergency
Incidents Total Response Time
80th Percentile Total Response Time
90th Percentile
City 323 86.8% 13:20 16:45
Outside City 49 13.2% 19:15
22:45
It is important to remember that the 2016 data reflects responses to the area outside of the City for an
entire year. Responses into the areas outside of the City ceased in June of 2017. End of year 2017
statistics will probably show an even greater percentage of fire calls within the city boundaries.
Response Reliability Study In this section, ESCI has analyzed CCFD workload. This data can reveal much about response
performance and a department’s ability to assemble adequate resources to mitigate simultaneous
incidents. Although fire stations, and apparatus may be distributed in a manner to provide a quick
response, that level of performance can only be obtained when apparatus are available in their primary
service areas. Examining the data for 2016 it appeared that concurrent calls is relatively low. However,
since the available staffing is low during portions of the day this could be a significant issue on those
few situations of simultaneous calls.
Figure 37: Concurrent Incidents, 2016 Number of Incidents Percentage of Incidents
Single Incident 421 95.5%
Concurrent Incidents 20 4.5%
About Unit Hour Utilization
Unit hour utilization (UHU) is a calculation that measures productivity. Essentially, UHU measures the
percentage of on-duty time consumed by emergency operations. UHU is one of the most widely used
and often misunderstood performance measurement metrics. A unit-hour (UH) is defined as one hour
of service by a fully equipped unit available for dispatch or assigned to a call. A 24-hour unit consumes
8,760 hours annually.
Some fire departments consider higher utilization rates as having a negative impact on personnel, and
contributing to personnel “burnout.” The UHU value is not the only measure of service demand, but
does provide one perspective on the workload of the various individual apparatus and medic units.
Unit Hour Utilization
The total unit hour utilization for CCFD was analyzed and found to be 4 percent or 347 hours in a year’s
time. This is not a level of activity that would be significant to career but may be difficult for a small
group of volunteers to build into their daily lives.
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FUTURE STATION LOCATION ANALYSIS
It was previously noted in this report the importance of having a station that was large enough to house
the apparatus and provide space for shift volunteers to occupy the station while waiting for an
emergency response. It is important to consider building the station in the most optimum location for
rapid response to the most calls for service. Having the most optimum location would be the ideal,
however, there are many factors that require a location that is less than optimum. Nevertheless, ESCI
looked for a good location for emergency response.
Central City should consider adding training capabilities to a new station which would allow the
firefighters to continue to get training while at the station. This keeps the crew centrally located and
still ready to provide a quick response.
ESCI was given three potential locations under consideration for a new station. These are Alternative A
located in the 400 Block of Lawrence Street (station likely to be positioned between Lawrence and
Gregory), Alternative B that is at 400 Eureka Street, and Alternative C that is at 1851 Virginia Canyon. In
the next three figures, each option was evaluated by displaying the limits of a four-minute travel time.
A range up to four-minute travel time is used to define the area of quickest response. Four minutes is
also the recommended response travel time in NFPA 1710 for urban areas. This is not a requirement of
NFPA 1720 but it will better help the reader to visualize the difference between the various locations.
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Figure 38: Travel Time Coverage Station Site Alternative A
Alternative location A can respond to the core of Central City within a four-minute travel. It covers most
of the eastern end of the city.
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Figure 39: Travel Time Station Site Alternative B
Alternative location B covers a greater area out of the core area of the city. It does not reach the eastern
or southern edge of the city within the four-minute travel time.
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Figure 40: Travel Time Station Site Alternative C
Alternative location C does not cover much of the city core with a four-minute response. The southern
portion of the city and outside of the city is covered very well. This location covers more area outside
the city than inside of the city. This would not give the greatest benefit for the cost of building a station.
Of the three station location options, Alternative A has the best coverage of the city’s urban and
business core. Alternative B would be the next best location, and Alternative C is the least desirable
station location from a service delivery point of view.
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RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations listed in this section are those made earlier in the report. Some of the general
recommendations are presented here with multiple options. While ESCI can offer some suggestions
about improving the service, it is the fire chief with city manager and ultimately the council who have
the responsibility to make the choices that best fit the city’s present situation and needs.
The recommendations revolve around the following functions:
• Increasing staffing for emergency responses;
• Station needs for housing apparatus and for crews; and
• Apparatus replacement funding.
Staffing The ability to create an effective response force is marginal for even a light hazard risk within the urban
areas of the city. The city has considerably more risk from large businesses that could suffer losses from
a fire as well as the city losses from public perception of lack of safety or business interruption. Just to
have sufficient personnel to make a rapid search of the multistory building on a fire alarm is difficult
with available personnel. The options that follow are not all that could be done. Multiple combinations
of Option A and B could be conceived as well.
Option A
Hire three firefighters per shift. This would require the hiring a total of ten to cover vacations and other
leave time. These ten individuals would require some benefits as are offered to other city employees.
The volunteers need to be retained and increased in number to respond to calls that require additional
staffing.
Advantages: This option provides a small crew that can handle many of the minor responses that are
routine including medical and most fire alarms which is most responses. This crew can be
supplemented by the fire chief and some shift volunteers. Resident volunteers would not have to
respond or wonder if they need to respond. This will not eliminate the need for a more robust volunteer
crew. During hiring, emphasis should be placed on having a firefighter or an officer on each shift that
can be responsible to train the volunteers assigned. Shift volunteers would be assigned to one of the
three shifts with the officer responsible to mentor and train them, including scheduling and tracking on-
duty shift time. Management is more streamlined by having employees on defined shifts.
Disadvantages: Cost of full-time employees both in salaries and benefits. Also, a fire station with living
quarters is needed.
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Option B
Recruit more shift volunteers or part-time reserves. Volunteers “volunteer” their time for the fire
department. Under IRS rules they can be compensated a de minimis amount to cover expenses such as
travel for calls and training, purchases of personal equipment, etc. Reserve firefighters are part-time
employees who work an occasional block of time. They are compensated at least minimum wage and
do not usually receive benefits. Other than the method of compensation, or lack thereof, the two
function similarly in practice.
The firefighter works a defined number of hours per week or month. As discussed earlier, the
motivations of the two groups are different, shift volunteers usually are young men and women looking
for a career positions as firefighters in the future. They volunteer for the education and experience they
can gain to give them an advantage on their resumes and in testing processes. Reserves are usually
wanting to make some additional money. These may be off-duty career firefighters from another
jurisdiction who work this as a second job to earn extra wages. This observation should not be taken as
diminishing their dedication as most love the job and would rather be working as a firefighter as doing
anything else on their days off.
The total number of shifts to be covered is 168 hours per week divided by the number of hours required
per shift. Usually this is 24-hour or 12-hour blocks of time. If each volunteer is committed to 24 hours
per month this would require 30 volunteers/reserves to cover the 720 hours per month. If each
volunteer/reserve was required to serve 48 hours/month it would take 15. This number is to have one
firefighter on duty around the clock. To have a crew of three would require triple the amount.
Advantages: May cost less. There are caveats to this statement that must be considered. Shift
volunteers stay until a career position has been obtained. This affects the length of commitment by the
individual. The costs for volunteer training and protective equipment may offset the value received if
the firefighter is not with the department long enough. Also, a more experienced career or volunteer
needs to be leading the shift to give the training and mentoring required by non-experienced recruits
for their safety and for the education they desire. Career firefighters working off-duty do not require as
much training but still require uniforms and protective clothing.
Disadvantages: There must be something that draws shift volunteers to work at CCFD versus the many
other agencies competing for the same individuals. Central City is not a busy system where these young
people can gain a great deal of experience. It would probably need to have a robust training program to
draw them. This would require a fair amount of hands-on training which needs to be accomplished
somewhere at a training facility or built into the station. Further there will be a cost for less experienced
folks that need to have an officer on the shift to keep them safe and to help them make good choices as
they learn. Finally, there needs to be a fire station with living quarters and possibly with training props
built in.
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New Station Options A and B both require a fire station that is large enough to house the frontline apparatus and
personnel (whether career or volunteer/reserve). This station should be close to the urban and suburban
population densities which is the downtown business district. All the reasons for needing a new larger
station have be addressed elsewhere in this report.
Apparatus As pointed out in the Apparatus Replacement Funding section this report, the fleet is aged and no
specific replacement fund has been established to replace the apparatus. Most of the fleet is beyond
the industry standards for replacement. There is no defined age and each apparatus should be judged
on its condition and cost of ownership. There is a need to start an apparatus replacement fund and to
evaluate the cost of maintaining the fleet.
Consolidation There is another alternative that affects all of the preceding recommendations and ESCI would be less
than credible if it was not mentioned in this report. That alternative is to consolidate with a neighboring
fire department. A feasibility study on the possibility of consolidation or merger with any other agency
was outside of the scope of this study so this alternative is offered based on potential advantages, not
verified ones. Before strong consideration is given to this alternative it must be determined if either
potential neighboring department would consider the possibility and some study should be undertaken
to identify the specific advantages and disadvantages of that course of action.
It seems that a merger with Black Hawk Fire Department would make the most sense in that the
downtown area of Central City is within a reasonable travel distance from the existing station. This may
negate the need for building a new fire station. Whatever negotiated cost for the merger could add
funding giving the ability for this department to increase staffing would also help the City of Black
Hawk as well. The CCFD volunteers could serve the new organization increasing the overall effective
response force. There may be a lowering of the ISO classification for Central City as well. Consolidation
with Timberline is also a possibility but would likely require a station in the Central City area to maintain
good response times to the urban and suburban areas of Central City. Also, the current ISO
classification is higher than Central City.
Details on costs or form of governance have not been addressed and would be part of a feasibility study
should this be considered.
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CONCLUSION
ESCI was asked to identify the gaps in fire protection coverage between what exists at Central City Fire
Department and what are industry standards; and to suggest solutions to those gaps. The study was
limited to the operational response aspects of the department as these were considered to be most
important at this juncture. This report is a summary of the findings. The Central City Fire Department
operates well with its limitations. The city has a very small permanent population but a large daily influx
due to tourism. The city is protected by a small group of volunteers who respond to the needs of a city
which has greater service demand than what is normal for a city of its size.
This study is timely for Central City to undertake prior to determining the future direction of the fire
department. The CCFD has lost some of the area it responded to for many years and with that its
largest station on the very edge of the city. The current main station is limited in its ability to hold the
number or size of apparatus needed to respond routinely. Additionally, the staffing is at the low end for
having an effective response force. The structures are larger and more complex than what you would
find in a comparable-sized city in the region or even nationally.
This report reveals gaps and offers recommendations for solutions. Like most great transformations,
the changes will not be easy nor inexpensive to implement. ESCI sincerely hopes that the
recommended solutions have laid a foundation for the future of the Central City Fire Department.
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APPENDIX A: TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Study Area ................................................................................................................................ 4
Figure 2: Calls for Service, 2016 ............................................................................................................... 5
Figure 3: Incidents per 1000 Population Comparison ............................................................................... 5
Figure 4: Fires per 1000 Population Comparison ..................................................................................... 6
Figure 5: Cost per Capita Comparison ..................................................................................................... 6
Figure 6: Organizational Chart ................................................................................................................ 7
Figure 7: Sample of Critical Task Staffing by Risk .................................................................................... 9
Figure 8: NFPA 1720 Response Staffing and Time by Demand Zone ..................................................... 10
Figure 9: Demand Zones Based on Population Densities ...................................................................... 11
Figure 10: Automatic or Mutual Aid Stations ......................................................................................... 13
Figure 11: Black Hawk Mutual or Automatic Aid Travel Time ................................................................ 14
Figure 12: Timberline Mutual or Automatic Aid Travel Time ................................................................. 15
Figure 13: Emergency Response Staffing .............................................................................................. 16
Figure 14: Central City Fire Station 1 ..................................................................................................... 18
Figure 15: Central City Fire Station 2 ..................................................................................................... 19
Figure 16: Comparison of Stations and Apparatus ................................................................................ 20
Figure 17: Apparatus Inventory ............................................................................................................. 21
Figure 18: Economic Theory of Vehicle Replacement ............................................................................ 23
Figure 19: Vehicle Replacement Cost .................................................................................................... 24
Figure 20: Vehicle Replacement Chart .................................................................................................. 24
Figure 21: Six-year Historical Service Demand by Type of Call, 2011–2016 ............................................ 25
Figure 22: Six-Year Service Demand Totals, 2011–2016 ........................................................................ 26
Figure 23: Trends of Top Three Call Types ............................................................................................. 26
Figure 24: Service Demand by Day of the Week, 2016 .......................................................................... 28
Figure 25: Service Demand by Month, 2016 .......................................................................................... 28
Figure 26: Service Demand by Hour of Day, 2016 ................................................................................. 29
Figure 27: CCFD Total Service Demand Density, 2016 ........................................................................... 30
Figure 28: EMS Service Demand Density, 2016 ..................................................................................... 31
Figure 29: Engine Distribution per ISO Criteria...................................................................................... 33
Figure 30: Aerial Apparatus Distribution, ISO Criteria ........................................................................... 34
Figure 31: Study Area Travel Time Model .............................................................................................. 35
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Figure 32: NFPA 1720 Response Time Recommendations ..................................................................... 37
Figure 33: Total Response Time Frequency ........................................................................................... 38
Figure 34: Components of Total Response Time, 2016 .......................................................................... 39
Figure 35: Emergency Response Performance (90th Percentile) by Incident Type, 2016 ........................ 39
Figure 36 Response Time Performance in City Compared to Outside City ............................................ 40
Figure 37: Concurrent Incidents, 2016 ................................................................................................... 40
Figure 38: Travel Time Coverage Station Site Alternative A .................................................................. 42
Figure 39: Travel Time Station Site Alternative B .................................................................................. 43
Figure 40: Travel Time Station Site Alternative C .................................................................................. 44