Portuguese Explorer and NavigatorVasco da Gama was the first European to reach Calicut, by the sea route on May

20, 1498. He had to face the hostility of Muslim merchants at Calicut. He returnedwith the message that sword was a must for the Eastern trade. In 1500, Portugueseunder Cabral attacked Zamorin. When news of his failure reached Portugal, Vasco daGama was sent in 1502, to avenge the act. After arriving in Calicut, Vasco da Gamasubdued the inhabitants and forced the ruler to make peace. In 1509, Alfonso d'Albuquerque came to India as the Portuguese Governor. He captured Goa from YusufAdil Khan of Bijapur in 1510 and developed it as Portuguese capital in India and usedit for expanding their trading interests. For about the first two centuries afterEuropeans arrived in India, their activities were restricted to trade and evangelism,their presence protected by naval forces. During the early Mughal period, Europeantraders were confined to trading posts along the coast. In the 16th century thePortuguese navy controlled the sea lanes of the Indian Ocean, protecting the traderssettled in Goa, Daman, and Diu on the Western Coast.

English East India CompanyIt was established on 31st December 1600 in Britain with objective to trade with

India. It was a joint stock enterprise. Gradually the company grew in size andbenefited from Indian trade. English were allowed to set up a permanent factory atSurat in 1613 by the Mughal Emperor Jahangir. An English factory had already comeup at Masulipatam on the Eastern Coast in 1611. Keeping in view the profit earnedthrough Indian trade, King James I of England sent his ambassador Sir Thomas Roe, tothe court of Jahangir in 1615, who requested for permission on behalf of the Companyto open company's factories in India. Subsequently they were allowed to openfactories at several places on the West Coast and Surat became the centre of theEnglish trading activities. Later Fort St. George was constructed at Madras in 1639.The factory was opened at Bangalore in 1642. The company got Bombay in 1668 fromCharles II, the King of England, who had received it from Portugal after marrying thePortuguese Princess Catherine Braganza in 1661 as part of the dowry gift. Similarly, in 1651, a factory at Hoogly and later several factories in Calcutta and Kasimbazar wereestablished. In 1702, the nomenclature of the East India Company was changed to

Coming of Europeans

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Chapter 1 Coming of Europeans·

'United Company of Merchants of England Trading in the East Indies'. However, incommon parlance it came to be known as the East India Company. The East IndiaCompany expanded its trade in India and procured privileges and concessions byestablishing good relations with the local kings and Nawabs. For instance by a circular (firman) issued by Farrukhsiyar in 1717, it obtained several concessions.

From Trading Company to a Political PowerThe English East India Company had remained a commercial body for one and a

half centuries. However, the mid-18th century saw the transformation of the EnglishEast India Company from a trading enterprise to a political power. The decline ofMughal authority obviously provided a great opportunity for expansion of influence.It was mainly the commercial rivalry between the British and the Bengal Nawabs,which largely decided the course of events in the 1750s. The personal failure of anyNawab was not an important decisive factor for this development, as some historianshave tried to establish. However, the degeneration in the administration that startedin the 18th century provided opportunity to the British to play an important role in the politics. Soon it hijacked and took over the political control of Bengal. Collapse of theindependent Bengal polity was ensured by the British during the period from 1757 to1765. The beginning of the empire is usually traced to 1757 when the British defeatedthe Bengal Nawab at Plassey. The company's need for more revenue from taxationinclined it towards establishing an empire in India. The company needed money tomaintain its trade and pay its troops therefore, acquisition of territory seemed the bestmethod of meeting these requirements. The company's interest in conquering Bengalwas two-fold Protection of its trade and Control over Bengal's revenue.

The intention of the Company to remit the surplus revenue of Bengal as tributethrough the channel of investment in Bengal goods, brought about certain changes inthe nature of functioning of the Company. The changing economic condition inEurope and India like advent of industrial revolution and weakening of politicalauthority respectively provided the Company the opportunity to transform itself. Infact the transformation became necessary and could not be procrastinated for long.

Other Trading CompaniesDutch East India Company was founded in 1602. Their activities in India were

centered primarily on the Southern and Eastern Coasts and in the Bengal region.However they gave more attention to the spice trade with Indonesia and South EastAsia and shifted their focus to that region.

Danish East India Company arrived in India in 1616 to gain a share of the EastIndia trade. Its principal Indian possessions being Tranquebar in Tamil Nadu andSerampore in Bengal. It enjoyed great prosperity in India until the advance of Britishpower there in the late 18th century.

French East India Company was established in 1664. The company founded itsfirst trading post at Surat in 1675. The following year it set up its principal Indian base at Pondicherry, on the Coromandel Coast. The company prospered in India undergovernorship of Dumas and Dupleix. However due to weak fundamentals, inadequatesupport from home etc. they were tamed and vanquish in India by their superioropponent in India ie English East India Company.

Relation between the European CompaniesThe European companies in India were competing with each other. Therefore the

relationship they enjoyed amongst themselves was far from being cordial. Moreover,it was highly influenced by the events in Europe. For instance the Dutch displaced the

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Chapter 1 Coming of Europeans·

Portuguese as masters of the seas around India in the 17th century. It supplanted thePortuguese in most of present-day Indonesia and in the Malay Peninsula etc. Duringthis period it was also successful in driving English rivals from the MalayArchipelago. In 1632, the Dutch killed the English factors, or agents, in Amboina.After the massacre the English East India Company conceded to the Dutch the areathat became known as the Netherlands East Indies. Its armed merchantmen, however, continued sea warfare with Dutch, French, and Portuguese competitors.

Similarly Dupleix directed the unsuccessful French struggles against the Britishto ensure control over India. But the capture of Arcot in 1751 by the British underRobert Clive limited French control to Southern India, where it remained supremeuntil 1761, when the British captured Pondicherry.

The victories of Robert Clive at Plassey in 1757 made the company the dominantpower in India. All formidable European rivalry vanished with the defeat of theFrench at Pondicherry in 1761. As a consequence of the destruction of Danish navalpower in the war between Britain and Denmark in 1801, the power of the Danishcompany was broken. Its principal Indian possessions, Tranquebar in Tamil Naduand Serampore in Bengal, were purchased by Britain in 1845.

The struggle for supremacy for trade in India was finally settled with theestablishment of British rule in India, whose foundation was laid after dealingdecisively with all the challenges that arose due to stiff resistance from native rulersand the traditional competitors from Europe.

Impact of the European Settlement on IndiaInitially during sixteenth and seventeenth centuries the settlement of European

companies in India resulted into interaction between people associated with differentsocio-economic, political, cultural and religious paradigm. Therefore it was butnatural that settlement of Europeans in India influenced the socio-economic andreligious life of the people falling under the area of their influence. For instance wefind that the general understanding about different cultures became more apparentand it evolved due to interaction between the people from different countries. Indiaalso witnessed advent of new art, architecture and culture during the period.

During the early period of settlement of European companies in India andestablishment of trade links between India and Europe proved highly beneficial forIndia. As a result of these contacts European markets were thrown open to Indiangoods. India made huge profits through export of Indian goods to Europe. Wealthbegan to flow from Europe to India which greatly contributed to the prosperity of thecountry. However, in later period the nature of the European companies in Indiawitnessed change and their sphere of influence increased. In fact they started toinfluence the balance of power in the sub-continent. In order to benefit from theeastern trade most of the companies involved themselves in activities that were notethical and moral by any standard. They drove wedge amongst the native rulers anddid not shy away in prodding, provoking and instigating them to fight amongstthemselves. Moreover the loyalty of the European companies was towards theirinterest and it fluctuated and changed according to their interest. It would not be anexaggeration to say that European companies added to the level of hatred and feudamongst the Indian elements. They had an added advantage of disciplined and wellorganized modern army equipped with advanced weaponry. In fact they used theirmilitary strength in India to acquire political concessions and powers during theperiod. This had immense impact on the military system of India. The Indian rulersadopted the new system and employed many Europeans in their army.

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By the last quarter of the 18th century the English had vanquished all others andestablished themselves as the dominant power in India. Once the British hadconsolidated their power, commercial exploitation of the natural resources and native labour became ruthless. The period of economic exploitation adversely affectedIndian culture and social life. The prevalent Mughal administrative, legal, revenueand military structures were dismantled and a long period of unhappiness, povertyand exploitation began. In fact it lead to drain of wealth from India to England andadded to poverty and overall backwardness of India.

Anglo-French Conflicts in India and their OutcomeOwing to the unstable political situation in India during mid-18th century the

rivalry between the European companies left two important rivals in India in the formof English and the French East India Companies. Their rivalry in India did not remainconfined only to trade but it assumed political overtones as well. Madras andPondicherry were the chief trading centres for the English and French respectively onthe Coromandel Coast. The relations between both the companies were tense. TheCarnatic region was totally disturbed politically. It was but natural for English andFrench to support different groups/parties in the region and take opposite stand onvarious issues.

The Anglo-French struggle in India began in the coastal areas north and south ofMadras then known as the Carnatic. The Anglo-French rivalry unfolded in the form ofthree Carnatic Wars between 1740 and 1763 in Southern India.

First Carnatic WarThe First Carnatic War (1746-48) was largely an extension of Anglo-French

rivalries in Europe and America. In Europe, the Austrian war of succession broke outin 1740. France and Britain wanted to place their candidate on the Austrian throne.Moreover, in the wake of the declining Mughal authority in India both English andFrench East India Companies wanted to have control over the Indian trade. Thistechnically gave rise to conflict and pushed the two companies in the state of war inIndia. In the course of the First Carnatic War the French besieged Madras both by seaand land. A large British army was sent from England under Rear AdmiralBoscawen in June 1748 to avenge the capture of Madras. But by October the Warof Austrian Succession had been concluded and under the treaty ofAix-La-Chapelle and termination of hostilities in Europe, the war in India came to anend. Madras was restored to British and there was an exchange of each other'sprisoners and territories.

Second Carnatic WarThe Second Carnatic War (1749-54) broke out due to conflicting ambitions

between the two powers who supported rival claimants to the disputed thrones ofHyderabad and Carnatic. The French sided with Muzaffar Jang and Chanda Sahibwhile the English supported the claims of Nasir Jang and Anwar-ud-Din. Thecombined forces of Muzaffar Jang, Chanda Sahib and the French defeated and killedAnwar-ud-Din at the battle of Ambur near Vellore in 1749. The Carnatic came underthe control of Chanda Sahib who rewarded the French with a grant of 80 villagesaround Pondicherry. French were also successful in Hyderabad. Nasir Jang was killedand Muzaffar Jang became the Viceroy or Nizam of the Deccan. When Muzaffar Jangwas accidentally killed in 1751, the French placed Salamat Jang on the throne who inreturn gave the area known as the Northern Sarkars to the French. The French powerin South India was now at its height.

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To offset French influence, the British allied with Nasir Jang and Muhammad Ali(Anwar-ud-Din's son). In order to help Muhammad Ali, who was besieged by Frenchforces at Trichinapalli, Robert Clive attacked Arcot, the capital of Carnatic. Thiscompelled the French to raise the siege of Trichinappalli and led to their defeat.Chanda Sahib was soon captured and killed. The French fortunes were at the lowestebb and French Government initiated peace negotiations. By the Treaty ofPondicherry the hostilities ended for a while. The English and the French decided notto the quarrels for the native princes and took possession of the territories, which were actually occupied by them before the war.

Third Carnatic WarThe Third Carnatic War (1758-63) which broke out after the Seven Years War

started (1756) in Europe. In the beginning of the war, the British acquired Bengalwhich turned the scales decisively in favour of the British. The final blow was dealt in1760 when the British General Sir Eyre Coote defeated the French army in the Battleof Wandiwash and took Bussy as prisoner. By the 1763, Treaty of Paris, though theFrench factories were restored, they could not be fortified or even garrisoned withtroops. They could only serve as centres of trade. The battle of Wandiwash endedalmost a century old conflict between British and the French and finally establishedthe supremacy of the English in India.

Battle of Plassey

BackgroundThe weak central authority and rivalry between the regional kingdoms during

18th century provided the Europeans the opportunity to play important role in Indianpolitics. The political condition in Bengal, presented to the East India Company anopportunity for political interference.

Death of Nawab Alivardi Khan of Bengal in 1756 led to a power struggle betweenthree contenders. The succession of Siraj-ud-Daulah was opposed by his aunt GhasitiBegum and his cousin Shaukat Jang who was the governor of Purnea. There was adominant group in the Nawab's court comprising Jagat Seth, Umichand, Raj Ballabh,Mir Jafar and other who were also opposed to Siraj.

Besides internal dissension within the Nawab's court, another serious threat toNawab's position was the growing commercial activities of the English Company. Theconflict between the Nawab and the English Company over trade privileges wasnothing new. But during Siraj-ud-Daulah's reign certain other factors further strainedthe relations between the two. This included fortification around Calcutta by theEnglish Company without the permission of the Nawab, the misuse of the Company'strade privilege by its officials for their private trade.

The English Company at Calcutta had given shelter to Krishna Das son of RajBallabh who had fled with immense treasures, against the Nawab's will.

The Company officials suspected that the Nawab would cut down the privilege ofthe Company in alliance with the French in Bengal.

The issue of fortification of the Fort William at Calcutta without the Nawab'spermission worsened the relationship between the Nawab and the Company. TheNawab saw this as sheer disobedience and moved in person against the English.

On 20th June 1756, Siraj attacked and took over Fort William. He destroyed thefortification and left Calcutta in the hands of his officers. Many of the Englishprisoners, who were imprisoned during this attack died in a small room often referredto as the Black Hole tragedy.

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Meanwhile the English waited for the reinforcement from Madras.

The troops from Madras led by Robert Clive and Admiral Watson retook Calcuttaon 2nd January, 1757. The treaty of Alinagar was signed between the Nawab and theCompany.

Clive's troops captured the French settlement of Chandernagore.

Clive tempted Siraj's general Mir Jafar to ally with him in exchange for theNawab's position.

OutcomeOn 23rd June, 1757, the Company troops marched against Siraj. Betrayed by his

own men Siraj was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, which is said to have lasted only a few hours, causing limited causalities on both the sides.

The Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated, captured and executed athis capital Murshidabad.

It provided the British with immense political power in India and established theindirect British rule in India.

Victory of the English in the Battle of Plassey was significant not only for theCompany but was important for the whole of British Empire. The conquest of Bengalinstilled in them a kind of greed for the unfathomed wealth of Bengal and itssubsequent plunder.

Siraj-ud-Daulah was replaced by Mir Jafar as Nawab of Bengal. The new Nawabwas a stooge of the Company and had no independent power or existence.

The English also registered territorial and commercial gains in post Plasseyperiod. They got the territory of twenty-four Paraganas in Bengal from the newNawab. This made the settlement of Calcutta more prosperous. Their trade alsoreceived impetus. The trade and privilege so far enjoyed by them not only increasedbut also became more secure.

The English Company utilized this opportunity and dispatched their agents tore-establish subordinate trading factories in the interior parts of Bengal, Bihar andOrissa.

Moreover, the Battle of Plassey enhanced the overall prestige of the Company. Itplaced them at a very advantageous position. They had now at their disposalresources that could be used in struggle against the French both within (in theCarnatic Wars) and without India (in Europe).They were no more dependent on thesupply of resources from Britain which in turn helped the home country inchannelising its resources against the French power in Europe and America.

The Battle of Plassey, therefore, was a turning point in the history not only ofBengal but in the history of the whole of India. It paved the way for the establishmentof the British supremacy in India. It has been rightly remarked that ‘‘the Battle ofPlassey marked the end of one epoch and the beginning of a new one’’. It in factheralded the modern period of Indian history.

Battle of Buxar

BackgroundStrong and commanding position of English East India Company in Bengal was

the most significant outcome of the Battle of Plassey.

The English were not satisfied with Mir Jafar and replaced him by his son-in-lawMir Kasim. The latter rewarded British with land as well as money.

Kasim was comparatively more able, efficient and strong ruler. He tried to remove corruption from revenue administration and to raise a modern and disciplined army

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along European lines. In order to weaken the influence and interference of theCompany on day-to-day affairs of his court and to assert his power and position heshifted his capital to Munger in Bihar. This further displeased the British.

There was rise of differences between the Nawab and the English over variousissues. The new Nawab was determined to free himself from foreign control and infact soon emerged as a threat to their positions in Bengal. Nawab's attempts to checkthe misuse of the dastaks which deprived the Nawab of an important source ofrevenue added fuel to the fire.

Conflict broke out when Mir Kasim abolished all the duties on internal trade so asto provide a level playing ground to all the traders in his province. Since abolition ofduties automatically checked the use of dastak ,which otherwise allowed the Britishto trade without paying taxes/duties in the province of Bengal, the increase in the level of tension between the Nawab and the British was nothing unusual. This led to use offorce by both the parties. The Nawab was defeated in a series of battles in 1763 andfled to Awadh.

OutcomeMir Kasim formed a confederacy with Shuja-ud-Dualah, the Nawab of Awadh

and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam in a final bid to oust the English from Bengal.

The combined armies of the three powers numbering between 40,000 to 60,000met an English army of 7,072 troops under Major Hector Munro at the battlefield ofBuxar on 22 October, 1764. The English won the day.

The Battle of Buxar was a battle in strictest terms and is therefore, rightlyconsidered as the most decisive battles of Indian history. The Battle of Buxar was aclosely contested battle in which the losses of the English numbered 847 killed andwounded, while on the side of the Indian powers more than 2,000 officers andsoldiers were killed.

The battle demonstrated the superiority of English arms over the combined armyof two of the major Indian powers.

Buxar confirmed the decisions of Plassey. As a result of this triumph, in 1765,Robert Clive signed two treaties at Allahabad popularly known as Treaty of Allahabadwith the Mughal emperor and Nawab of Awadh respectively.

The treaty effectively legalized the British East India Company's control over thewhole of Bengal since Shah Alam II gave the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa to theBritish. They also managed to get the right of Nizamat from Mir Jaffar, there-nominated Nawab of Bengal. In fact the Battle of Buxar firmly established theBritish as masters of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and placed Awadh at their mercy. NowEnglish power in Northern India became unchallengeable.

Third Battle of PanipatThe expansion of the Maratha power in northern India brought them into direct

conflict with Ahmad Shah Abdali, the Afghan ruler who staked claim over Punjab.The two sides finally met in January 1761 at the famous Battle of Panipat. The risingtensions between the Afghans and the Marathas had its genesis in the invasions ofNadir Shah in 1739 and its outcome. Ahmad Shah Abdali who ascended the throneafter the murder of Nadir Shah was tempted to invade India keeping in view, thesuccess of the latter. Unlike Nadir Shah, Ahmad Shah Abdali focused on acquiringterritories in India and managed to occupy Qandhar, Ghazni, Kabul and Peshawar.His political ambition brought him in direct conflict with Marathas who were at thezenith of their power and were trying to expand their territories relentlessly with theobjective to establish a great Maratha Empire covering the entire Northern India.

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Reasons for the Defeat of MarathasDisaster at Panipat was net outcome of poor military organization, lack of

coordination, over-confidence of Maratha leaders, absence of allies, poor utilizationof available resources, the blunders committed by Maratha leaders, superioradversary etc.

1. Lack of Maratha sympathizers The Marathas who were expanding rapidly in North India confronted and ill-treated many local Rajput rulers of Rajasthan andNorthern India. In fact Marathas hardly had any friend or sympathizer or ally whenthey were planning to meet the Afghans at Panipat. For instance Sadashiv Rao Bhaufailed in his diplomacy and did not get support from any Rajput ruler. He even lost thesupport of Suraj Mal, the Jat ruler of Bharatpur who had once agreed to support him.

2. Military weaknesses and failure The Maratha fighting force consisted ofonly 45,000 soldiers while Abadali had 60,000 soldiers with him. Marathas had alarge number of women and slaves at their camp which were a liability to them inbattle. They failed to maintain their line of communication and did not get supplies.When the Marathas were in short supply of everything, they were forced to fight onJanuary 14, 1761. In fact they fought the battle when they did not have sufficientfood to eat and no proper fodder for their horses for the last two months. Thegeographical distance of Panipat from Deccan, the home of the Marathas acted as animpediment as far as replenishment of men and supply of material is concerned. ThePeshwa failed to keep contact with Bhau and send him the required reinforcementand supplies. The situation further worsened in absence of any North Indian friend orally of Maratha.

3. Failures of the Maratha leadership Bhau failed as a military strategist andlost three months at Panipat facing Abdali. The choice of location for camping ofMaratha troops and lack of coordination between Maratha Generals were alsoimportant factors for their defeat at Panipat.

4. Superior adversary Abdali and his soldiers were definitely superior inarms, organization and fighting tactics. The superior military skills, planning andstrategy adopted by the Afghans under the extraordinary generalship of Abdalidecided the fate of the battle.

OutcomeThe Marathas faced a very serious defeat at Panipat. They lost their best leaders.

Bhau and Vishwas Rao alongwith many others who lost their lives in the battle.Peshwa Balaji Rao could not tolerate the shock of the defeat of Panipat and died onJune 23, 1761.

The debacle at Panipat reduced the power and prestige of the Peshwa. Thisultimately, resulted in the disruption of the unity of the Marathas and led to thecreation of the confederacy of the rival Maratha chiefs.

The Marathas lost their hold on the politics of the North and took time to recoverfrom the reverses of this battle which made way for the capture of Bengal and Mysoreby the English and Haidar Ali respectively.

Apart from the Marathas the battle exercised tremendous influence on thefortunes the Mughal Empire which further weakened both politically as well aseconomically. Moreover, the prestige of the Mughal ruler further dwindled. Abdaliannexed Punjab and Sindh to his dominions. Before his departure he recognised Shah Alam as the Emperor, Imad as the Wazir and Najib-ud-Daulah as the Mir Bakshi. AfterAbdali's departure, Najib-ud-Daulah held authority at Delhi and denied Shah Alamthe right of admission into the capital.

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Rajputs and Jats became completely independent and the provincial governorsbecame more defiant and disrespectful.

Therefore, it is generally accepted that third Battle of Panipat was a turning pointin the history of India in general and that of the Marathas in particular. Though theMaratha power was not destroyed by this battle, it was weakened permanently.

Conflict between the English and the Marathas 1. Marathas were the most formidable power in India during the 18th century

and had the strength to acquire a central political position in the country.Therefore, the conflict between the Marathas and the British was just amatter of time.

2. Meanwhile, the rout of Marathas in third Battle of Panipat (1761) andsubsequent developments like the death of Peshwa Narayan Rao, weakenedthe Maratha power.

3. In fact the period witnessed intense power struggle between the supportersof the infant Peshwa Madha Rao II led by Nana Phadnavis and RaghunathRao (uncle of Narayan Rao). Raghunath Rao solicited English help and almost invited British to interfere in the power struggle.

4. The British officials in Bombay decided to intervene on behalf of RaghunathRao.

5. The Bombay Council signed the Treaty of Surat with Raghunath Raowhereby in return for their help they acquired Bassein, Salsette and a sum of1.5 lakh rupees to maintain a subsidiary force. This involved them in a longwar against the Marathas, popularly known as First Anglo-Maratha War(1775 to 1782).

6. Meanwhile, the Calcutta Council did not approve of the Treaty of Surat andsigned the Treaty of Purandar in March 1776 with Nana Phadnavis by whichMadhav Rao II was accepted as the new Peshwa.

7. In fact, neither the Company agreed to the Treaty of Purandar nor did theMarathas endorse it and the war continued.

8. A British force sent by Bombay Government heading towards the WesternGhats suffered a defeat and signed the humiliating Convention of Wadgaonin 1779 by which the Company was required to give up all the advantagesacquired by the Treaty of Purandar.

9. Later in May 1782 the Treaty of Salbai was signed between Warren Hastingsand Mahadji Scindia whereby Salsette and Bassein were given to the British.Raghunath Rao was pensioned off and Madhav Rao II was accepted as thePeshwa.

10. The treaty gave the Company twenty years of peace in the North. The Britishused this interval to conquer Mysore. However, the Marathas spent the timequarrelling among themselves. The Treaty established the British influencein Maratha politics.

11. The stage for next phase of Anglo-Maratha conflict was set after the death ofMadhav Rao II in 1795. Baji Rao II became the new Peshwa. Meanwhile in1798 Lord Wellesley expanded the dragnet of his subsidiary alliances but theMarathas tried to keep away from this alliance. In 1800, immediately after the death of Nana Phadnavis the inefficiency of Baji Rao II began to surface.

12. The mutual conflicts amongst the Marathas gained momentum and a civilwar like situation arose amongst the Maratha confederates.

13. In 1802, Holkar fought against the combined forces of Peshwa and Scindia.Dismayed, the new Peshwa Baji Rao II fled to British protection and sought

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their assistance. He signed the subsidiary treaty at Bassein in 1802, cedingterritory for the maintenance of a subsidiary force, and agreeing to treat withno other power. He was re-installed at Poona by the English, withoutopposition, on 13 May, 1803.

14. Later the British forces won a series of victories over the members ofMarathas confederacy. Both Sindhia and Bhonsle concluded subsidiaryalliances with the company, apart from surrendering some territories. ThePeshwa himself became a puppet of the British Raj. In the final stages,Wellesley turned against Holkar. The army of Holkar proved to be powerfuland the British armies were brought to a stand still. The Raja of Bharatpur,a rally of Holkar frustrated the attempts of Lord Lake to capture his fort. Onceagain Scindia was itching to fight the British.

15. The Company made peace with Holkar in 1806 and gave back most of histerritories. As a result of the Second Anglo-Maratha War Scindia and Bhonsle became subsidiary allies of the Company. The British gained control over theOrissa Coast and the territories between the Ganga and Yamuna. Indeed,Wellesley's ambition was not completed, but the Company definitely became the paramount power of India.

16. There was a pause of eight years before the next phase of conflict betweenBritish and Marathas started in India.

17. The Peshwa took the lead in uniting the chiefs, but the Marathas would notevolve a good strategy. They made a last desperate attempt to regain theirindependence in 1817 and the lead in this was taken by the Peshwa. Heattacked Poona, the Nagpur chief attacked Nagpur, and Holkar madepreparations for war.

18. Lord Hastings retaliated very quickly. He forced Scindia to accept Britishsupremacy and defeated the three armies of the Peshwa, Bhonsle and Holkar.The Peshwa was deposed and pensioned off and sent to Bithur near Kanpur.All his territories were annexed. Holkar and Bhonsle accepted subsidiaryforces; All the Maratha chiefs gave away some of their territories to theCompany. A small kingdom was given to a descendant of Chatrapati Shivajiwho was nothing but a puppet in the hands of British.

19. From 1818 the British were free to reach out for the natural frontiers for theirempire in India.

Reasons for the Victory of British There were several reasons for the defeat of the Marathas in the Anglo-Maratha

Wars some of them being:

1. Lack of capable leadership The beginning of the 19th century lackedcapable leadership. Peshwa was reduced to a nominal entity. The ability of the otherMaratha chiefs was also not better.

The main reason was the lack of capable leadership like of Shivaji and the firstthree Peshwas had provided to the Marathas. Indeed there were other dynamic andgreat leaders like Mahadji Scindia, Madhav Rao Peshwa, Rani Ahalyabai Holkar,Tukoji Holkar and Nana Phadnavis.

2. Military reasons The military weakness of the Marathas was alsoresponsible for their defeat. The English army was trained on the European patternand was armed with modern arms and ammunitions. The British artillery and navyalso proved to be decisive. The abandonment of the policy of guerrilla warfare byMarathas also proved fatal because it weakened the striking capacity. In fact guerrillawarfare suited the geographical conditions of the Western Ghats and was the basis forinitial success of the traditional Marathas .

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3. Rivalry between Maratha chiefs Maratha confederacy started acting asrivals and there was a continuous power struggle amongst them. This led to rise ofmutual bitterness and jealousy amongst them and any chance of cooperation amongstthem became a distant dream. They fought against each other over petty issues.Moreover, the Maratha Confederacy was a loosely knit confederation and for thefulfilment of their objectives they resorted to mutual conspiracies. This element ofenmity amongst the Marathas increased especially after the Third Battle of Panipat.

4. Economic reasons The Maratha economic structure and administrationlacked a sound system of economy. They did not have any set provision for the propercollection of Chauth and Sardeshmukhi and therefore the income of the State varied.It in fact depended on the efficiency of the ruler. No doubt, such a defective systemaffected the vitals of their state. Their economic system relied heavily on the use offorce rather than on any definite policy. There was hardly any reliable source thatcould be used in the moment of crises and an overall absence of contingency fundmade things all the more worse.

5. Other reasons There were certain mistakes committed by the Marathas forinstance, initially by taking the assistance of the Pindaris who always had intentionsto loot and plunder after the end of the battle/war they relied on unreliable lot.Moreover, the Pindaris were not even steadfastly loyal to their own leaders. Theycould easily ditch their allegiance to another band for money.

The Marathas failed to leave any positive impact on the vanquished, since theywere usually cruel to the people of the conquered territory. The latter generallypreferred to view them as villains rather than as heroes. In fact they failed to win theconfidence of any such people by undertaking public welfare activities etc. Theapproach of the Marathas towards other contemporary rulers did not leave sufficientscope for any kind of cordial relations with other Princes and Nawabs of India.

Furthermore, the Marathas failed to estimate correctly the political anddiplomatic strength and potential of the British and ignored their early achievementsin Eastern and Northern India. Above all they failed to seize the opportunity to strikeat the enemy when they were involved in struggle, conflict and war with other powersin India and Europe.

Anglo-Mysore WarsThe second half of the 18th century was a period of great confusion in Indian

history, which witnessed the rise of a colonial power. The only state that offered stiffresistance to their expansion was Mysore, which fought not one but four wars. Themilitary confrontations between the British and the rulers of Mysore are popularlyknown as Anglo-Mysore wars. Apart from the struggle on the battlefield which ofcourse required military skills and strategies, the outcome of these wars were alsoinfluenced by the political permutations and combinations during the period.Moreover, the period witnessed new groups and allies who came together for shortterm gain without realizing the far reaching ill effects and impact on the overallpolitical condition of India.

The first two wars involved Haider Ali who was not just an efficient militarycommander but a man known for diplomatic and tactful skills. It was the growingpower of Haider Ali in the south that made British suspicious about the intentions ofruler of Mysore. The primary objective of the English was to check the rising influence of Mysore in South India and consolidate its position in the region.

First Anglo-Mysore War (1767- 69)In 1766 the British, the Marathas, and the Nizam of Hyderabad entered into a

triple alliance against Haider. The British attacked Mysore simultaneously from

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Bombay and Madras in 1767 and thus started the First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69).British acquired South-Eastern Mysore. However, Haider soon bought off theMarathas. The Nizam abandoned the war in 1768, leaving the British to face HaiderAli alone. The latter attacked Arcot and reached the outskirts of Madras. He dictatedpeace on the basis of the status quo. The English also agreed to help Haider Ali againstany third party invasion in future.

Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84)The British did not honour their promise when the Marathas invaded territories

under the control of Haider Ali, in 1771. Offended by this, Haider Ali decided tostrengthen his army with the help of French and European soldiers and joined in aconfederacy with the Nizam and the Marathas against the British, who had furtherprovoked him by capturing the French settlement of Mahé, which was within Hyder'sterritories. In 1780, he warred on the Carnatic, and destroyed a British detachment of2,800 men, and seized Arcot. The British then succeeded in detaching the Nizam andthe Marathas from Haider and defeated him three times successively in 1781 at thebattles of Porto Novo, Pollilur, and Sholinghur.

In 1782, Haider Ali inflicted a severe defeat on the English compelling them toflee Madras. But he died shortly afterwards and the war was carried on by his son,Tipu Sultan. Since neither side was capable of overpowering the other, the war cameto an end with the signing of the Treaty of Mangalore. Under this treaty both sidesrestored all conquests and promised to release each other's prisoners of war.

Third Anglo-Mysore War [1790-92]Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92) was an extension of the earlier inconclusive

wars. Governor-General Lord Cornwallis dropped Tipu's name from the list of theCompany's ‘friends’. Meanwhile Tipu Sultan acquired Travancore in 1790, theEnglish extended help to the Raja of Travancore and attacked Mysore. In this conflict,Coorg, Cochin and Malabar sided with the British. The war came to an end by thetreaty of Seringapattanam. Under the terms of the treaty, Tipu had to pay a warindemnity of over three crore rupees and send his two sons as hostages to the English.He also ceded half of his territories to the English.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore War [1799]Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) was an outcome of tense relation of British and

French in Europe. Apprehensive of the increasing political activities of Tipu Sultanand the designs of the French in India, the British asked Tipu Sultan to sign thesubsidiary alliance. His refusal led to war and the British supported by the Nizam ofHyderabad and the Marathas attacked Mysore from three sides. Tipu died whiledefending his capital, Seringapattam. Nearly half of Tipu's dominions were dividedbetween the British and their ally, the Nizam. The reduced Kingdom of Mysore wasrestored to the descendants of the original Wodeyer Dynasty and he was forced to signthe subsidiary alliance. Mysore was thus made a complete dependency of theCompany.

Anglo-Sikh Relations (Including Wars)The friendship between the British and the Sikh could be traced back to 1809

when the two sides signed treaty of Amritsar popularly known as treaty of friendship.The friendship continued even after the death of Ranjit Singh (1839) but the ambitionof the British to expand its frontiers led to deterioration of the relation between twopowers.

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The death of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, was followed by political instabilityin Punjab. Selfish and corrupt leaders came to power. The disorder that prevailed atLahore provided the British a good opportunity to play important role in the province.Lord Auckland and Lord Ellenborough were keen to acquire Punjab.

However, things had to wait till the news of rapid march of the Governor-Generaltowards the frontier in November 1845 and the report of Sir Charles Napier's speechin the Delhi Gazette saying that the British were going to war with the Sikhs reachedLahore and filled it with rumours of invasion.

By now the power in the province actually fell into the hands of the patriotic butundisciplined army popularly known as army Panchayats. The emergence of a newcentre of power that had now assumed the role of the Khalsa perturbed the Britishauthority termed it as ‘‘unholy alliance between the republican army and the Darbar.’’Undoubtedly the Sikh army had witnessed transformation and was ready for anystruggle that may take place to fulfil the hidden agenda of the British policy ofexpansion through annexation.

The rising suspension and tension between British and the Sikh led to thecollapse of diplomatic relations between two powers. Meanwhile, the Sikh armybegan to cross the Sutlej on 11th December, 1845 to forestall the movement of theBritish army. The crossing of the Sutlej by Sikhs was made a pretext by the British foropening hostilities and on 13th December Governor-General Lord Hardinge issued aproclamation announcing war on the Sikhs. Lahore was captured and a treaty withMaharaja (the Treaty of Lahore) was signed on 9 March,1846. According to the treatythe territories lying to the south of the river Sutlej i.e. Jalandhar Doab weresurrendered to the Company. The Sikhs committed to pay 1.5 crore rupees to theCompany as war indemnity. The vanquished were to reduce their army to 20,000infantry and 12,000 cavalry, hand over all the guns used in the war and relinquishcontrol of both banks of the Sutlej to the British. The Darbar/Court was unable to paythe full war indemnity. 50 lakh rupees were paid in cash and the remaining amountwas adjusted by ceding territories between the Beas and the Indus. A furthercondition was added two days later on 11th March according to which the posting of a British unit in Lahore till the end of the year on payment of expenses was added.

According to the peace settlement of March 1846, at the end of First Anglo-Sikhwar, the British force in Lahore was to be withdrawn at the end of the year, but aseverer treaty was imposed on the Sikhs before the expiry of that date. TheGovernor-General had his Agent persuade the Lahore Darbar to request the British forthe continuance of the troops in Lahore. According to the treaty, which wasconsequently signed at Bharoval on 16th December, 1846, Henry Lawrence wasappointed Resident with ‘‘full authority to direct and control all matters in everydepartment of the State.’’

Treaties were used as an instrument through which British got time to cripple theSikh kingdom and wait for its natural death. The time for the final blow arrived soonafter the coming of the new Governor-General. The first issue which caught theattention of Lord Dalhousie on his arrival in India in January 1848, was Punjab.

When Mulraj, Governor of Multan revolted against the Company, Lord Dalhousiegot a chance to interfere in the affairs of Punjab. The English raised its demand fromMulraj and imposed certain restrictions on him and asked him to abide by certainconditions. Mulraj refused to pay the amount of money demanded by the Companyand resigned from Governorship in 1847. In March 1848, the British appointed KahanSingh as the new Governor of Multan. However, the people of Multan revolted againstthe decision and the manner in which the change of governor took place. Soon severerevolt against the Company took the whole of Punjab in its grip.

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Lord Dalhousie decided to suppress the revolt of the Sikhs and used it as pretextfor the annexation of the Punjab in the British Empire. On 16th November, 1848, theEnglish army crossed the river Ravi and made a fierce attack on the Sikhs. There wereencounters at Ram Nagar, Chillianwala and Gujarat. The battle at Gujarat under thecommand of Sir Charles Napier was decisive. The English caused huge losses to therebel Khalsa forces. On 29 March, 1849, Lord Dalhousie claimed the annexation ofPunjab with the British Empire.

Annexation of Punjab was of amount importance for the English border of theBritish Dominion reached the last limit of the North-West. For the annexation ofPunjab, Lord Dalhousie was severely criticised. It was called morally and legallyunjustifiable. It was blatant breach of trust. Therefore, ‘‘Annexation of Punjab was notan annexation but a treachery.’’

Allowance Amount given to officials in addition to salary.

Black Hole tradegy According to a contemporary British account, the nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah attacked Fort William of theEnglish East India Company in Calcutta on June 20,1756 and imprisoned 146 British officials into airlessdungeon, measuring about 4.6 × 5.5 m (about 15 × 18 ft) at the fort . Next morning only 23 were alive. This hasbeen termed as Black Hole tradegy Indian scholars doubt the varacity of the incident

Dastak Passes given to the East India Company by dint of firman issued by Mughal Emperor in 1717, to enable them totrade in Bengal without paying custom duties.

Diwani The right to collect revenue.

Doctrine of Lapse The policy introduced by Lord Dalhousie whereby anyprotected state (a state which had signed the SubsidiaryAlliance) whose ruler died without a natural heir or anlegal heir approved by the Company would be annexedby the British.

Dual Government The form of government introduced by Robert Clive inBengal whereby Bengal was governed by twoindependent authorities —The Nawab and Nizamat:The police, judicial and administrative powers weregiven to the British , by the Nawab of Bengal after theBattle of Buxar.

Dupleix, Joseph François French leader in India during the Anglo-French conflicts of the 18th century. He was Governor-General of Frenchpossessions in India from 1742 to 1754. He tried toestablish French hegemony over southern India byintervening in the quarrels of native kingdoms, but wassuccessfully opposed by the British under Robert Clive.

Indemnity Qterally it means compensation for damages. In ourcontext it refers to the damages claimed by the East India Company from a country defeated In war.

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Important Terminology

Marathas confederacy The five big chiefs- the Peshwa at Poona, the Gaikwad atBaroda, the Scindia at Gwalior, the Holkar at Indore, and th Bhonsle at Nagpur-were together formed Marathasconfederacy

Nawab Governor of a semi-autonomous province during thetime of the Mughal empire.

Nizam Title of the hereditary ruler of Hyderabad.

Pindaris They were militias of Rajputana and the CentralProvinces regions. They served the Maratha armywithout any payment but instead were allowed toplunder. The origin of Pindaris is lost in obscurity. Theydid not belong to any particular caste or creed. It is worth mentioning here that they never helped the British. LordHastings wanted to suppress the Pindaris and defeat theMarathas therefore, he himself took command of theforce from the north to suppress them and succeeded indoing so.

Robert Clive British governor of Bengal, who was one of the foundersof British rule in India. Displaying conspicuous militaryability, Clive distinguished himself as one of the greatestBritish Empire builders. He was governor of Fort SaintDavid in 1756 when Siraj-ud-Daulah captured Calcuttafrom the British. In January of the following year, Cliverecaptured Calcutta, and made peace with the Nawab .On June 23, 1757, he defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah at Plassey.Seven Years' War- worldwide series of conflicts foughtfrom 1756 to 1763 for the control of Germany and forsupremacy in colonial North America and India. Itinvolved most of the major powers of Europe. The Indian phase is known as the Third Carnatic War. It finallyestablished British domination in India.

Subsidiary AllianceSystem

A system of alliances introduced by Lord Wellesly toincrease British influence in the Indian states withoutactually annexing them. Such states virtually lost theright to self defence of maintaining diplomatic relations,of employing foreign experts and of settling disputeswith their neighbours.

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (signed on October18, 1748)

It ended the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48). It restored Madras occupied by French to the British.

Vasco da Gama Portuguese explorer and navigator, who was the firstEuropean to reach India by the sea route.He sailed fromLisbon on July 9, 1497 and rounded the Cape of GoodHope to reach Calicut on May 20, 1498. He returned toPortugal in 1499. He was given the title of admiral ofIndia. Da Gama reached India in 1524 on his thirdassingment, however, he died in Cochin only threemonths after his arrival.

Zamorin The Hindu king of Calicut.

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Points to RememberImportant Wars/ Battles

• First Carnatic War - (1746-48) mentiined on p. 4

• Second Carnatic War-1749-54

• Third CarnaticWar - 1758-63

• Battle of Plassey : 1757

• Battle of Buxar - 1764

• First Anglo-Mysore War : 1767-69

• Second Anglo-Mysore War -1780-84

• Third Anglo-Mysore War : 1790-92

• Fourth Anglo-Mysore War : 1799

• First Anglo-Maratha War : 1775-1782

• Second Anglo-Maratha War : 1803-05

• Third Anglo-Maratha War : 1817-18

• First Anglo-Sikh War - 1843-46

• Second Anglo-Sikh War : 1848-49

• First Afghan War - 1839-42

• Second Afghan War 1878-80

• First Burmese War : 1824-26

• Second Burmese War : 1852

• Third Burmese War : 1885 Lord dufferin

• Anglo-Nepalese War : (1814-16)

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(2 Markers/20 Words)Question 1. Write about the overall condition of India while Lord

Wellesley was appointed Governor-General of Bengal.

Answer Lord Wellesley was appointed Governor-General of Bengal in 1797 at a time when the position of the East India Company was precarious. The hostility of theMarathas and Nawab of Awadh was a matter of concern, at the same time increasingproximity of the rulers of Mysore and Hyderabad with France did not augur well forthe British rule.

Question 2. Mention the policies adopted by Lord Wellesley.

Answer Lord Wellesley, Governor-General of Bengal, favoured a policy ofactive intervention. He adopted three methods to expand British power namely thesystem of 'Subsidiary Alliances', war and the assumption of the territories ofpreviously subordinated rulers.

Question 3. Define the term ‘Dastak’.

Answer The passes given to the East India Company by dint of Circular(firman) issued by Mughal Emperor, Farrukhsiyar in 1717, to enable them to trade inBengal without paying custom duties is known as ‘Dastak’.

Question 4. What are Diwani rights?

Answer The right to collect revenues, especially the land revenue by the Statewas known as Diwani Rights.

Question 5. What do you know about Doctrine of Lapse?

Answer The policy whereby any protected state (a state which had signed theSubsidiary Alliance) whose ruler died without a natural heir or an legal heir approvedby the Company would be annexed by the British was known as Doctrine of Lapse. Itwas ruthlessly used by Lord Dalhousie.

Question 6. Define Dual Government vis-à-vis Bengal during 18th century.

Answer The form of government introduced by Robert Clive in Bengalwhereby, Bengal was governed by two independent authorities : The Nawab andNizamat. The police, judicial and administrative powers were given to the British , bythe Nawab of Bengal after the Battle of Buxar has been termed as Dual Government.

Question 7. What do you know about Marathas Confederacy?

Answer The five big chiefs, the Peshwa at Poona, the Gaikwad at Baroda, theScindia at Gwalior, the Holkar at Indore, and the Bhonsle at Nagpur; were togetherformed in Marathas Confederacy.

Question 8. Define Subsidiary Alliance System ?

Answer Subsidiary Alliance was a system of alliances introduced by LordWellesley to increase British influence in the Indian states without actually annexingthem. Such states virtually lost the right to self-defence of maintaining diplomaticrelations of employing foreign experts and of settling disputes with their neighbours.

Question 9. What do you understand by Black Hole tradegy

Answer According to a contemporary British account, the Nawab of Bengal,Siraj-ud-Daulah attacked Fort William of the English East India Company in Calcutta

Question-Answer

on June 20, 1756 and imprisoned 146 British officials into airless dungeon, measuring about 4.6 × 5.5 m (about 15 × 18 ft) at the fort. Next morning only 23 were alive. Thishas been termed as Black Hole tragedy. Indian scholars doubt the veracity of theincident .

Question 10. Who was Dupleix ?

Answer Joseph François Dupleix was Governor-General of French possessionsin India from 1742 to 1754. He tried to establish French hegemony over SouthernIndia by intervening in the quarrels of native kingdoms, but was successfully opposed by the British under Robert Clive.

Question 11. What do you know about Robert Clive?

Answer Robert Clive was British governor of Bengal. He was one of thefounders of British rule in India. Displaying conspicuous military ability, Clivedistinguished himself as one of the greatest British Empire builders. He was governorof Fort Saint David in 1756 when Siraj-ud-Daulah captured Calcutta from the British.In January of the following year, Clive recaptured Calcutta, and made peace with theNawab. On June 23, 1757, he defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah at Plassey.

Question 12. How was Seven Years' War connected to India?

Answer Seven Years’ War was the worldwide series of conflicts fought from1756 to 1763 for the control of Germany and for supremacy in colonial North Americaand India. It involved most of the major powers of Europe. The Indian phase is knownas the Third Carnatic War. It finally established British domination in India.

Question 13. Write about the important contents of Treaty ofAix-la-Chapelle related to India.

Answer Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (signed on October 18, 1748) ended the warof the Austrian Succession (1740-48). It restored Madras occupied by French to theBritish.

Question 14. What do you know about Vasco da Gama?

Answer Vasco da Gama was a Portuguese explorer and navigator. He was thefirst European to reach India by the sea route. He sailed from Lisbon on July 9, 1497and rounded the Cape of Good Hope to reach Calicut on May 20, 1498. He returned toPortugal in 1499. He was given the title of admiral of India. Gama reached India in1524 on his third assingment, however, he died in Cochin only three months after hisarrival.

(5 Markers/50-75 Words)Question 15. Write a short note on Treaty of Amritsar.

Answer Treaty of Amritsar or treaty of friendship was signed on April 25, 1809between Charles T. Metcalfe, representing the British East India Company, andMaharaja Ranjit Singh, head of the Sikh kingdom of Punjab. It settled Indo-Sikhrelation for a generation. The immediate occasion was the French threat toNorth-Western India, following Napoleon's Treaty of Tilsit with Russia (1807) andRanjit's attempt to bring the Cis-Sutlej states under his control. The British wanted adefensive treaty against the French and control of Punjab to the Sutlej river. Althoughthis was not a defensive treaty, it fixed the frontier with Sikh broadly along the line ofthe Sutlej river. They therefore decided not to cross swords with each other.

Question 16. Is it correct to call the Battle of Plassey as the first revolution?

Answer The immediate outcome of the Battle of Plassey was pre-decided andan outcome of conspiracy. It was just a formality through which the so called victors(conspirators) wanted to justify their act and establish their authority in Bengal. They

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termed the change of power as first revolution but it may rightly be termed as firstmajor betrayal in the modern Indian history. The victory was not the result of militarysuperiority but it easily paved the path for foundation of the British rule in India.

Question 17. Control over Bengal was an asset for political consolidationof British in India. Comment.

Answer English became the masters of India and managed to conquer andcontrol the vast territory in the sub-continent because they had at their disposal thevast resources at Bengal which was first to fall under their political control. Fromthere, they were able to defeat the French, the Marathas, and Haider Ali and his son,Tipu Sultan. Moreover, the establishment of British control over Bengal made itpossible for the English to conquer Northern India. It played a decisive role inenabling the British to defeat Nawab Mir Qasim, Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah and theMughal Emperor Shah Alam at the Battle of Buxar in 1764.

The Battle of Plassey, therefore, was a turning point in the history not only ofBengal but in the history of the whole of India. It paved the way for the establishmentof the British supremacy in India. It has been rightly remarked that ‘‘the Battle ofPlassey marked the end of one epoch and the beginning of a new one.’’ It in factheralded the modern period of Indian history.

(15 Markers/150-200 Words)Question 18. Discuss about the important characteristics of Early

European Settlements in India.

Answer The Early European Settlements were utilitarian in nature. Keeping inview their socio-religious, economic needs and cultural background the settlersplanned the settlements in India and modified the settlement pattern of India.However, the local style and technique was not altogether ignored. The importantcharacteristics of the early European settlement are given below :

Port facility was prerequisite as the Europeans vigorously traded in goods.

A walled fort was built near the port as structure of defence. This fort not onlyserved as a military outpost but also served as the nucleus of the colonial exchange,for example, the fort also collected trading goods that included raw materials/ finished goods etc. The area was exclusively meant for Europeans.

An open space (Maidan)-Around the fort an open space was left vacant for a fieldof fire and for other security reasons.

Offices-administrative quarters were developed adjacent to the fort.

Spacious bungalow’s/ houses, planned streets, trees on both sides, streets, clubsfor recreation, churches and gardens, graveyards were planned.

Beyond the open space (Maidan) a settlement for native people-'native/ Blacktown' was developed.

Between the ‘‘native town' and’’ European town' the Anglo-Indians were settled.

Question 19. Write a short note on the Treaty of Salbai (1782).

Answer The Treaty of Salbai was signed between the Marathas and the Britishin 1782 ending the first Anglo-Maratha war. British were quick to realise the fact thatCarnatic model could not be replicated in Maharashtra with ease and may prove to becounter productive. The treaty clearly demonstrated the Maratha strength and itspotential and acted as a deterrent for any intervention of the British in Marathapolitics at least for the time being.

The treaty provided for mutual restitution of territories. The English had to giveback many captured territories including Bassein to the Marathas. They also gave upthe cause of Raghunath Rao and to recognise Madhav Rao Narayan as the Peshwa. All

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this was done by the Calcutta Council of East India Company with the objective ofbuying time for the British. It is therefore rightly said that Treaty of Salbai (1782) wasneither honourable nor advantageous to them.

The provisions of the treaty were not favourable to the immediate interests ofBritish. However in long run it proved vital since it gave the Company much neededpeace with Marathas for almost two decades, the time in which the British tamedother regional powers like Mysore.

Question 20. ‘‘Treaty of Mangalore was an important document in thehistory of India’’. Comment.

Answer Treaty of Mangalore concluded the Second Anglo-Mysore War. It wassigned on 11th March 1784, between Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore and the Britishat Mangalore. It is considered as one of the most important document in the history ofIndia. It was the last occasion when an Indian power dictated terms to the English,who were made to play the role of humble supplicants for peace. Warren Hastingscalled it a humiliating pacification, and appealed to the king and parliament to punish the Madras government for ‘‘the faith and honour of the British nation have beenequally violated’’.

Tipu honourably concluded a long-drawn war by the treaty and frustrated theMaratha designs to seize his northern possessions. The march of the commissionersall the way from Madras to Mangalore seeking peace had great psychologicaladvantage, since it exposed the British to unforeseen indignities. The treaty was abright spot in Tipu's contest with the English.

However, the treaty of Mangalore carried the seeds of strife with the Marathas,because of the latter's inability to recover area north of Mysore. Moreover, theenhanced prestige of Tipu excited the jealousy of the Marathas and the Nizam andthrew them into the arms of British. The triple alliance finally proved fatal to Mysore.

Question 21. Discuss the methods adopted by Lord Wellesley to expandBritish Rule in India.

Answer Lord Wellesley was appointed Governor-General of India in 1797. Hefavoured of a policy of active intervention. He adopted three methods to expandBritish power namely the system of 'Subsidiary Alliances', war and the assumption ofthe territories of previously subordinated rulers. In fact the Nizam of Hyderabad andthe Nawab of Awadh were forced to sign the Subsidiary Alliance.

The ruler of Mysore, was defeated and subsequently half of its dominions weredivided between the British and their ally, the Nizam. The reduced kingdom ofMysore was restored to the descendants of the original Wodeyar dynasty who signedthe subsidiary alliance.

The Marathas were vanquished and subdued during the Second Maratha War(1803-05). Scindia and Bhonsle were made subsidiary allies of the Company. TheBritish gained control over the Orissa Coast and the territories between the Ganga andYamuna. The regions of Tanjore, Surat, and the Carnatic were made subsidiary to theBritish Government.

Therefore, Wellesley engineered policies that firmly safeguarded the interest ofEngland in India. He relentlessly worked to reduce India into a militarily dependentState.

Question 22.‘‘The Treaty of Bassein, by its direct and indirect operations,gave the Company the Empire of India.’’ Comment.

Answer The struggle amongst the members of the Maratha confederacyreached climax during the reign of the new Peshwa, Baji Rao II when Holkar’s rebelled and defeated the combined armies of Scindias and the Peshwa’s at Poona.

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Subsequently the helpless Peshwa took refuge in Bassein and sought Britishassistance and signed the subsidiary treaty on December 31, 1802.

The Treaty of Bassein provided British an opportunity to further push theirpolitical ambition and interest in India. As per the terms of the treaty the Peshwaagreed to receive from the company a regular army to be stationed in his territories. Inreturn Peshwa had to surrender territories yielding 26 lakhs of rupees apart fromsurrendering Surat, the most flourishing commercial centre for maritime trade of theperiod. The Peshwa also agreed to accept the company's arbitration in all thedifferences between him and other powers. Further he agreed neither to commencenor to pursue in future any negotiations with any power without giving previousnotice and consultation with the East India Company. Thus, the Treaty of Basseinestablished paramount British influence at Poona.

Thus, the Treaty of Bassein strengthened the British militarily and gave them alawful right to interfere in Peshwa's authority. It was an important landmark in thehistory of British supremacy in India. This led to expansion of the sway and influenceof the East India Company over the Indian subcontinent.

Question 23. ‘‘ The Battle of San Thome fought by the French against anative ruler was a turning point in the thinking of the Europeans.’’ Comment.

Answer During First Carnatic War the Nawab of Carnatic Anwar-ud-Dinordered the European Companies to desist from commencing hostilities within histerritories so that the peace of the country was not disturbed. Dupleix had, however,pacified the Nawab by promising him to surrender Madras after its capture. However,after reduction of Madras in 1746 Dupleix showed no signs of keeping his promise.Now the Nawab asked for British protection of his territories but could not get it.

The Nawab sent an army of 10,000 Indian soldiers under Mahfut Khan to enforcehis demand. However a small French army consisting of 230 Europeans and 700Indian soldiers under Capt. Paradise defeated the Nawab's army at San Thome.

The Battle of San Thome was a turning point in the thinking of the Europeans. Itamply demonstrated the superiority of disciplined and organized European troopsagainst the loose Indian troops. The battle revealed for the first time that a smallcontingent of western trained forces could easily defeat a very large native army. Itadded to the prestige of European army and placed French in advantageous position to check the rising British power in India. Moreover, in the long run, such tactics wereadopted by the British as they expanded their territories.

Question 24. Write a short note on the Carnatic Wars and theirsignificances.

Answer Anglo-French conflicts in India during the 18th century have beenpopularly termed as Carnatic Wars. It was the war of the Austrian succession thatinduced the First Carnatic War. Dupleix, captured Madras, but it was returned to theBritish by the peace treaty. The war demonstrated the superiority of Europeantechnology and discipline over larger native armies.

The Second Carnatic War was fought when there was peace between the twopowers in Europe. Dupleix wanted to exploit the confused political condition inSouth India and entered into a series of alliances with native rulers so as to enhanceFrench power and prestige. However, this was checked by Robert Clive who defeatedthe French-backed claimant to the throne of the Carnatic. Meanwhile Dupleix wasrecalled to France in 1754 and the second phase of Anglo-French struggle in Indiaended.

The Third Carnatic War started when the Seven Years' war broke out in Europe in1756. This time the war passed beyond the limits of South India. The Englishcaptured the French possession of Chandernagore in 1757. The most decisive battle of

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the war was fought at Wandiwash. Pondicherry fell into British hands in 1761. Thewar ended in 1763 with the Peace of Paris, and so too ended the French pursuit ofempire in India.

Question 25. Discuss the causes of British success in India during the 18thcentury vis-à-vis French.

Answer There were various reasons for the final success of British in Indiaspecially the victory over French. The naval superiority of the British and adequatesupport from their home government was a major cause of their success. The Englishcontrolled the sea route to India which facilitated their swift movement to and fromIndia. There was minimum interference of the British Government in the affairs of theCompany. In contrast to this the French East India Company was heavily dependenton the French government for grants, subsidies and loans. Moreover the FrenchGovernment was decadent, bound by traditions, corrupt and inefficient. It lacked thevision of creating an empire in India and focused more on America. It failed to supplyadequate resources to the Company and did not meet the timely demands of theFrench troops fighting in India.

After conquest of Bengal the financial position of the British East India Companystrengthened. Other areas like Bombay and Madras controlled by the British proved to be extremely useful not only for trade purposes but also from the strategic point ofview. The French on the other hand, only had small settlements like Pondicherry,Mahe and Chandernagore under its control that were not lucrative.

There was lack of coordination between the policy of Dupleix and the FrenchGovernment. Dupleix wanted to establish a French state in India but the FrenchGovernment was apparently not aware of it. Above all, it was also not proper on thepart of the French Government to recall Dupleix all of a sudden. The timing and themanner in which Dupleix was recalled was a blunder committed by the French. Theinexperienced French officers were forced to face more experienced and capableBritish generals. Moreover, Lally committed the greatest blunder by recalling Bussyfrom Hyderabad. This reduced the influence of the French Government in the South.

Apart from the above elements, good leadership, efficient Generalship andcommand, greater cooperation amongst the English officials and minimuminterference of the English Government in the affairs of the Company were greatlyresponsible for the success of the British in the Anglo-French conflict in India. Theoutcome of the conflict made the East India Company the master of Indian affairs till1858.

Question 26. ‘‘The Battle of Plassey was not a great battle but a greatbetrayal ’’. Elaborate

Answer The hostile relation between the Nawab of Bengal and the English East India Company precipitated the Battle of Plassey. In fact, the Company hadanticipated the direct confrontation and it easily located the disgruntled andambitious element at Nawab‘s Court. The Company entered into secret alliances withthe conspirators in the Nawab's camp and plotted the mechanism to oust him.Therefore the immediate outcome of the Battle of Plassey was known beforehand orpre-decided. It was not the superiority of the military power but the conspiracy of theNawab's officials and the mastermind of Robert Clive that helped the English inwinning the battle.

Mir Jafar the Commander-in-Chief of Bengal army, Rai Durlabh, the treasurer ofthe Nawab, Jagat Seth, the richest banker of Bengal were few important Indianconspirators. Robert Clive who played a vital role in the planning and execution of the plot had joined the conspiracy through a rich Bengali merchant named Amin Chand.Most of the terms were well settled amongst the conspirators.

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It was agreed that Clive would march to Plassey against the Nawab of Bengal andMir Jafar would join with all the forces at his command. In return Mir Jafar would bemade Nawab and then he would confirm all the privileges to the Company. It was thetreachery of the Commander-in-Chief of Nawab that ensured that the Bengal troopswere not properly brought into action.

The battle was a mere eye-wash as all cards were placed well in advance.

Question 27. Analyse the importance/significance of the Battle of Plassey.

Answer The Battle of Plassey fought on 23rd June 1757 and the Victory of theEnglish in the Battle of Plassey had multidimensional significance. The Nawab ofBengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah was defeated captured and executed. Therefore the outcomeof the Battle of Plassey was immediate since it provided the British with immensepolitical power in India and established the indirect British rule in India.

The dormant imperial ambition of the British was aroused during these wars andthey started thinking in terms of an All-India Empire. The conquest of Bengal instilled in them a kind of greed for the unfathomed wealth of Bengal and its subsequentplunder.

The English also registered territorial and commercial gains in post Plasseyperiod. They got the territory of twenty-four Paraganas in Bengal from the new Nawab(Mir Jafar). This made the settlement of Calcutta more prosperous. Their trade alsoreceived impetus. The trade and privilege so far enjoyed by them not only increasedbut also became more secure. The Nawab passed orders for the freedom of theCompany's trade throughout the Subah. The English Company utilized thisopportunity and dispatched their agents to re-establish subordinate trading factoriesin the interior parts of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

Moreover the Battle of Plassey enhanced the overall prestige of the Company.Starting merely as traders the English now became the King-makers in Bengal andplayed crucial role in its administration by controlling the appointments of importantofficials/functionaries in the province. Establishment of English control over Bengalplaced them at a very advantageous position. They had now at their disposalresources that could be used in struggle against the French both within (in theCarnatic Wars) and without India (in Europe).They were no more dependent on thesupply of resources from Britain which in turn helped the home country inchannelizing its resources against the French power in Europe and America.

Question 28. ‘‘ The verdict at Plassey was confirmed by the Englishvictory at Buxar ’’. Comment.

Answer The Battle of Plassey was a turning point in the history of India andhad multidimensional significance. It gave vent to the dormant imperial ambition ofthe British and paved the way for the establishment of indirect British rule in India.They now played the role of kingmaker in Bengal.

Although victory at Plassey enhanced the overall prestige of the Company, it wasconsidered no battle, since conspiracy, alliances, diplomacy and betrayal played vitalrole in the outcome of the battle. Moreover, the British position in Bengal was not ascomfortable and as they desired. The Indian elements had a hope of doing away withthe foreigners in case of real battle/war on the basis of numerical strength. This hopeacted as the background for resistance offered by Mir Kasim to the British and thesubsequent confrontation that took place between them in 1763. A confederation ofIndian rulers was formed to oust British from India. However the victory at Buxarended all speculation and apprehension and proved the overall superiority of Britishin battlefield. The victory at Plassey played a decisive role in enabling the British todefeat Nawab Mir Kasim, Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah and the Mughal Emperor Shah

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Alam at the Battle of Buxar in 1764. Plassey gave the ignition, the Buxar confirmed it.Therefore, Battle of Buxar was complementary to the Plassey. After Battle of Buxar the English power in north India became unchallengeable.

Question 29. ‘‘ The outcome Battle of Wandiwash was huge blow to thecolonial ambition of French East India Company ’’. Comment

Answer The power struggle between British and French in India during 18thcentury culminated into three Carnatic Wars. The decisive battle of the third CarnaticWar was fought at Wandiwash on 22nd January 1760. General Eyre Coote’s army,routed the French army under Lally. As a result the French were left with nopossessions in the Carnatic except Jinje and Pondicherry. Meanwhile, in May 1760,the English laid siege to Pondicherry. After more than six months of encirclementFrench unconditionally surrendered Pondicherry on 16 January, 1761. The city wascompletely destroyed by the victors. Shortly thereafter Jinje and Mahe alsosurrendered, to the English leaving the French without even a toehold in India.

The Peace Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years War in Europe. As per its termsFrench factories in India were restored to the French company but the French EastIndia Company formally ended its career in 1769. Thereafter the French Crownmaintained the French factories in India for the benefit of private traders. In fact theyconfined themselves, to ‘country trade’ depended on the English both in Europe andin India for their business transactions vis-à-vis India. Therefore, it would not be anexaggeration to say that the outcome Battle of Wandiwash was huge blow to thecolonial ambition of French East India Company.

Question 30. ‘‘Weakness and short sightedness of the neighbours ofMysore was fully exploited by the English.’’ Comment.

Answer During 18th and 19th centuries the two important neighbours andcompetitors of the Kingdom of Mysore were Marathas on the north and Nizam ofHyderabad in the East. The rivalries between these neighbours were best understoodand utilized by the British to achieve their ambition of founding an Empire of India.

British used their shrewd political tools and acumen to manage an alliance withMarathas and Nizam against Mysore. In all four Mysore wars the Marathas and theNizam were willing to support the English rather than either Haider or Tipu. In theThird Mysore War all three formed a powerful confederacy against Tipu, and in thefourth Mysore War the Nizam was an ally of the English. It was the short sightednessof Marathas, the Nizam and the feudatories who came together to check Tipu's policyof establishment of a strong central authority which would serve the people better. Infact they feared the possible loss of power, had Tipu succeeded and therefore, joinedhands with British in haste, to finally loose or forfeit almost everything to the latter. By the time the Indian rulers realized the detrimental impact of continuous fight amongst themselves and the exact motive of the British friendship with them, irreparabledamage had already been done.

Question 31. Write a short note on Tipu Sultan.

Answer Tipu Sultan, popularly known as the ‘tiger’ of Mysore was amultifaceted personality endowed with courage, strength and wisdom. He is said tohave understood military strategy, religion, economy and socio-cultural linkages ofthe period with similar ease. He was one of the most popular rulers of his period. Tipuparticipated in all the four Anglo-Mysore wars, both as a prince and a ruler. In factTipu's rule started in the midst of a war against the English and ended in the midst ofwar against them. He learnt the western technique of warfare and used the sameagainst his enemies. He was bold, dashing, and a person of undaunted adventurousspirit. Under his leadership Mysore army 'proved a school of military science' toIndian princes. Tipu's infliction of serious blows on the English in the first and second

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Mysore wars damaged their reputation as an invincible power. In fact he dictated theterms of the Treaty of Mangalore to the British and this is considered as an importantlandmark in the history of modern India. Tipu was a far-sighted ruler, who discernedthe danger to the freedom of the land by the colonial expansion, which necessitatedcontinuous warfare. Apart from this he had his own agenda to assert his ownauthority over the neighbours, the Marathas and the Nizam, who were not reconciledto the rise and growth of Mysore as an independent powerful state.

Question 32. ‘‘Lord Hastings contributed to British Paramountcy in India.’’ Comment.

Answer Lord Hastings was appointed Governor-General of Bengal andCommander-in-Chief of the forces in India and assumed the office in October 1813.He expanded the aggressive and imperialist policies of Lord Wellesley and paved theway for the expansion of the British Empire. His forward policy in India establishedthe British Paramountcy through the Anglo-Nepalese war (1814-16), suppression ofthe Pindaris (1817) and extinction of the Maratha confederacy after ThirdAnglo-Maratha War(1818).

British desire to extend their Indian empire to its natural geographical frontierbrought them into conflict with Nepal. In 1814, a border clash between the borderpolice of the two countries led to an open war. The British who were far superior inmen, money and materials defeated Nepal and acquired territories by the 1816 Treatyof Saguali.

Lord Hastings successfully tackled the Pindari menace by organizing his armyand moving for action in person and by 1818, the Pindaris were completelysuppressed. Further, he shattered the power of the Maratha in India and finallyliquidated the Maratha confederacy. He compelled Scindia to accept Britishsuzerainty and annexed the Peshwa's territories. Moreover, many Rajput princesaccepted British supremacy. By 1818 Hastings had established British sovereigntyover the whole of India East of the Sutlej River and Sindh and contributed inestablishment of British Paramountcy in India.

Question 33. ‘‘ The advent of Europeans in India during 16th and 17thcenturies indicate their objectives.’’ Comment.

Answer The method and mechanism of advent of Europeans in India during16th and 17th centuries indicate their objectives. The prime objective/interest of allthe Europeans who arrived during the period, was development of trade opportunities with India and to earn profit. This desire of the Europeans becomes apparent from theaccounts of the contemporary scholars and travellers as also from the study of literaryworks of the period. It was one of the important reasons for which Vasco da Gama, aPortuguese royal navigator and explorer, was funded for his expedition to India. InMay, 1498 he arrived at Calicut, opening a new era of Indian history. In 1502, Vascoda Gama once again came back to India and reached the Malabar Coast with theobjective to trade and earn profit. For about the first two centuries after Europeansarrived in India, their activities were restricted to trade and evangelism, their presence protected by naval forces.

Question 34. ‘‘ Dalhousie was an annexationist.’’ Comment.

Answer Dalhousie [1848-56] modified the annexation policy of the East IndiaCompany and a new policy popularly known as the Doctrine of Lapse was introducedas deadly weapon for expansion of the territorial limits of the British Empire in India.Under this Doctrine, when a ruler of a protected state died without a natural heir, hisstate was not to pass to an adopted heir but would be annexed by the British. ByDoctrine of Lapse Policy the province of Satara was annexed in 1848 followed bySambhalpur in 1849, Jhansi in 1853 and Nagpur in 1854.

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The traditional system of annexation through conflicts and wars were not givenup and it further added many new territories to the British Empire. The state of Punjab was annexed in 1849 after the Second Anglo-Sikh War. The state of Burma wasannexed in 1852 and the territory of Berar was added in 1853 to satisfy Britain'sgrowing demand for raw cotton. Dalhousie then turned his attention to Awadh.

Nawab Wajid Ali Shah was accused of having misgoverned his state and ofrefusing to introduce reforms. On the charge of mal-administration, Awadh wasannexed in 1856.

Dalhousie also refused to recognise the titles of many ex-rulers or to pay theirpensions. Thus the titles of the Nawabs of Carnatic, Surat and the Raja of Tanjorewere extinguished. He also stopped the pension of Nana Sahib because he was anadopted son of exiled Peshwa Baji Rao II.

Question 35. Write a short note on development policies of Dalhousie.

Answer Dalhousie's energy extended beyond the mere acquisition ofterritories. He was a successful and efficient administrator known for introducingmodern means of communications and creation of adequate infrastructure. Hisgreatest achievement being his relentless effort to create a modern centralized state inIndia. He focused on development of a communication and transportation system inIndia and gave adequate attention to the introduction of the railways in India. In facthe laid the foundation of future railway development in India in a systematic andplanned manner. He instituted a network of electric telegraph lines, promoted thecompletion of the Grand Trunk Road between Calcutta and Delhi and its extensioninto the Punjab, and instituted a centralized postal system. He also constructedirrigation systems, improved public education system, and made attempts to improvethe condition of the civil services in India.

His social reforms included strong support for the suppression of femaleinfanticide in the Punjab and in the north west, the suppression of human sacrificeamong the hill tribes of Orissa and legalization of widow re-marriage. Besidesencouraging the use of the vernacular languages in schools, he gave particularencouragement to the education of girls. Lord Dalhousie was also associated withreforms in the military. Moreover, he transferred the Bengal Artillery from Calcutta toMeerut. Therefore the controversies aroused by Dalhousie's policies overshadow hisachievements.

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